The previous chapters of Part III have provided us with all thc tools we need to analyze the dynamic

behavior of typical processing systems when their inputs change in some fashion (e.g., step, ramp,
impulse, sinusoid, etc.). In this section we examine the so-called first-order sys-tems. In particular,
we will study: 1. What a first-order system is and what physical phenomena give rise to first-order
systems. 2. What its characteristic parameters are. 3. How it responds to the various changes in the
input variables (disturbances and/or manipulated variables).
10.1 What is a First-Order S.ystem? A first-order system is one whose output y(t) is modcled by a
first-order differential equation. Thus in the case of linear (or linearized) system, we have
a ddty + aoy - bf(t) (10.1) where f(t) is the input (forcing function). If ao * 0, then eq. (10.1) yields
dy aodt + Y .1(1) ao
173



















174 Analysis of the Dynamic Behayior of Chemical Processes Part III
Define
and take
a Tp ao
and
b ao
zpdy + y K,f(t) dt
(10.2)
T, is known as the time constant of the process and K, is called the steady-state gain or static gain or
simply the gain of the process. Their physical meaning will become clear in the next three sections. If
y(t) and f(t) are in terms of deviation variables around a steady state, the initial conditions are y(0) =
0 and f(0) = 0 From eq. (10.2) it is easily found that the transfer function of a first-order process is
given by
G(s)-,7(s) a Kv (10.3) j(s) TpS + 1 A first-order process with a transfer function given by eq. (10.3) is
also known as first-order lag, linear lag, or exponential transfer lag. If, on the other hand, ao = 0,
then from eq. (10.1) we take K p f(t) dt ai which gives a transfer function
, 7(s) Kp G(s) = (10.4) fis) s ln such case the process is called purely capacitive or pure integrator.
10.2 Processes Modeled as First-Order Systems The first-order processes are characterized by: I.
Their capacity to store material, energy, or momentum 2. The resistance associated with the flow of
mass, energy, or momentum in reaching the capacity. Thus the dynamic response of tanks that have
the capacity to store liquids or gases can be modeled as first-order. The -sistance is associ-
Chap. 10 Dynamic Behayior of FirstOrder Systerns 175
ated with the pumps, valvcs, weirs, and pipes which are attached to the inflowing or outflowing
liquids or gases. Similarly, the temperature response of solid, liquid, or gaseous systems which can
store thermal energy (thermal capacity, c,) is modeled as first-order. For such systems the resistance
is associated with the transfer of heat through walls, liquids, or gases. In other words, a process that
possesses a capacity to store mass or energy and thus act as a buffer between inflowing and
outflowing streams will be modeled as a first-order systcm. The stirred tank heater of Example 4.4
and the mixing processes of Example 4.11 arc typical examples of first-order processes. It is clear
from the above that the first-order lags should be the most common class of dynamic components in
a chemical plant, with the capacity to store primarily mass and energy. Let us examine now some
typical capacity processes modeled as first-order systems.
Example 10.1: First-Order System with a Capacity for Mass Storage Consider the tank shown in
Figure 10.1a. The volumetric (vol-umeitime) flow in is F, and the outlet volumetric flow rate is F,. In
the outlet stream there is a resistance to flow, such as a pipe, valve, or weir. Assume that the
effluent flow rate F, is rclated linearly to the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid levcl h, through the
resistance R: ,h driving force for flow o (10.5) resistance to flow At any time point, the tank has the
capacity to store mass. The total mass balance gives
dh A - F, = - - 1
(a) (b) Figure 10.1 Systems with capacity for mass storage: (a) firstorder lag; (b) pure capaciti-
























.76 Analysis ol the Dynamic Behavior of Cherni, ocesses Part 111
OT
dh AR + h = RF, dt where A is the cross-sectional area of the tank. At stcady state h, = RF,.,
(10.6)
(10.6a)
and from eqs. (10.6) and (10.6a), we take the following equation in terms of deviation variables:
dh' AR dt + h' where h' - h - h, and = - z, = AR - time constant of the process K,- R = steady-statc
gain of the process Then the transfer function is
K 7;(s) zps
(10.8)
Certain notes are in order. I. The cross-sectional arca of the tank, A, is a measure of its capaci-tance
to store mass. Thus the larger the value of A, the larger the storage capacity of the tank. 2. Since t, A
R , we can say that for the tank we have (time constant) = (storage capacitance) x (resistance to flow)
(10.9)
Example 10.2: First-Order System with a Capacity for. Energy Storage Thc liquid of a tank is heated
with saturated steam, which flows through a coil immersed in the liquid (Figure 10.2). The energy
balance for the system yields
V pc, dT - Q UA,(T.- T)
Figure 10.2 System with capacity for energy storage.
(10.10)
Chap. 10 Dynamic B .or of First-Order Systems 177
whcre V= volume of liquid in the tank p, c = liquid's density and heat capacity U - overall hcat
transfer coefficient betwcen steam and liquid A, - total heat transfer area T,,= temperature of the
saturated steam The steady state is given by 0 - - 7',) (10.11) Subtract (10.11) from (10.10) and take
the following equation in terms of deviation variables:
dT' Vpc, = T') dr
(10.12)
where T' T - T, and T;, = T.- The Laplace transform of (10.12) will yield the following transfer function:
-r(s) G(s) 1 K, (10.13) Vpc, T S + + UA, where r, a time constant of the process Vpc,IUA, K, - steady-
state gain
Remarks. 1. Eq. (10.13) demonstrates clearly.that this is a first-order lag system. 2. The system
possesses capacity to store thermal encrgy and a resist-ance to the flow of heat characterized by U.
3. The capacity to store thermal energy is measured by the value of the term Vpc,. The resistance to
the flow of heat from the steam to thc liquid is expressed by the term 1/(UA,). Therefore, we notice
that the time constant of this systcm is given by the same equation as that of the tank system in
Example 10.1: time constant = rg, - Vpc,
UA, (storage capacitance) x (resistance to flow)
Example 10.3: Pure Capacitire System Consider the tank discussed in Example 10.1 with the
following difference:
The effluent flow rate F is determined by a constant-displacement pump and not by the hydrostatic
pressure of the liquid level h (Figure 10.1b)
f.




















178 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes Part III
In such case the total mass balance around the tank yields dh A F, dt
At stcady state
(10.14)
0 = F,,, r, (10.15) Subtract eq. (10.15) from (10.14) and take the following equation in terms of
deviation variables:
dh' = F A ; dt which yiclds thc following transfer function: , , W'(s) 1/A G(s) :(s) s
10.3 Dynamic Response of a Pure Capacltive Process
(10.16)
The transfer function for such process is given by eq. (10.4): G(S) = = 1C (10.4) fis) s Let us
examine how y(t) changes with time, when f(t) undergoes a unit step change:
f(t)-1 for t > 0 We know that for a unit step change,
Therefore, eq. (10.4) yields
; = Y(s)=Lc-3,2 and after inversion we find (sce Table 7.1) that Y(I)= K'pt We notice that the output
grows linearly with time in an unbounded fashion (Figure 10.3). Thus Y(t) co
as t co
trs.
Chap. 10 Dynamic Behavior of First-Order Systems 179
rt0
Figure 10.3 Unbounded response of pure capacitive process.
Such response, characteristic of a pure capacitive process, lends the name pure integrator because it
behaves as if there were an integrator between its input and output. A pure capacitive process will
cause serious control problems, because it cannot balance itself. In the tank of Example 10.3, we can
adjust manually the speed of the constant-displacement pump, so as to balance the flow coming in
and thus keep the level constant. But any small change in the flow rate of the inlet stream will make
the tank flood or run dry (empty). This attribute is known as non-selfregulation. Processes with
integrating action most commonly encountered in a chemical process are tanks with liquids, vessels
with gases, inventory systems for raw materials or products, and so on.
10.4 Dynamic Response of a First-Order Lag System
The transfer function for such systems is given by eq. (10.3): G(s) 57(s) K, (10.3) j(s) sos + 1 Let us
examine how it responds to a unit step change in f(t). Since j(s) = 1/s, from eq. (10.3) we take Y(s)
s(Tp s K+ 1) S K, TpS + 1 (10.17) Inverting eq. (10.17), we take y(I) K,(1 e-11`0) (10.18) If the step
change in f(t) were of magnitude A, the response would be y(t)= AK(1 (10.19)
' 80
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemi ocesses Part III
i.0
0.8
Y(I) AK; 0.6
0.4.
0.2
2
3 Jv
4
Figure 10.4 Dimensionless response of first-order Iag to step input change.
Figure 10.4 shows how y(t) changes with time. The plot is in terms of the dimensionless coordinates
Y(f) versus t AK, Tp
and as such can be used to determine the response of any typical first-order system, independently
of the particular values of A, K,, and rp. Sevcral features of the plot of Figure 10.4 are characteristic
of the response of first-order systems and thus worth remembering. These features are: 1. A first-
order lag process is selfregulating. Unlike a purely capaci-tive process, it reaches a new steady state.
In terms of the tank system in the Example 10.1, when the inlet flow rate increases by unit stcp, the
liquid levcl goes up. As the liquid level goes up, the hydrostatic pressure increases, which in turn
increases the flow rate F, of the effluent stream [see eq. (10.5)).. This action works toward the
restoration of an equilibrium state (steady state). 2. The slope of the response at t = 0 is equal to I.
d[y(t)/AK,1
d(t1s,) 1,4= (e-11`P);-0 = I This implies that if the initial rate of change of y(t) were to be maintained,
the response would reach its final value in one time
Chap. 10 Dynamic Be r of First-Order Systems 181
constant (see the dashed line of Figure 10.4). The corollary conclu-sions are:
The smaller the value of the time constant r, the steeper the initial response of the system.
Equivalently,
The time constant >o of a process is a measure of the time neces-sary for the process to adjust to a
change in its input.
3. The value of the response y(t) reaches 63.2% of its final value when the time elapsed is equal to
one time constant, ra. Subse-quently, we have:
Time elapsed 2t, 3r, 4r, y(f ) as percentage of its ultimate value 86.5 95 98
Thus, after four time constants, the response has essentially reached its ultimate value. 4. The
ultimate value of the response (i.e., its value at the new steady state) is equal to K, for a unit step
change in the input, or AK, for a step of size A. This is easily seen from eq. (10.19), which yields y AK,
as t co. This characteristic explains the name steady state or static gain given to the parameter K,,
since for any step change ,Minput), in the input, the resulting change in the output steady state is
given by Moutput) = K, A(input) (10.20) Equation (10.20) also tells us by how much we should
change the valuc of the input in order to achieve a desired change in the output, for a process with
given gain, K,. Thus, to effect the same change in the output, we need:
A small change in the input if K, large.(very sensitive sys-tems) A large change in the input if K, is
Small
Example 10.4: Effect of Pdrameters on the Response of a First-Order System Consider the tank
system of Example 10.1. It possesses two parame-ters:


















182 Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Processes Partiii
The cross-sectional area of the tank, A The resistance to the flow of the liquid, R
or from another but equivalcnt point of view:
The time constant of the process, The static gain, K,
Consider two tanks with different cross-sectional areas Ai and A2, where A, > A 2, and the same
resistance, R. From cq. (10.9) we find that z, > zp, (i.c., the tank with the larger capacity has a larger
time constant) while the static gains remain the same. When we subject the two tanks to the same
unit step changes in the inlet flow rates, the liquid level in each tank responds according to eq.
(10.19) and its behavior is shown in Fig-ure I0.5a. We notice that the level of the tank with the
smaller cross-sectional area responds faster at thc beginning, but ultimately, both levels reach the
same steady-state values. This is in agreement with our physical experience. Suppose now that both
tanks have different cross-sectional areas A , and A2 and different flow resistances R, and R2, such
that A, R 2 712 R1
Tank with A = Ai > A2
Tank with A = A2
(a)
(10.21)
(b) Figure 10.5 Effect of (a) time constant and (b) static gain, in thc response of first-order lag
systems.
Chap. 10 Dynamic Behavior of First-Order Systems 183
Equation (10.21) yields
Tpi A A 2R2 Tp2 But since A > A 2, then from eq. (10.21) R 2 > R I, which implies that Kp2 > K ,.
Figure 10.5b shows the responscs of the two tanks to a unit step change in the input. Since both
tanks have the same time constant, they have the same initial speed of rcsponse. But as time goes
on, the tank with the larger resistance R 2 allows less liquid out of the tank. Thus the liquid level
grows more in this tank and its ultimate value is iarger than the value of thc level in the tank with
resistance R I. This again agrees with our physical experience and also demonstrates the fact that the
larger the static gain of a process, the larger the steady-state value of its output for the same input
change.
10.5 First-Order Systems with Variable Time Constant and Gain
In previous sections we assumed that the coefficients of the first-order differential equation (see eq.
(10.1)] were constant. This led to the con-clusion that the time constant rp and steady-statc gain K,
of the process were constant. But this is not true for a large number of components in a chemical
process. As a matter of fact, in a chemical plant, we will more often encounter processes with
variable time constants and gains than not. Let us examine two characteristic examples.
Example 10.5: Tank System with Variable Time Constant and Gain For the tank system discussed in
Example 10.1, assume that the efflu-ent flow rate, F 0, is not a linear function of the liquid level, but
is given by the following relationship (which holds for turbulent flow); F.-13,,fli 13 constant Then the
material balancc yields the following nonlinear equation: A dh + - dt Linearize this equation around
a steady state and put it in tcrms of deviation variables (this problem was solved in Examples 6.1 and
6.2): A dh' + 13 h, F.; dt
or
dt + h' = K,F;
(6.15)
`I:



















84
Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior of Chef ocesses Part III
where zo = 2A Nr14//land K, = 2 fk/fl. We notice that both the time con-s^.ant z, and the steady-
state gain K, depend on the steady-state value of the liquid level, h,. Since we can vary the value of
h, by varying thc stcady-state value of the inlet flow rate we conclude that thc system has variable
time constant and static gain.
Example 10.6: Heater with Variable Time Constant Let us return to the heater system discussed in
Example 10.2. The time constant and the static gain for the hcater werc found to bc Vpc and K, - I
UA, The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, does not remain the same for a long period of operation.
Corrosion, dirt, or various other solids depos-ited on the internal or extcrnal surfaces of the hcating
coil result in a gradual decrease of the hcat transfer coefficient. This, in turn, will cause the timc
constant of the system to vary. This example is charactcristic of what can happen to even simple
first-order systems. The question then arises as to how one handles first-order systems with variablc
time constants and static gains in order to find the dynamic response of such systems. There are two
possible solutions: 1. We can usc the analytical solutions that are available for first-order differential
equations with variable coefficients. Such solu-tions are quite complicated and of very little value to
us for process control purposes. 2. We can assume that such systems possess constant time
constants and static gains for a certain limited period of time only. At the end of such a period we
will change the values of rj, and K, and consider that we have a new first-order system with new but
constant r and K,, which will be changed again at the end of the next period. Such an adaptive
procedure can be used successfully if the time constant and the static gain of a process change
slowly, in which case the time period of relatively constant values is rather long.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
1. What is a first-order systcm, and how do you derive the transfer functions of a first-order lag or of
a purely capacitive process? 2. What is the principal characteristic of the first-order processes, and
what causes the appearance of a purely capacitive process?
Chap. 10 Oynamic f or of First-Order Systems 185
3. In Examples 10.1 and 10.2 it was found that for a first-order process (time constant) - (storage
capacity) x (resistance to flow) Is this appropriatc for an isothermal, constant-volume CSTR, where a
sim-ple, irrcversible reaction, A B, takes place? 4. Show that a tank with variable cross-sectional arca
along its height also has variable time constant and static gain. 5. Discuss a system that stores
momentum and exhibits first-order dynamics. 6. How would you regulate the purely capacitive
process of the tank in Exam-ple 10.3 so that it does not flood or run dry? 7. Consider a closed vessel
with air flowing in it. Is this a pure capacitive or a first-order lag system? Answer the same question if
the vessel is also supplicd with an exit for the air. 8. Study the response of a first-order lag to a unit
impulse input. *Recall that for a unit impulse, j(s)., 1.+ 9. Study the response of a first-order lag to a
sinusoidal input. What do you observe in its behavior afler a long time (i.e., as t co)?