Number Theory

Shmeiseic
Jewrac Arijmn
Tmma Majhmatikn
Panepistmio Ajhnn
Ajna, 2013
ii
Perieqmena
1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . .
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 . . .
1.6 . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 . . . . . . . .
1.8
1.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Fermat
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3
3
5
9
11
12
13
19
21
26
2
2.1 . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
2.3 . . . . .
2.4 . . .
2.5 . . . . . . . . . .
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Fermat
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47
47
48
51
55
58
3
3.1 . . . . . . . . .
3.2 d . .
3.3 M
obius .
3.4 Euler . .
3.5 . . . . . . . . .
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65
65
66
70
74
76
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4
4.1 n . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Legendre .
4.4 . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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85
. 85
. 87
. 90
. 97
. 100
iv
Perieqomena
Eisagwg
Eisagwgh
Keflaio 1
Diairetthta kai prtoi

arijmo
1.1
To snolo twn akerawn

N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} (, ).
N Z
Q . Z+ N {0}
. R
C .
N
Peano. N
,
Z Q.
Z Q.
.
1.1.1 ( ). S
. , a S a b
b S.
1.1.2. :
.
,
n1 > n2 > > nk > nk+1 >
Z+ . , S = {nk : k N}
nm m N. nm+1 < nm nm+1 S, .
.
, (
,
).
Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo
1.1.3. 1 . ,
a N 0 < a < 1, nk = ak
: nk+1 = ak a < ak 1 = nk .
, .
1.1.4 ( ). a b , n na b.
. , a, b N
na < b n N.
S = {b na : n N}
(1.1.1)
. , S
, b ma m N.
b (m + 1)a S
b (m + 1)a = (b ma) a < b ma,
(1.1.2)
. .
1.1.5. 1
, : n = b
a 1 = ba b.
1.1.6 ( ). S
:
(i) 1 S.
(ii) k S k + 1 S.
S .
. T = N \ S T .
, T a. 1 S,
a > 1 a 1 N. a
T , a 1 S. (ii)
a = (a 1) + 1 S.
(1.1.3)
, , T . S = N.

P (n) n N.
P (1) ( )
P (k) P (k + 1) ( ).
.
1.1.6.
( ).
1.2.
Diairetthta kai Eukledia Diaresh
1.1.7. m Z S :
m S k S k + 1 S. S {n Z : n m} = {m, m + 1, . . .}.
1.1.8. S :
1 S 1, . . . , k S k + 1 S. S = N.
1.1.9. Lucas
. a1 = 1, a2 = 3 , n 3,
an = an1 + an2 .
(1.1.4)
x > 0
an < xn n N. x > 3 ( ,
x = 7/4) .
n
P (n)
: an < x . P (1) 1 < x, P (2)
2
3 < x , 3 < x. 1.1.7: k 3
P (1), . . . , P (k 1) . ,
ak1 < xk1 ak2 < xk2 .
(1.1.5)
ak = ak1 + ak2 < xk1 + xk2 ,
(1.1.6)
ak < xk xk1 + xk2 < xk ,
x2 x 1 > 0.
(1.1.7)
(1.1.7) x (1 + 5)/2.

x > max{1, 3, (1 + 5)/2} = 3.

(1.1.8)
, x > 3, P (n) n N.
1.2
1.2.1. a, b Z. a b a | b,
x Z b = ax. a
b b a.
:
(i) a | a a Z.
(ii) a | 0 a Z.
(iii) 1 | a a Z.
(iv) 0 | a a = 0.
(v) a | b b | c a | c.
(vi) a | b a | c a | bx + cy x, y Z.
(vii) a, b Z \ {0} a | b |a| |b|.

(viii) a | 1 a = 1.
.
1.2.2 ( ). a N b Z.
q, r Z b = aq + r 0 r < a.

:
.
a. a.
:
(i) b , b
a r = 0.
(ii) b ,
a, r
b a b
a 1.
:
S bas b
. , b aq.
aq b, r = b aq
a.
. q, r Z
.
S = {b as : s Z} Z+
(1.2.1)
b as. S . ,
b 0 b a 0 S. b < 0, s a n
n N. b as = b + a2 n n N
a2 n (b).
, S ,
r. S r 0 q Z b aq = r.
r < a. r a.
b a(q + 1) = b aq a = r a 0,
(1.2.2)
b a(q + 1) S. b a(q + 1) = r a < r,

r S.
q r.
b = aq1 + r1 = aq2 + r2 ,
(1.2.3)
|r1 r2 | = a|q2 q1 |.
(1.2.4)
0 r1 , r2 < a.
q1 6= q2 , a|q2 q1 | a |r1 r2 | < a. , q1 = q2 ,
(1.2.3) r1 = r2 .
1.2.
1.2.3. 1.2.2, b b = 2q + r, q Z r {0, 1}. b

r = 0. r = 1, b .
.
x, y, z
x3 + 2y 3 = 4z 3
(1.2.5)
x = y = z = 0.
(1.2.5)
d := max{|x|, |y|, |z|}.
(1.2.6)
(1.2.5) (x1 , y1 , z1 ) Z,
x1 , y1 , z1 .
d1 = max{|x1 |, |y1 |, |z1 |} > 0.
(1.2.7)
x31 = 4z13 2y13 , x1 .

x2 Z x1 = 2x2 . (1.2.5)
8x32 + 2y13 = 4z13 = y13 = 2z13 4x32 .
(1.2.8)
y1 , y1 = 2y2 y2 Z.
(1.2.8)
8y23 = 2z13 4x32 = z13 = 4y23 + 2x32 .
(1.2.9)
z1 z1 = 2z2 z2 Z.
x2 , y2 z2 (1.2.5)
0 < d2 = max{|x2 |, |y2 |, |z2 |} = max{|x1 |, |y1 |, |z1 |}/2 = d1 /2 < d1 .
(1.2.10)
d1 > d2 > > dn > dn+1 > .

. (1.2.5) Z x = y = z = 0.

m-
.
1.2.4. m 2 . n
n = a0 + a1 m + a2 m2 + + ak mk ,
(1.2.11)
k mk n < mk+1 , a0 , a1 , . . . , ak
1 ak m 1 0 ai m 1
i = 0, 1, . . . , k 1.
(1.2.11) m- n. ai
n m.
.
1.1.8. 1 n < m n = a0 m- (1.2.11) n ( ). n m
n.
n. n m
q r 0 r < m
n = r + qm.
(1.2.12)
n m q > 0 0 < q < qm qm + r = n.

q
q = a1 + a2 m + + ak mk1
(1.2.13)
ai 0 ai m 1 i = 1, 2, . . . , k ak > 0.
(1.2.12) (1.2.13), r = a0 , n

n = a0 + a1 m + + ak1 mk1 + ak mk .
(1.2.14)
.
n = b0 + b1 m + + bs ms
(1.2.15)
m- n, 0 bj m 1 j = 0, 1, . . . , s
bs 1. (1.2.15) n = r0 + mq 0 r0 = b0
q 0 = b1 + b2 m + + bs ms1
(1.2.16)
0 r0 < m. n m
r0 = r q 0 = q. b0 = a0
m- q = q 0
(1.2.13) (1.2.16) s = k bi = ai i = 1, 2, . . . , k,
.
, n (1.2.11) 0 ai m 1
1 ak m 1
mk n (m 1)(1 + m + + mk ) = mk+1 1 < mk+1 .
1.2.5. () 2- 100
100 = 1 22 + 1 25 + 1 26 .
() 3- 100 100 = 1 + 2 32 + 1 34 .
1.3.
1.3
Mgistoc koinc diairthc
Mgistoc koinc diairthc
a b . a b ,
1. d
a b.
I au + bv
a, b, u, v Z. : , a =
a 1 + b 0. k a, b
I, I.
I a, b,
.
1.3.1. a, b N. d N, :
(i) d | a d | b.
(ii) k N k | a k | b, k | d. , k d.
, x, y Z d = ax + by.
.
I = {au + bv : u, v Z} N.
(1.3.1)
I , a, b I.
, I d d = ax + by
x, y Z.
d I. z = au+bv
I. q, r Z 0 r < d z = dq + r.
:
r = z dq = au + bv (ax + by)q = a(u xq) + b(v yq) I.
(1.3.2)
0 < r < d r I d,
d. r = 0, d z.
a, b I, d a b.
. , k | a k | b
k | ax + by = d.
(1.3.3)
d d1 d2
(i) (ii) d1 | d2 d2 | d1 . d1 d2 d2 d1 ,
d1 = d2 .
d 1.3.1
a b, d = (a, b). a, b N
(a, b) = 1. , 8 15 : (8, 15) = 1.
1.3.2. (a, b) a b :
(a, b) = min{au + bv : u, v Z} N.
10
.
a < b.
b = aq1 + r1
( ) q1 N 0 r1 < a. r1 = 0 ,
a r1 :
a = r1 q2 + r2 ,
( ) q2 N 0 r2 < r1 .
.
rn+1 = 0. ,
: a > r1 > r2 > > rn > rn+1 > .
a b :
(a, b) = rn ( r1 = 0, a | b (a, b) = a).
1.3.3. a, b N a < b.
q1 , . . . , qn+1 N r1 , . . . , rn N 0 < rn < rn1 < r1 < a
b =
aq1 + r1 ,
a =
r1 q2 + r2 ,
r1 =
..
. =
r2 q3 + r3 ,
..
.
rn2
rn1 qn + rn ,
rn1
rn qn+1 .
(a, b) = rn .
.
(a, b) = (a, r1 ).
(1.3.4)
d1 = (a, b) d2 = (a, r1 ). d1 | a d1 | b, d1 | b aq1 = r1 .

d1 | a d1 | r1 , 1.3.1
d1 | (a, r1 ) = d2 .
(1.3.5)
, d2 | a d2 | r1 , d2 | aq1 + r1 = b. d2 | a d2 | b,
1.3.1
d2 | (a, b) = d1 .
(1.3.6)
(1.3.5) (1.3.6) d1 = d2 .
,
(a, b) = (a, r1 ) = (r1 , r2 ) = = (rn1 , rn ).
(1.3.7)
(rn1 , rn ) = (rn qn+1 , rn ) = rn ,
(1.3.8)
(a, b) = rn .
1.4.
Basik lmmata diairetthtac
11
1.3.4. (391, 2533).
2533
391 6 + 187,
391
187 2 + 17,
187
17 11.
1.3.3 ( a = 391 b = 2533) (391, 2533) = 17.

x y
17 = 391x + 2533y.
17
391 187 2
391 (2533 391 6) 2
391 13 + 2533 (2),
x = 13 y = 2.
1.4
Basik lmmata diairetthtac

, .
1.4.1. a, b N d = (a, b) a = du b = dv
u, v N (u, v) = 1.
. d | a d | b a = du b = dv
u, v N. 1.3.1 x y d = ax + by
d = dux+dvy 1 = ux+vy.
u v 1 (u, v) = 1.
1.4.2. r1 , r2 N (r1 , r2 ) = 1. r1 | r2 m m N,
r1 | m.
. x y r1 x + r2 y = 1.
r1 mx + r2 my = m.
(1.4.1)
r1 | r1 mx r1 | r2 m r1 | r2 my. r1 | (r1 mx + r2 my) = m.

1.4.3. 8 | 3m 8 | m.
1.4.4. r1 , r2 N (r1 , r2 ) = 1. r1 | m r2 | m
m N, r1 r2 | m.
. x y r1 x + r2 y = 1.
r1 mx + r2 my = m.
(1.4.2)
r2 | m r1 r2 | r1 mx r1 | m r1 r2 | r2 my.
r1 r2 | (r1 mx + r2 my) = m.
12
1.4.5. 24 | m, 8 | m
3 | m.
.
1.4.6. a, b, w N (a, b) = 1. w | ab
u, v w = uv u | a, v | b. (u, v) = 1.
. u = (w, a). 1.4.1 w = uv
a = uv 0 v v 0 (v, v 0 ) = 1. uv = w | ab = uv 0 b
v | v 0 b. (v, v 0 ) = 1 1.4.2 v | b.
(u, v) = 1: (u, v) u, a. (u, v)
v, b. (u, v) | (a, b) = 1, (u, v) = 1.
, w = u1 v1 , u1 | a v1 | b.
u1 | w u1 | a u1 | (w, a) = u. u | a, v1 | b
(a, b) = 1 (u, v1 ) = 1.
u | w = u1 v1 1.4.2 u | u1 . u1 = u
v1 = v.
1.5
Anlush se ginmeno prtwn paragntwn
a > 1 . a
, 1 a. a , .
1
.
, p .
1.4.2.
1.5.1. a, b N p . p | ab p | a
p | b.
. p a. p 1
p (a, p) = 1. 1.4.2 p | b.
k .
1.5.2. a1 , . . . , ak N p . p | a1 ak
p | aj j {1, . . . , k}.

() .
1.5.3. n > 1
. .
: ( ).
1
(, 6 = 2 3 = 1 2 3).
1.6.
H apeira twn prtwn arijmn
13
. n n 2
. 2 .
m N 2 m < n . n
, . n , n1 , n2 N
2 n1 , n2 < n, n = n1 n2 . ,
n1 , n2 ,
n = n1 n2 .
.
n = p1 pr = q1 qs ,
(1.5.1)
p1 pr q1 qs . p1 | q1 qs ,
1.5.2 j s p1 | qj . p1 qj ,
p1 = qj . , q1 | p1 pr , i r
q1 | pi , q1 = pi .
p1 = qj q1 = pi p1 ,
(1.5.2)
p1 = q1 . (1.5.1)
p2 pr = q2 qs .
(1.5.3)
,
r = s pi = qi i = 1, . . . , r.
1.5.3, .
1.5.4. n 2
(1.5.4)
n = pk11 pkr r ,
p1 < < pr k1 , . . . , kr N.
(1.5.4)
n.
1.6

.
1.6.1. .
.
, .
: .
, p1 < < pr .

n = p1 pr + 1.
(1.6.1)
14
n 1, . {p1 , . . . , pr }
, j r pj | n.
pj | p1 pr ,
pj | (n p1 pr ) pj | 1.
(1.6.2)
, .
Fermat.
: n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
n
Fn = 22 + 1.
(1.6.3)
Fn Fermat. Fn 2 n 0, Fn
qn .
n 6= m = (Fn , Fm ) = 1.
(1.6.4)
Fermat ,
n 6= m = qn 6= qm .
(1.6.5)
(;) qn , n 0, ,
.
(1.6.3) : n 1,
n1
Y
Fj = Fn 2.
(1.6.6)
j=0
(1.6.5) n = 1: F0 = 3 = 5 2 = F1 2.
n = k,
k
k1
Y
Y
Fj =
Fj Fk = (Fk 2) Fk
j=0
j=0
2k
k+1
= (2 1)(22 + 1) = 22
= Fk+1 2,
(1.6.5) n = k + 1. 0 m < n d
Fm Fn .
d | Fm |
n1
Y
Fj = Fn 2,
(1.6.7)
j=0
d | Fn d | (Fn 2). d | 2, d = 1 d = 2.
Fermat , d 2. (Fn , Fm ) = 1.
( ) .
: p1 < p2 < < pn < pn+1 <
,
n1
pn Fn1 = 22
+1
(1.6.8)
1.6.
15
n N. , F0 , F1 , . . . , Fn1 n
pk1 , . . . , pkn ,
pn max{pk1 , . . . , pkn } max{F0 , F1 , . . . , Fn1 } = Fn1 .
(1.6.9)
: R R,
(x) = p x.
(1.6.10)
, (x) = 0 x < 2. x 2
n
n = n(x) 22 + 1 x,

n
(x) 22 + 1 n + 1.
(1.6.11)
n+1
, 22
x log2 (log2 x) n + 1.
(x).
1.6.2. x 2
(x) log2 (log2 x).
(1.6.12)
, (x) + x +, .
,
[0, x], x
. (x).
: ( )
: p1 < p2 < < pk < . f (t) = 1/t,
n 2 n x < n + 1
Z 2
Z 3
Z n+1
Z x
1
1
1
1
dt
dt +
dt + +
dt
ln x =
t
t
t
t
1
2
n
1
X 1
1
1
1 + + +
,
2
n
m
mA(x)
A(x)
x. A(x)
:
(x)

A(x) =
n=
prkk

: rk 0 .
(1.6.13)
k=1
1 rk 0.

!
(x)
Y X
X 1
1
=
.
(1.6.14)
m
ps
s=0 k
mA(x)
k=1
1/pk ,
X
1
pk
1
=
=
.
1
s
p
pk 1
1 pk
s=0 k
(1.6.15)
16
(x)
ln x
k=1
pk
.
pk 1
(1.6.16)
pk k + 1
pk
1
1
k+1
=1+
1+ =
.
pk + 1
pk 1
k
k
(1.6.17)
(1.6.15)
(x)
ln x
Y k+1
= (x) + 1.
k
(1.6.18)
k=1
, 1.6.1.
1.6.3. x 2
(x) ln x 1.
(1.6.19)
, (x) + x +, .

:
X1
(1.6.20)
p
pP
(P ). , (, ) .
Euler. ,
.
1.6.4. x R. [x] x
m m x < m + 1. x 7 [x]
.
1.6.5. x, y R .
(i) x 1 < [x] x 0 x [x] < 1.
(ii) x 0, [x]
x.
X
[x] =
1.
1nx
(iii) k Z [x + k] = [x] + k.
(iv) [x] + [y] [x + y] [x] + [y] + 1.
(v) x Z [x] + [x] = 0, x
/ Z [x] + [x] = 1.
(vi) x > 0 k N, [x/k] k
x.
1.6.
17

.
(Erd
os): P = {p1 , p2 , . . .}
,
.
P
1
.
k
i1 pi
X 1
1
< .
pi
2
(1.6.21)
ik+1
p1 , . . . , pk , pk+1 , . . .
. N
X N
N
< .
pi
2
(1.6.22)
ik+1
Nb n N
, Ns n N
. Nb Ns
Nb + Ns = N.
(1.6.23)
n N
pi [N/pi ]. (1.6.21)
X N
X N
N
Nb
(1.6.24)
< .
pi
pi
2
ik+1
ik+1
Ns . n N
, n = an b2n , an
().
p1 , . . . , pk , 2k
an . b2n n N ,
bn N . N bn .
(1.6.25)
Ns 2k N .

N = Nb + Ns
N
+ 2k N ,
2
N 2k+1 .
(1.6.26)
(1.6.27)
P
N : N
. , i1 p1i . ,
.
(x)
x + 19 . Legendre
(1798) x (x)
(x) '
x
,
ln x A
(1.6.28)
18
A ' 1.08366. Gauss

Z x
1
(x) '
dt.
ln
t
2
(1.6.29)
x/ ln x x,
(1.6.28)
(x) ln x
= 1.
x
x
lim
(1.6.30)
Chebyshev (1848) (1.6.29) , 1. (1850)

c1 c2
x
x
(x) c2
(1.6.31)
c1
ln x
ln x
x 2. , (x) x/ ln x (
ln x 1 1.6.2).
, Euler (1740)
(s) =
X
1
s
n
n=1
(1.6.32)
s
:
1
Y
1
(s) =
.
(1.6.33)
1 s
p
pP
Riemann (1860)

s
. (s) Riemann,
Riemann.
1896, Hadamard de la Vallee Poussin
(1.6.29) 1.
. de la
Vallee Poussin (1.6.29) Gauss
(x) (1.6.28),
A.
1.7
Mia grammik diofantik exswsh

f (x1 , . . . , xk ) = b,
(1.7.1)
,
. , x1 , . . . , xk Q,
Z Z+ . f
.
1.7.
Mia grammik diofantik exswsh
19

a1 x1 + + ak xk = b,
(1.7.2)
a1 , . . . , ak , b Z.
(1.7.2), x1 , . . . , xk .
k = 2 a1 , a2 N (
- ;).
1.7.1. a1 , a2 . b Z,
x1 , x2
a1 x1 + a2 x2 = b
(1.7.3)
b (a1 , a2 ). ,
b Z (a1 , a2 ) = 1.
. d = (a1 , a2 ). b Z
, x1 , x2 . d | a1 d | a2 ,
d | a1 x1 + a2 x2 = b,
(1.7.4)
b (a1 , a2 ). , b = kd k Z,
. 1.3.1
y1 , y2 Z a1 y1 + a2 y2 = d. ,
a1 (y1 k) + a2 (y2 k) = (a1 y1 + a2 y2 )k = dk = b,
(1.7.5)
x1 = y1 k x2 = y2 k (1.7.3).
, b Z
(a1 , a2 ) | b b Z.
1 (;).
b Z (a1 , a2 ) = 1.
1.7.1
a1 x1 + a2 x2 = b.
. b = (a1 , a2 )k k.
y1 y2 a1 y1 + a2 y2 = (a1 , a2 ).
x1 = y1 k x2 = y2 k .
:
.
.
1.7.2. a1 , a2 . b Z
d = (a1 , a2 ), x1 , x2
a1 x1 + a2 x2 = b,
(1.7.6)
y1 y2 (1.7.6)
y1 = x1 + (a2 /d)t y2 = x2 (a1 /d)t
t Z.
(1.7.7)
20
. t Z.
a1 (x1 + (a2 /d)t) + a2 (x2 (a1 /d)t) = a1 x1 + a2 x2 +
a1 a2
a1 a2
t
t = b, (1.7.8)
d
d
y1 = x1 + (a2 /d)t y2 = x2 (a1 /d)t .

:
a1 x1 + a2 x2 = b = a1 y1 + a2 y2
(1.7.9)
y1 y2 . ,
a1 (y1 x1 ) = a2 (x2 y2 ),
(1.7.10)
r1 (y1 x1 ) = r2 (x2 y2 ),
(1.7.11)
r1 = a1 /d r2 = a2 /d. 1.4.1 (r1 , r2 ) = 1. r2 |

r1 (y1 x1 ), 1.4.2 r2 | (y1 x1 ). t Z
y1 x1 = r2 t. (1.7.11) r1 r2 t = r2 (x2 y2 ),
y2 = x2 r1 t. y1 , y2 (1.7.6) t Z
y1 = x1 + r2 t = x1 + (a2 /d)t y2 = x2 r1 t = x2 (a1 /d)t.
.
1.7.3.
172x + 20y = 1000.
1: 172 20.
172
20 8 + 12
20
12 1 + 8
12 = 8 1 + 4
8 = 4.2
(172, 20) = 4.
2: 4 | 1000, .
3: .
4
12 8 = 12 (20 12) = 12 2 20
(172 20 8) 2 20 = 172 2 20 16 20
172 2 + 20 (17).
1000/4=250
172 500 + 20 (4250) = 1000.
, x1 = 500 x2 = 4250.
4: r1 = 172/4 = 43 r2 = 20/4 = 5.
5:
y1 = 500 + 5t y2 = 4250 43t
t .
(1.7.12)
1.8.
Pujagreiec tridec kai to {teleutao jerhma} tou
Fermat
21
1.7.4.
.
, .
,
172x + 20y = 1000,
500 + 5t
>
4250 43t
>
t Z. t > 100 t < 4250/43 ' 98.83 . . ..

t0 = 99,

x0 = 500 + 5 (99) = 5 y0 = 4250 + 43 99 = 7.
, 172 5 + 20 7 = 860 + 140 = 1000.
1.8
Fermat
x, y z
x2 + y 2 = z 2 . , x, y z
k, : x1 = kx, y1 = ky
z1 = kz. x, y, z
x, y z 1.
.
: x2 + y 2 = z 2
x, y z 1. x, y z
. , d | x d | y. d2 | x2 + y 2 = z 2 ,
d | z (). d x, y z, d = 1.
(x, z) = 1 (y, z) = 1.
, x, y z .
, . , x, y z
. x2 +y 2 z 2 .
x, y z .
z .
4k + 1, z z 2 = 4m
x2 + y 2 = 4s + 2, .
, x y ,
.
1.8.1. x, y, z , z
, , x y .
x2 = z 2 y 2 ,
x2 = (z + y)(z y).
(1.8.1)
22
y, z , x, z + y z y .
u, v w
x = 2u, z + y = 2v, z y = 2w.
(1.8.2)
(1.8.1) 4u2 = 4vw,

u2 = vw.
(1.8.3)
(v, w) = 1 (v, w) | v + w = z, (v, w) | v w = y (z, y) = 1.

u, v
w. 1.4.6.
1.8.2. u, v w u2 = vw (v, w) = 1.
v w : m s N v = m2
w = s2 .
. u | vw (v, w) = 1 , 1.4.4,
u = ms m, s m | v s | w.
u2 = vw ms = (v/m) (w/s) m
v/m w/s. (m, w) = 1, (m, w/s) = 1,
1.4.2 m | v/m, v/m2 N. w/s2 N.
v/m2 w/s2 1
v/m2 = w/s2 = 1, v = m2 w = s2 .
v w , , m s
v = m2 w = s2 . , (v, w) = 1 (m, s) = 1.
z = v + w = m2 + s2 y = v w = m2 s2 ,
(1.8.4)
m > s , z, y , m, s
. ,
x2 = z 2 y 2 = m4 + 2m2 s2 + s4 m4 + 2m2 s2 s4 = 4m2 s2 = (2ms)2 , (1.8.5)
x = 2ms.
(1.8.6)
, .
1.8.3. ,
m s m > s (m, s) = 1,
, x = 2ms, y = m2 s2 z =
m2 + s2 .
,
.
1.8.4. m s m > s (m, s) = 1. m, s .
2ms, m2 s2 m2 + s2 .
1.8.
Fermat
23
.
(2ms)2 + (m2 s2 )2 = (m2 + s2 )2 .
(1.8.7)
(2ms, m2 s2 ) = 1, (;).
d = (2ms, m2 s2 ) > 1. d p,
2 m2 s2 .
p | 2ms, p m s. p m, p | m2
p | (m2 s2 ), p | s2 , p | s. m, s ,
.
p s. (2ms, m2 s2 ) = 1 2ms, m2 s2 ,
m2 + s2 .

, :
m = 2 s = 1: x = 4, y = 3, z = 5
m = 3 s = 2: x = 12, y = 5, z = 13
m = 4 s = 1: x = 8, y = 15, z = 17
m = 4 s = 3: x = 24, y = 7, z = 25
m = 5 s = 2: x = 20, y = 21, z = 29
m = 5 s = 4: x = 40, y = 9, z = 41
m = 6 s = 1: x = 12, y = 35, z = 37
m = 6 s = 5: x = 60, y = 11, z = 61
m = 7 s = 2: x = 28, y = 45, z = 53
m = 7 s = 4: x = 56, y = 33, z = 65
m = 7 s = 6: x = 84, y = 13, z = 85
.
x, y z
.
.
1.8.5.
x, y z N.
.
x2 + y 2 = z 2
x, y, z (;).
,
x, y z. ,
:
E=
x y z
xy
=
+
+ ,
2
2
2
2
(1.8.8)
xy = (x + y + z).
(1.8.9)
24
1.8.3 m, s N m > s, x = 2ms,

y = m2 s2 z = m2 + s2 . (1.8.8)
2ms(m2 s2 ) = (2ms + m2 s2 + m2 + s2 ) = 2m(m + s),
(1.8.10)

= s(m s) N.
(1.8.11)
Fermat: x2 + y 2 = z 2 ,
, . ( )
Fermat .
1.8.6 (Wiles). n > 2, xn + y n = z n
.

n = 4.
1.8.7. x4 + y 4 = z 4 .
1.8.7
.
1.8.8. x4 + y 4 = z 2 .
, x, y z x4 + y 4 = z 4 ,
x, y w = z 2 x4 + y 4 = w2 .
1.8.8
, :
n (P ),
:
n N (P ), m < n
(P ).
. n1 (P ).
n2 < n1 (P ), n3 < n2 (P )
.
n1 > n2 > > nk > nk+1 > , .
: n2
n .
z N x, y N x4 + y 4 = z 2
X, Y X 4 + Y 4 < x4 + y 4 = z 2
X 4 + Y 4 = w2 w N. w
w < z. , .
. x, y, z x4 + y 4 = z 2 . x2 ,
y 2 z ,
, . x, y
z . x y ,
1.9.
Askseic
25
x2 ( x) , y 2 ( y)
. 1.8.3,
x2
2ms
= m2 s2
= m2 + s2 ,
m > s > 0, (m, s) = 1 m, s .

y 2 + s2 = m2 ,
(1.8.12)
(m, s) = 1 y, s, m
. , m s .
s =
2ab
= a2 b2
= a2 + b2 ,
a > b > 0, (a, b) = 1 a, b .

x2 = 2ms = 4(ab)(a2 + b2 ) = (x/2)2 = (ab)(a2 + b2 ).
(1.8.13)
ab a2 + b2 .
(a, b) = 1 (ab, a2 + b2 ) = 1. 1.8.2 ab
a2 + b2 . 1.8.2, (a, b) = 1 ab
, a b .
X, Y w N
a = X 2 , b = Y 2 a2 + b2 = w2 .
(1.8.14)
w2 = a2 + b2 = X 4 + Y 4 ,
(1.8.15)
(1.8.13)
w
,
X 4 + Y 4 = a2 + b2 = m < m2 + s2 = z < z 2 = x4 + y 4 ,
w < z. .
1.9
Askseic
1. ()
2 6 10 14 (4n 2) =
n N.
(2n)!
n!
(1.8.16)
26
() () 2n (n!)2 (2n)! n 1.
2.
1
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 + + 2 2
12
2
3
n
n
n 1.
3. (i) (viii) 1.2.
4. a a2 + a + 1 a4 + a2 + 1.
5. m n m2 = n2 + 2002.
6. : a, b Z a 6= 0,
q r b = aq + r |a|/2 < r |a|/2.
7. :
() 3k 3k + 1.
() 8k + 1.
() 9k, 9k + 1 9k + 8.
() 5k 5k + 1.
8. a, b, c N.
() 3 | (a2 + b2 ) 3 | ab.
() 9 | (a3 + b3 + c3 ) 3 | abc.
9. (
64 = 82 = 43 ), 7k 7k + 1.
10. ()
5;
()
25;
11. n 2005 n2 + n + 1;
12.
3n 3n (.. 777 3, 222222222
9 ). : n.
13. : k 2
a1 , . . . , ak Z a1 , . . . , ak ,
(a1 , . . . , ak ) d :
(i) d | aj j = 1, . . . , k.
(ii) s Z s | aj j, s d.
() (a1 , . . . , ak ) = (|a1 |, . . . , |ak |) x1 , . . . , xk
(a1 , . . . , ak ) = a1 x1 + + ak xk .
() ((a1 , . . . , ak1 ), ak ) = (a1 , . . . , ak ).
14. a, b N. (a, b) = ax + by x, y Z, (x, y) = 1.
1.9.
Askseic
27
15. a Z
(2a + 1, 9a + 4) = 1 (5a + 2, 7a + 3) = 1.
16. a, b N (a, b) = 1.
() (a + b, ab);
() (a + b, a2 + ab + b2 );
() (a + b, a2 + b2 );
17. .
() (a, bc) = 1 (a, b) = (a, c) = 1.
() (a, b) = 1 c | b (a, c) = 1.
() (a, b) = 1 (a, bc) = (a, c).
() (a, b) = 1 (a2 , b2 ) = 1.
a, b, c N.
18. d, n N. d | n, (2d 1) | (2n 1). :
xk 1 = (x 1)(xk1 + xk2 + + x + 1).
19. x, y, z
271xyz 7, 8 9.
20. n N 0 k n,

n!
n
n(n 1) (n k + 1)
=
.
=
k!
k!(n k)!
k

() 0! = 1 00 = 1. , n N,

n
n
=
=1
n
0

n
n1
n1
=
+
k
k
k1
1 k n 1.
()
k k!. :

nk .
21. () n k 1 k n 1 n
n!
nk = k!(nk)!
.
() () n ;
22. n4 + 4 n 2.
23. n, n+2, n+4
n = 3.
24. p 8p2 + 1
.
25. p > 3 .
28
() p = 6k + 1 p = 6k 1 k N.
() 24 | (p2 1).
() 24 | n(n2 1) n N.
26. n > 2 2n 1
2n + 1 .
27. p, q 2 p + q
( )
(.. 13 + 17 = 2 3 5, 17 + 19 = 2 2 3 3 19 + 23 = 2 3 7).
28.
101, 10101, 1010101, 101010101, . . .
101 = 102 + 1, 10101 = 104 + 102 + 1 .
Q
Q
29. () a, b N a = pP prp , b = pP psp Q
a, b. (a, b) = pP pkp , kp = min{rp , sp }
p P.
() a, b, c N.
a, b, c.
(i) (ab, ac) = a(b, c).
(ii) (a, bc) = (a, (a, b)c).
(iii) (a2 , b2 ) = (a, b)2 .
() ,
a, b, c.
30. () a, b N. m N
:
(i) a | m b | m.
(ii) x N a | x, b | x, m | x.
: S = {x N : a | x b | x}.
m .
() m a b, [a, b].
[a, b] a b.
31. a, b, c N. [a, b, c] a, b, c
:
() (a, b) [a, b] = ab.
()
[a,b,c]2
[a,b][a,c][b,c]
(a,b,c)2
(a,b)(a,c)(b,c) .
32. (a, b) = (a + b, [a, b]) a, b N. p | [a, b]

p | a + b, p | (a, b).
33. a, m, n N a > 1. (am 1, an 1) = a(m,n) 1.
34. 4n 1. :
.
1.9.
Askseic
29
35. 2n + 1 n 2 (
Fermat). n 2.
36. 2n 1 n N (
Mersenne). n .
37. n N, n 2.
() p n n p.
n .
() 509, 2093 . .
38. p . p .
39. f (n) = n2 + n + 41 n = 0, 1, . . . , 39.
n = 40;
40. f (x) = a0 + a2 x + + ak xk , k 1, ak 6= 0,
, |f (n)|, n 0 .
41. n 2. (n + 1)! + k k = 2, . . . , n + 1.

.
42. 2n | (n + 1)(n + 2) (2n) n N.
43. n 12 .
44. p 29p + 1 .
45. p q |p q| = 2.
p, q , pq + 1 p q
.
46. Bertrand, Chebyshev
1850, : n 2 p
n < p < 2n.
() Bertrand n 3
p p < n < 2p.
() Bertrand pn < 2n n 2,
pn n- , (x).
47. pn n- . Bertrand
pn p1 + p2 + + pn1
n 3.
48. n 2. n! : m N
n! = m2 .
49. n 2
n
X
1
k
k=1
30
50. ; .
() 6x + 51y = 22
() 33x + 14y = 115
() 14x + 35y = 93.
51. 24x + 138y = 18.

52. 123x + 360y =
99.
53.
2x + 7y = 53.
54.
28x + 35y = 136.
55. a, b N (a, b) = 1, ax by = c
.
56. n 2. y n = 2xn
.
57. () y 3
(x, y, z), x z x2 +
y2 = z2 .
() .
58.
.
59. n
n.
60. 52
100.
61. () 101 1, 2, 3, . . . , 200

.
() 100 1, 2, 3, . . . , 200
.
62. n 2. 1/pq,
p, q 1 p, q n p + q > n,
1/2 (.. n = 5 1/1 5 + 1/2 5 + 1/3 5 + 1/4 5 + 1/3 4 = 1/2).
1.9.
Askseic
31
-
1.
(a) Me epagwg: tan
n=1
h isthta gnetai
412=2=
Upojtoume ti
2 6 10 (4k 2) = (2k)!/k!.
2 6 10 (4k 2) (4(k + 1) 2)
=
=
(2n)!
2n (n!)2
nN
Tte
(2k)!
(2k)!
(4k + 2) =
2(2k + 1)
k!
k!
(2k)! 2(k + 1)(2k + 1)
k!
k+1
(2k)!(2k + 1)(2k + 2)
k!(k + 1)
(2(k + 1))!
.
(k + 1)!
=
=
(b) Ap to (a), gia kje
2!
.
1!
qoume
2n 1 3 5 (2n 1)
2 6 10 (4n 2)
=
2n n!
2n n!
2n 1
1 3 5

1.
1 2 3
n
=
=
Gia mia diaforetik apdeixh ermhneste thn posthta

tou sunlou
2.
'Otan
{1, 2, . . . , 2n}
n=1
qoume
me
(2n)!
wc to pljoc twn uposunlwn
(n!)2
stoiqea.
1 = 2 1.
Upojtoume ti
1
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 + + 2 2 .
12
2
3
k
k
Tte
1
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 + + 2 +
12
2
3
k
(k + 1)2
3.
(i)
(ii)
Gia kje
Gia kje
(iii)
Gia kje
(iv)
Ap to
aZ
aZ
aZ
qoume
qoume
qoume
a = a 1,
ra
1
1
+
k
(k + 1)2
k2 + k + 1
1
2
.
+ k)(k + 1)
k+1
(k2
a | a.
0 = a 0,
ra
a | 0.
a=1a
kai
a = (1) (a),
(ii) qoume 0 | 0. Antstrofa,

a = 0 x, opte a = 0.
an
0|a
ra
1 | a.
gia kpoion
a Z,
tte uprqei
xZ
ttoioc ste
(v) Upojtoume ti a | b kai b | c. Tte uprqoun x, y Z ttoioi

c = b y . 'Ara, c = a (xy) kai afo xy Z sumperanoume ti a | c.
ste
b = ax
kai
(vi) Upojtoume ti a | b kai a | c. Tte uprqoun u, v Z ttoioi

c = a v . An x, y Z, tte bx + cy = a (ux + vy) dhlad a | bx + cy .
ste
b = au
kai
afo
a|b
|x| 1.
(viii)
Ap to
(vii)
Afo
(h), dhlad
kai
a, b 6= 0,
uprqei
(iii) qoume 1 | 1.
a = 1.
xZ
me
x 6= 0
Antstrofa, an
kai
b = a x.
a | 1
tte
Tte
a 6= 0
|b| = |a| |x| |a|

kai
|a| 1
ap to
32
4.
Parathrome ti
a4 + a2 + 1 = (a2 + a + 1)(a2 a + 1)
5.
kai ti
a2 a + 1 Z
An uprqan ttoioi m kai n tte ja tan kai oi do rtioi kai oi

2002 = m2 n2 = (m n)(m + n) ja tan pollaplsio tou 4, topo.
gia
a Z.
do peritto kai o
a, b Z me a 6= 0. Ap thn tautthta thc diareshc, uprqoun monadiko akraioi

r1 ttoioi ste b = |a|q1 + r1 kai 0 r1 < |a|. An r1 |a|/2, parnoume q = q1
kai r = r1 pou to prshmo tou a. Tte b = aq + r kai |a|/2 < 0 r |a|/2.
'Estw ti |a|/2 < r1 < |a|.
Tte |a|/2 = |a|/2 |a| < r1 |a| < 0 kai b =
|a|(q1 + 1) + (r1 |a|), opte an proume q = (q1 + 1) kai r = r1 |a| qoume b = aq + r
kai |a|/2 < r < 0 |a|/2.
Se kje perptwsh, uprqoun q, r Z me |a|/2 < r |a|/2 kai b = aq + r . Gia th
6.
'Estw
q1
kai
monadikthta ergazmaste pwc sthn apdeixh thc tautthtac thc diareshc.

(a) 'Estw a Z. O a grfetai sth morf a = 3q + r , pou r {0, 1, 2}. 'Ara
a2 = (3q + r)2 = 9q 2 + 6qr + r2 = 3x + r2 gia kpoion x Z. Parathrome ti: an r = 0
2
2
2
tte a = 3x, an r = 1 tte a = 3x + 1, en an r = 2 tte a = 3x + 4 = 3(x + 1) + 1.
2
Se kje perptwsh, o a enai thc morfc 3k 3k + 1.
7.
a Z perittc. O a grfetai sth morf a = 2q + 1 pou q Z, ra a2 =

(2q + 1)2 = 4q 2 + 4q + 1 = 4q(q + 1) + 1. 'Enac ap touc q kai q + 1 enai rtioc kai sunepc
2
o q(q + 1) = 2k enai rtioc, opte a = 8k + 1 me k Z.
(b) 'Estw
a Z. O a grfetai sth morf a = 3q + r, pou r {0, 1, 2}. 'Ara, a3 =

(3q + r) = 27q 3 + 27q 2 r + 9qr2 + r3 = 9x + r3 gia kpoion x Z. Afo r3 = 0, 1 8 an
r = 0, 1 2 antstoiqa, qoume to zhtomeno.
(g) 'Estw
a Z. O a grfetai sth morf a = 5q + r, pou r {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. 'Ara, a5 =

(5q + r) = 5x + r4 gia kpoion x Z. Parathrome ti 04 = 0, 14 = 1, 24 = 16 = 5 3 + 1,
34 = 81 = 5 16 + 1, 44 = 256 = 5 51 + 1. Se kje perptwsh, r4 = 0 r4 = 5y + 1 gia
4
4
kpoion y Z. 'Ara a = 5x a = 5(x + y) + 1.
(d) 'Estw
8.
a kai b den enai pollaplsio tou 3 tte oi a2 kai b2 enai

a + b2 enai thc morfc 3k + 2, dhlad den diairetai me 3.
kpoioc ap touc a kai b diairetai me 3, opte 3 | ab.
(a) An kannac ap touc
morfc
loipn
3k + 1, opte o
3 | (a2 + b2 ) tte
thc
An
a, b kai c den diairetai me 3 tte oi a3 , b3 kai c3 enai thc morfc

9k + 8 ('Askhsh 7). An loi enai thc morfc 9k + 1 tte o a3 + b3 + c3 enai thc
3
3
3
morfc 9k + 3, topo. An loi enai thc morfc 9k + 8 tte o a + b + c enai thc morfc
9k + 24 = 9(k + 2) + 6, topo. An do enai thc morfc 9k + 1 kai nac thc morfc 9k + 8,
3
3
3
tte o a + b + c enai thc morfc 9k + 10 = 9(k + 1) + 1, topo. An do enai thc morfc
9k +8 kai nac thc morfc 9k +1, tte o a3 +b3 +c3 enai thc morfc 9k +17 = 9(k +1)+8,
3
3
3
topo. An loipn 9 | (a + b + c ), tte kpoioc ap touc a, b kai c diairetai me 3, opte
3 | abc.
(b) An kannac ap touc
9k + 1
m = a2 = b3 gia kpoiouc a, b Z. Dexte ti o a2 enai thc morfc 7k 7k + 1

3
7k + 2 7k + 4, en o b enai thc morfc 7k 7k + 1 7k + 6. 'Ara to uploipo thc
6
diareshc tou m me 7 mpore na prei mno tic timc 0 kai 1 (paradegmata: o m1 = 7 kai
o m2 = 64).
9.
'Estw
0, 1 kai 4. Prgmati, an 5 | a tte 5 | a10 . Allic

a = 5q 1 a = 5q 2 me q Z, opte a2 = 5(5q 2 2q) + 1 = 5k + 1
2
a
= 5(5q 2 4q + 1) 1 = 5k 1 me k Z. Uynontac sthn pmpth dnamh me to
10
diwnumik tpo prokptei ti a
= (5k 1)5 = 5t 1 me t Z.
10
(b) Ta dunat uploipa enai 0, 1 kai 24.
Prgmati, an 5 | a tte 25 | a
.
Allic
a2 = 5k 1 me k Z ap to (a) kai sunepc
10.
(a) Ta dunat uploipa enai
('Askhsh 6)
a10 = (5k 1)5 = (5k)5 5(5k)4 + 10(5k)3 10(5k)2 + 5(5k) 1 = 25t 1
1.9.
me
Askseic
33
t Z.
2
'Oqi. An uprqe ttoioc akraioc n tte o 5 ja diairose to n + n + 1. 'Omwc
n = 5q + r me q Z kai r = 0, 1, 2, 3 4 tte ekola brskoume ti n2 + n + 1 = 5t + s
t Z kai s = 1, 3, 2, 3 1, antstoiqa, opte o 5 den diaire to n2 + n + 1 gia n Z.
11.
an
me
n = 1 isqei diti o arijmc a+a10+a102 = 111a

3n1 1
n1
diairetai me to 3. 'Estw ti o xn1 = a + a 10 + + a 10
diairetai me to 3
.
3n 1
n
Ja dexoume ti o xn = a + a 10 + + a 10
diairetai me to 3 . Prgmati, arke
n1
n1
n1
3n1
na parathrsoume ti xn = (1 + 10
+ 1023
) xn1 kai ti 3 | 1 + 103
+ 1023
,
diti kje dnamh tou 10 enai thc morfc 3k + 1 me k Z.
12.
Efarmzoume epagwg sto
13.
(a) Deqnoume prta thn parxh tou
n.
Gia
(|a1 |, . . . , |ak |).
Jewrome to snolo
I = {|a1 |u1 + + |ak |uk : ui Z} N.

|ai0 | N. 'Omwc |ai0 | I (giat?) ra to I enai
I qei elqisto stoiqeo d to opoo grfetai sth
morf d = |a1 |x1 + + |ak |xk gia kpoiouc xi Z.
Ja dexoume ti o d diaire kje stoiqeo tou I . Ac upojsoume ti z = |a1 |u1 + +
|ak |uk I . Uprqoun q, r Z me 0 r < d kai z = dq + r. Parathrome ti
ai
Afo oi
den enai loi mhdn, kpoioc
mh ken. Ap thn arq tou elaqstou, to
r = z dq = |a1 |(u1 qx1 ) + + |ak |(uk qxk ) I.

0 < r < d tte o r ja tan stoiqeo tou I mikrtero ap ton d, topo ap ton
d. 'Ara r = 0, to opoo apodeiknei ti o d diaire ton z .
An ai 6= 0 tte |ai | I , epomnwc d | |ai | gia kje i = 1, . . . , k . An s N kai s | |ai |
kje i, tte
s | |a1 |x1 + + |ak |xk = d.
An tan
trpo orismo tou
gia
Eidiktera,
s d.
H monadikthta tou
apodeiknetai ekola.
(a1 , . . . , ak ) = (|a1 |, . . . , |ak |) arke na parathrsoume ti genik

a | b an kai mno an a | |b|, opte to snolo twn koinn jetikn diairetn twn a1 , . . . , ak
sumpptei me to snolo twn koinn jetikn diairetn twn |a1 |, . . . , |ak |.
Gia na dexoume ti
d1 = ((a1 , . . . , ak1 ), ak ) kai d = (a1 , . . . , ak ).

d | |ai | gia kje i k. Ap to (a),
(b) Jtoume
d1 | ak ,
ra
Tte
d1 | (a1 , . . . , ak1 )
kai
d1 | (|a1 |, . . . , |ak |) = (a1 , . . . , ak ) = d.

Antstrofa,
d | |ak |,
d | |ai |
gia kje
i k 1,
ra
d | (|a1 |, . . . , |ak1 |) = (a1 , . . . , ak1 ).
Epshc,
ra
d | (|(a1 , . . . , ak1 )|, |ak |) = ((a1 , . . . , ak1 ), ak ) = d1 .

Afo
14.
d, d1 N
kai
parnoume
d1 = d.
d = (a, b). 'Eqoume a = du kai b = dv me u, v N.

1 = ux + vy , ap pou prokptei ti (x, y) = 1.
'Estw
grfetai
d1 | d, d | d1 ,
H dosmnh sqsh
d = ax+by
(a) 'Estw d = (2a + 1, 9a + 4). Tte d | 2a + 1 d | 9(2a + 1) = 18a + 9 kai

d | 9a + 4 d | 2(9a + 4) = 18a + 8. 'Ara d | 1 = (18a + 9) (18a + 8) kai sunepc d = 1.
15.
(b) 'Estw d = (5a + 2, 7a + 3).

Tte d | 5a + 2 d | 7(5a + 2) = 35a + 14 kai
d | 7a + 3 d | 5(7a + 3) = 35a + 15. 'Ara d | 1 = (35a + 15) (35a + 14) kai sunepc
d = 1.
(a + b, ab) = 1. Prgmati, an qi tte uprqei prtoc p me p | (a + b, ab).

p | a + b kai p | ab, opte p | a p | b. An p | a tte p | (a + b) a = b. Omowc, an
p | b tte p | a. Sungoume ti p | a kai p | b, ra p | (a, b) = 1, antfash.
16.
(a) 'Eqoume
Tte
34
(a + b, a2 + ab + b2 ) = 1. Prgmati, an qi tte uprqei prtoc p me

p | (a+b, a +ab+b ). Tte p | a+b kai p | a2 +ab+b2 , opte p | a2 +ab+b2 a(a+b) = b2
kai sunepc p | b. Omowc p | a, ra p | (a, b) = 1, antfash.
(b) 'Eqoume epshc
1 kai 2 (kai lambnontai p.q. an a = 2, b = 1 kai a = b = 1,

d = (a + b, a2 + b2 ). Parathrome ti (a + b, a) = (b, a) = 1 kai, efson
d | a + b, qoume (d, a) = 1 (dec 'Askhsh 17 b). Omowc (d, b) = 1 kai sunepc (d, ab) = 1.
2
2
2
2
2
Ap tic d | a + b kai d | a + b prokptei ti d | (a + b) (a + b ) = 2ab kai, efson
(d, ab) = 1, ti d | 2 (Lmma 1.4.2), dhlad ti d = 1 d = 2.
(g) Oi dunatc timc enai oi

antstoiqa). 'Estw
17.
kai
(a) An (a, b) = 1 kai (a, c) = 1 tte uprqoun x, y, u, v Z

au + cv = 1. Pollaplasizontac kat mlh parnoume
ttoioi ste
ax + by = 1
a(axu + cvx + byu) + bc(yv) = 1.

(a, bc) | 1
'Ara
ap pou petai ti
d = (a, c)
(b) An
tte
d|a
kai
(a, bc) = 1.
d|c|b
opte
To antstrofo enai isodnamo me to (b).
d | (a, b) = 1.
'Ara
d = 1.
d1 = (a, bc) kai d2 = (a, c). 'Eqoume d1 | a kai (a, b) = 1, ra (d1 , b) = 1

ap to (b). Ap tic d1 | bc kai (d1 , b) = 1 prokptei ti d1 | c (Lmma 1.4.2), opte
d1 | (a, c) = d2 kai sunepc d1 d2 .
Antstrofa, d2 | a kai d2 | c | bc, ra d2 | (a, bc) = d1 , opte d2 d1 .
Ap tic d1 d2 kai d2 d1 sumperanoume ti d1 = d2 .
(g) Jtoume
(a2 , b2 ) = d > 1. Tte o d

2
qoume p | d | a = p | a kai p | d | b = p | b.
2 2
Epomnwc (a , b ) = 1.
(d) Upojtoume ti
18.
Afo
tautthta
qei nan prto diairth

'Ara
p | (a, b) = 1
p.
Gia ton
to opoo enai topo.
d, n N kai d | n, uprqei k N ttoioc ste n = dk. Qrhsimopointac

xk 1 = (x 1)(xk1 + xk2 + + x + 1) me x = 2d , parnoume
thn

2n 1 = 2kd 1 = (2d )k 1 = (2d 1) 2d(k1) + 2d(k2) + + 2d + 1 .
Afo
19.
2d(k1) + 2d(k2) + + 2d + 1 N,
Oi
7, 8, 9
sumperanoume ti
(2d 1) | (2n 1).
enai an do sqetikc prtoi kai sunepc (Lmma 1.4.3) o
271xyz
diairetai
789 =
504. 'Eqoume 271xyz = 271000 + xyz kai h Eukledeia diaresh dnei 271000 = 504q + 352,
me q Z, opte prpei 504 | xyz + 352 kai sunepc xyz = 504 352 = 152 xyz =
152 + 504 = 654.
me kajnan ap touc arijmoc autoc en kai mno an diairetai me to ginmen touc
20.
(a) Parathrome ti
!
n(n 1) (n k + 1)
n(n 1) (n k + 1) (n k)!
n
n!
=
=
=
.
k
k!
k!(n k)!
k!(n k)!
Parnontac autn san orism tou
n
k
sthn perptwsh
!
n
n!
=
= 1 kai
0
0!n!
afo
0! = 1.
qoume
!
n
n!
=
=1
n
n!0!
Parathrste epshc ti
!
n
=
k
k = 0,
!
n
.
nk
1.9.
An
n2
1 k n 1,
!
!
n1
n1
+
=
k
k1
kai
Askseic
35
tte
(n 1) (n k + 1)(n k)
(n 1) (n k + 1)
+
k!
(k 1)!
(n 1) (n k + 1)(n k)
(n 1) (n k + 1)k
+
k!
k!
(n 1) (n k + 1)[(n k) + k]
k!
!
=
=
n(n 1) (n k + 1)
=
k!
n
.
k
n 2 thn exc

1 k n 1, o nk enai akraioc.
An tra mac dsoun k diadoqikoc fusikoc arijmoc (k 2) kai an n enai o megalteroc ap autoc, tte to ginmen touc isotai me Q = n (n 1) (n k + 1). Afo
o
!
n (n 1) (n k + 1)
n
Q
=
=
k
k!
k!
(b) Qrhsimopointac thn teleutaa sqsh, deqnoume me epagwg wc proc

prtash
P (n):
gia kje
enai akraioc, sumperanoume ti
k! | Q.
n
k
n!
k!(nk)!
Z kai sunepc k!(n k)! | n! =

n (n 1)!. Ap thn upjesh oi k!(n k)! kai n enai sqetikc prtoi opte (Lmma 1.4.2)

(n1)!
n!
Z. Me lla lgia n | k!(nk)!
= nk .
k!(n k)! | (n 1)!, dhlad k!(nk)!

n
(b) 'Oqi, p.q. an n = 4 kai k = 2, opte
= 42 = 6.
k
21.
22.
(a) Ap thn 'Askhsh
20
qoume
Grfoume
n4 + 4 = n4 + 4n2 + 4 4n2 = (n2 + 2)2 4n2 = (n2 + 2n + 2)(n2 2n + 2),

kai parathrome ti
o
n4 + 4
23.
1 < n2 + 2n + 2 kai 1 < n2 2n + 2

n 2.
giat
(n 1)2 > 0
an
n 2.
'Ara
enai snjetoc gia kje
n = 1, tte oi 1, 3 kai 5 den enai loi prtoi (o 1 den enai prtoc). An n = 2,

2, 4 kai 6 den enai loi prtoi. Sthn perptwsh n = 3 parnoume thn trida twn
prtwn 3, 5 kai 7.
'Estw n > 3. Diakrnoume trec periptseic, anloga me to uploipo thc diareshc
tou n me 3:
An
tote oi
(a) An
n = 3k,
(b) An
n = 3k + 1,
tte o
n + 2 = 3k + 3 = 3(k + 1)
enai snjetoc.
(g) An
n = 3k + 2,
tte o
n + 4 = 3k + 6 = 3(k + 2)
enai snjetoc.
tte
k>1
Se kje perptwsh, an
ra o
n>3
enai snjetoc.
kpoioc ap touc
n, n + 2
kai
n+4
enai snjetoc.
2
24. An p > 3 tte o p den diairetai me to 3 kai sunepc ('Askhsh 7 a) p = 3k + 1 me
k Z. Tte o 8p2 + 1 = 24k + 9 diairetai me to 3 kai sunepc den enai prtoc. An p = 2
2
p = 3 tte 8p + 1 = 33 73, antstoiqa, ra p = 3 enai h mnh dunatthta.
25.
(a) O p den mpore na enai thc morfc 6k 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1) 6k + 3 = 3(2k + 1)

6k + 4 = 2(3k + 2) giat ja tan snjetoc. 'Ara enai thc morfc 6k + 1 6k + 5 =
6(k + 1) 1 = 6k0 1.
p2 1 = 36k2 + 12k = 12k(3k + 1). Parathrome ti o k(3k + 1)

enai pnta rtioc (exhgste, diakrnontac tic periptseic k =rtioc kai k =perittc), ra
2
o p 1 enai pollaplsio tou 24.
(b) An
p = 6k + 1
tte
36
p = 6k 1 tte p2 1 = 36k2 12k = 12k(3k 1). Parathrome,

k(3k 1) enai pnta rtioc, ra o p2 1 enai pollaplsio tou 24.
An
3 | n(n2 1)
(g) Smfwna me to Lmma 1.4.3, arke na dexoume ti

Profanc nac (akribc) ap touc
8 | n(n2 1).
3 kai sunepc
n 1, n, n + 1 enai pollaplsio tou

8 | (n2 1) | n(n2 1) ap thn skhsh
3 | n(n 1)(n + 1) = n(n2 1).
Epshc
26.
n = 2k
Diakrnoume tic periptseic
kai
pwc prin, ti
7 b.
n = 2k + 1.
kai
n = 2k, tte k > 1 afo n > 2, kai 2n 1 = (2k )2 1 = (2k 1)(2k + 1).
k
1 < 2 + 1 kai 1 < 2k 1, o 2n 1 enai snjetoc.
(a) An
n = 2k + 1, tte 2n + 1 = 22k+1 + 1 = (2 + 1)(22k 22k1 + 2 + 1).

1 < 3 < 2n + 1, o 2n + 1 enai snjetoc.
(b) An
27.
Afo
Afo
p + q grfetai wc ginmeno do to pol prtwn. 'Omwc oi p, q enai

p + q enai rtioc kai sunepc p + q = 2r gia kpoio prto r. Tte
sunepc p < r < q q < r < p, se antfash me thn upjesh ti oi p kai
An qi tte o
peritto, epomnwc o
r = (p + q)/2 kai
q enai diadoqiko
28.
O arijmc
louja.
101,
prtoi.
101
enai prtoc.
Ja dexoume ti den uprqoun lloi prtoi sthn ako-
Prgmati, oi uploipoi roi me rtio pljoc yhfwn swn me
10101010101 = 101 (1 + 104 + 108 ) = 101 100010001,

yhfwn swn me , stw 2n + 1, qoume
p.q.
pljoc
1 + 102 + 104 + + 104n
diairontai me to
en gia autoc me peritt
(102n+1 1)(102n+1 + 1)
104n+2 1
=
2
10 1
(10 1)(10 + 1)
(1 + 10 + 102 + + 102n )(1 10 + 102 + 102n ),
pou enai snjetoc arijmc.
29.
(a) Afo
p P.
kp r p
kai
kp sp
gia kje
p P,
qoume
pkp | prp
kai
pkp | psp
gia kje
'Ara
Y
pP
pk p |
prp = a kai
pkp |
pP
pP
psp = b,
pP
opte
()
pkp | (a, b).
pP
d = pP p o mgistoc koinc diairthc twn a kai b. Ap thn q uq | d | a =

rp
uq
petai ti q
| q rq dhlad uq rq gia kje q P . Omowc, uq sq gia kje
pP p
q P . 'Ara, up kp = min{rp , sp } gia kje p P , opte
Y u
Y k
()
d=
p p|
p p.
Q
'Estw
up
pP
Ap tic
()
kai
()
blpoume ti
(a, b) =
pP
pP
pk p .
Tte, d | a kai d | b ra cd | ca kai cd | cb, opte cd | (ac, bc).

x, y Z ttoioi ste ax + by = d, ra acx + bcy = cd. Afo
(ac, bc) | ac kai (ac, bc) | bc, parnoume (ac, bc) | acx + bcy = cd. Afo cd | (ac, bc) kai
(ac, bc) | cd, parnoume (ac, bc) = cd = c(a, b).
(b-1) 'Estw
d = (a, b).
Antstrofa, uprqoun
Tte (a, dc) | a kai d | b = (a, dc) | dc | bc, ra (a, dc) | (a, bc).
x, y Z ttoioi ste d = ax + by , ra dc = acx + bcy . Tte,
(a, bc) | a kai (a, bc) | bc, ra (a, bc) | acx + bcy = dc. Afo (a, bc) | a kai (a, bc) | dc,
parnoume (a, bc) | (a, dc).
(b-2) 'Estw
d = (a, b).
Antstrofa, uprqoun
1.9.
Askseic
37
(a, b) = 1. Tte, an d = (a2 , b2 ) > 1 jewrome nan prto

p | d kai qoume p | a = p | a kai p | b2 = p | b, dhlad p | (a, b) = 1, topo. 'Ara
(a2 , b2 ) = 1 = (a, b).
Sth genik perptwsh, jtoume w = (a, b) kai grfoume a = wx kai b = wy pou
(x, y) = 1. Ap to (b-1) qoume
(b-3) Upojtoume prta ti
(a2 , b2 ) = (w2 x2 , w2 y 2 ) = w2 (x2 , y 2 ) = w2 = (a, b)2 ,

(x2 , y 2 ) = 1
giat
ap to prohgomeno bma.
Q
Q
Q
Q
a = pP prp , b = pP psp kai c = pP ptp . Tte, ac = pP prp +tp
sp +tp
kai bc =
. 'Ara
pP p
Y min{r ,s } Y t
Y min{r +t ,s +t }
Y min{r ,s } t
p p
p
p p
p
p p
p
p p = (a, b)c.
p
=
p
pp=
(ac, bc) =
(g) Grfoume
pP
pP
pP
pP
Me ton dio trpo mporete na apodexete touc llouc do isqurismoc.
30.
S = {x N : a | x
(a) Jewrome to snolo
ab S .
b | x}.
kai
S enai mh ken, afo

m. Afo m S , enai
tou m qoume x m. Ja
To
'Ara qei elqisto stoiqeo to opoo sumbolzoume me
faner ti
a | m
kai
b | m.
'Estw
x S.
Ap ton orism
m kai ja katalxoume se topo. Ap thn

x = mq + r pou q N kai 0 r < m. An o x den enai
pollaplsio tou m, tte r N kai r < m. Epshc, a | x mq = r giat a | x kai a | m.
Omowc, b | r ra r S . Aut enai topo giat r < m kai o m tan to elqisto stoiqeo
tou S . 'Ara m | x gia kje x S .
Q
Q
Q
sp
rp
max{rp ,sp }
kai b =
, pou a =
(b) Dexte ti [a, b] =
pP p . Mimhjete
pP p
pP p
upojsoume ti o
den enai pollaplsio tou
tautthta thc diareshc,
thn apdeixh sthn 'Askhsh 29 (a).
31.
Orzoume san elqisto koin pollaplsio
[a, b, c]
twn
a, b, c N
to monadik fusik
arijm pou ikanopoie ta exc:
a | [a, b, c], b | [a, b, c]
1.
kai
c | [a, b, c].
x N kai a | x, b | x, c | x, tte [a, b, c] | x.

Q
Q
Q
dp
bp
ap
kai b =
(a) 'Estw a =
pP p . An d = (a, b) kai m = [a, b], tte d =
pP p
pP p
Q
mp
. Gia na dexoume ti ab = dm, arke na dexoume ti gia kje p P
kai m =
p
pP
ap bp
p = pdp pmp dhlad
isqei p
2.
An
ap + bp = dp + mp .
'Omwc,
dp = min{ap , bp }
kai
mp = max{ap , bp },
opte to zhtomeno petai ap thn tau-
tthta
x + y = min{x, y} + max{x, y},

h opoa isqei gia kje
x, y R
(exhgste).
(b) 'Opwc sto prohgomeno erthma,
pP
cp
grfoume
a =
pP
pap , b =
pP
p bp , c =
Ekfrzoume touc uploipouc arijmoc thc skhshc san ginmena dunmewn
apQ
, bp kai cp . Gia pardeigma, to elqisto koin
[b, c] = pP pmax{bp ,cp } . Tte, h isthta pou zhtme
prtwn me ekjtec sunartseic twn

laplsio twn
kai
grfetai
polenai
sunpeia thc
max{ap , bp , cp }2 min{ap , bp } min{ap , cp } min{bp , cp }

= min{ap , bp , cp }2 max{ap , bp } max{ap , cp } max{bp , cp }
gia kje
p P.
Lgw summetrac mporome na upojsoume ti
zhtomenh isthta angetai sthn
c2p a2p bp = a2p bp c2p
ap bp cp ,
opte h
38
h opoa isqei.
32.
(a, b) = 1 tte (a + b, [a, b]) = 1. Prgmati, ap thn skhsh

[a, b] = ab kai (a + b, ab) = 1 ap thn skhsh 16 a. Gia th genik perptwsh
a = dx, b = dy pou d = (a, b) kai (x, y) = 1. Tte
Parathrome prta ti an
31 qoume
grfoume
(a + b, [a, b]) = dx + dy,

afo
33.
(x + y, xy) = 1.
d2 xy
= d(x + y, xy) = d = (a, b),
d
H teleutaa prtash prokptei amswc.
m = qn + r
Ja dexoume ti an
pou
m n, q, r Z
kai
0r<n
tte
(am 1, an 1) = (an 1, ar 1).

An
d = (an 1, ar 1),
tte qrhsimopointac thn
an 1 | aqn 1
blpoume ti
d | ar (aqn 1) + (ar 1) = aqn+r 1 = am 1,

d | (am 1, ar 1).
ra
Antstrofa, an
d1 = (am 1, an 1),
qoume
d1 | an 1 | aqn 1,
ra
d1 | am 1 ar (aqn 1) = ar 1.
Epomnwc
d1 | (an 1, ar 1) = d.
Tra qrhsimopoiome ton algrijmo tou Eukledh.
kai
(m, n) = rn .
(am 1, an 1)
34.
nq1 + r1 ,
r1 q 2 + r2 ,
r1
r2 q 3 + r3 ,
.
.
.
.
.
.
rn2
rn1 qn + rn ,
rn1
rn qn+1 ,
m n.
q1 , . . . , qn+1 N
Upojtoume ti
n | m to sumprasma enai profanc, allic mporome na

r1 , . . . , rn N me 0 < rn < rn1 < < r1 < n tsi ste
brome
O prohgomenoc sullogismc deqnei ti
(an 1, ar1 1) = (ar1 1, ar2 1) = = (arn1 1, arn 1)
arn 1 = a(m,n) 1.
Ac upojsoume ti uprqoun peperasmnoi to pljoc prtoi thc morfc
q1 , q 2 , . . . , q N
An
kai
(uprqei toulqiston nac ttoioc prtoc, o
3).
4n 1,
oi
Jewrome ton arijm
S = 4q1 q2 . . . qN 1.
r
1, ra qei kanonik anlush S = pr11 pkk se ginmeno prtwn

diairetn, pou rj 1 kai loi oi pj enai peritto afo o S enai perittc. An loi oi pj
tan thc morfc 4k + 1, tte to ginmen touc ja tan ki aut thc morfc 4k + 1 (giat?)
en o S enai thc morfc 4k 1. 'Ara o S qei toulqiston nan prto diairth p thc
morfc 4n 1.
Afo q1 , q2 , . . . , qN enai loi oi prtoi thc morfc 4n 1, sumperanoume ti p = qi
gia kpoion i N . 'Omwc tte, p | 4q1 q2 . . . qN kai p | S , ra p | S 4q1 q2 . . . qN = 1, to
opoo enai topo. To topo deqnei ti uprqoun peiroi prtoi thc morfc 4n 1.
O
enai megalteroc ap
1.9.
Askseic
39
2n + 1
enai prtoc gia kpoion n 2. An o n den enai dnamh

2, tte grfetai monosmanta sth morf n = 2k s, pou s > 1 perittc fusikc. An
k
x = 22 tte
2n + 1 = xs + 1 = (x + 1)(xs1 xs2 + x + 1).
35.
Upojtoume ti o
tou
1 < x + 1 < xs + 1,
dnamh tou 2.
Afo
36.
Upojtoume ti o
d, k > 1
tte uprqoun
2n + 1
2n 1
enai snjetoc.
Katalxame se topo, ra o
enai prtoc gia kpoion
ttoioi ste
n = dk.
n 2.
An o
enai
den enai prtoc,
Ap thn 'Askhsh 18
2d 1 | 2n 1.
1 < 2d 1 < 2n 1,
Afo
2n 1
enai snjetoc. Katalxame se topo, ra o
enai
prtoc.
Shmewsh:
23 89
37.
Den isqei to antstrofo. O
p = 11
enai prtoc, all o
211 1 = 2047 =
enai snjetoc.
n enai snjetoc. Tte, uprqoun 1 < k m < n ttoioi ste
k m petai ti n k2 dhlad k n. Afo k 2, o k qei nan
p. Tte, p | k | n kai p k n.
(a) Upojtoume ti o
n = km.
Ap thn
prto diairth
[ 509] = 22. Smfwna me to (a), an o 509 enai snjetoc ja diairetai me

kpoion prto p 22, dhlad me kpoion ap touc 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19. Knontac okt
diairseic blpoume ti o 509 enai prtoc.
Omowc, [ 2093] = 45. Parathrome ti 2093 = 7 299. Gia na brome thn anlush
tou 299, jewrome ton [ 299] = 17. Parathrome ti 299 = 13 23 kai ti oi 13 kai 23
enai prtoi. 'Ara h kanonik anaparstash tou 2093 enai 2093 = 7 13 23.
(b) 'Eqoume
p = m/n gia kpoiouc m, n N. An r = m/(m, n) kai
s = n/(m, n), tte p = r/s kai (r, s) = 1. Tte, p = r2 /s2 dhlad p | ps2 = r2 . Afo
o p enai prtoc, parnoume p | r , ra r = px gia kpoion x N. Epistrfontac sthn
ps2 = r2 qoume ps2 = p2 x2 = px2 = s2 . 'Opwc prin, p | px2 = s2 , ra p | s. 'Omwc tte
p | (r, s) = 1, topo. 'Ara o p enai rrhtoc.
38.
39.
gia
Ac upojsoume ti
Qrhsimopointac thn 'Askhsh 37 mporete na elgxete ti o
n = 0, 1, . . . , 39
n2 + n + 41
enai prtoc
(ja qreiaston pollc prxeic!). 'Omwc,
f (40) = 402 + 40 + 41 = 402 + 2 40 + 1 = (40 + 1)2 = 412 ,

dhlad o
40.
f (40)
enai snjetoc.
Upojtoume ti gia to polunumo
|f (n)| =prtoc
gia kje
n.
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + ak xk , k 1, ak 6= 0, qoume
Eidiktera,
|f (1)| = p
pou
prtoc. Parathrome ti gia kje
s N,
f (1 + sp) = a0 + a1 (1 + sp) + + ak (1 + sp)k = a0 + a1 1 + + ak 1k + Bp = f (1) + Bp,

pou
B Z.
'Ara
p | f (1) + Bp = f (1 + sp) | |f (1 + sp)|.

p | q petai ti p = q . Dhlad,
'Omwc
|f (1 + sp)| = q P
ap
thn upjesh, kai afo
|f (1 + sp)| = p
s N. Aut enai topo, afo lims |f (1 + sp)| =
k 1, ra limx |f (x)| = ).
gia kje
bajmo
(h
enai polunumo
40
41. Gia kje k = 2, . . . , n + 1 qoume k | (n + 1)! kai k | k , ra k | (n + 1)! + k . Dhlad o

(n + 1)! + k enai snjetoc gia kje k = 2, . . . , n + 1.
Oi (n + 1)! + 2, (n + 1)! + 3, . . . , (n + 1)! + (n + 1) enai n diadoqiko snjetoi fusiko
arijmo.
n = 1 zhtme thn 21 | 2, h opoa profanc isqei.

k
k
Upojtoume ti 2 | (k + 1)(k + 2) (2k), dhlad (k + 1)(k + 2) (2k) = 2 m gia
k+1
kpoion m N. Ja dexoume ti o (k + 2)(k + 3) (2k + 2) enai pollaplsio tou 2
.
42.
Me epagwg: an
Grfoume
(k + 2)(k + 3) (2k + 2)
'Ara
2k+1 | (k + 1)(k + 2) (2k).
43.
Upojtoume prta ti o
(k + 2)(k + 3) (2k)(2k + 1)(2k + 2)
2(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3) (2k)(2k + 1)
2 2k m (2k + 1)
2k+1 m(2k + 1).
n = 2k
enai rtioc, dhlad
k 6.
gia kpoion
Tte
n = 2(k 3) + 6
2(k 3), 6
kai oi
enai snjetoi arijmo. 'Estw tra ti o
enai perittc. Grfoume
n = (n 9) + 9
kai parathrome ti o
4,
tou
9 = 32
enai snjetoc kai o
ra snjetoc. Se kje perptwsh, o
n9
n 12
enai rtioc megalteroc soc
grfetai san jroisma do snjetwn
arijmn.
Shmewsh:
Enai swst ti kje rtioc arijmc
n 4
grfetai san jroisma do
prtwn arijmn? Aut enai na ap ta pio gnwst anoikt problmata thc jewrac twn
arijmn, h
44.
eikasa tou
Goldbach.
Ac upojsoume ti gia kpoion prto
29p + 1 = s2 ,
isqei
pou
s N.
Tte
29p = s2 1 = (s 1)(s + 1).

Parathrome ti
(giat o
29
s + 1 = 1,
(a)
(s + 1) | 29p
kai ti oi mnoi diairtec tou
to opoo aporrptetai giat
s + 1 = 29p, to opoo aporrptetai

22 1 = 3, to opoo enai topo.
(b)
s + 1 = 29,
(g)
31
s + 1 = p,
p = 31
1, p, 29
kai
29p
s1 = 1
27 = s 1 = p,
opte
s 1 = 29
ra
s = 2
kai tte
29p =
to opoo den mpore na
p = 29 + 2 = 31.
29 31 + 1 = 900 = 302 . Ap th
gia ton opoo o 29p + 1 enai tleio
enai prtoc kai
'Estw ti oi
ra
enai prtoc.
enai o mnoc prtoc
45.
enai oi
s > 0.
giat tte
to opoo aporrptetai giat tte
sumbanei afo o
(d)
29p
enai prtoc). Uprqoun loipn ta exc endeqmena:
kai
enai ddumoi prtoi.
suzthsh pou prohgjhke, o

tetrgwno.
Mporome na upojsoume ti
q = p + 2.
Tte
pq + 1 = p(p + 2) + 1 = p2 + 2p + 1 = (p + 1)2 ,
dhlad o
pq + 1
enai tleio tetrgwno.
Antstrofa: upojtoume ti oi
Tte
pq = s 1 = (s 1)(s + 1),
uprqoun ta exc endeqmena:
p, q
pq + 1 = s2 gia kpoion s N.
diairtec tou p; enai oi 1, p, q kai pq ,
enai prtoi kai ti
kai afo oi mnoi
1.9.
s + 1 = 1,
(a)
(b)
to opoo aporrptetai giat
Askseic
41
s > 0.
s+1 = pq , to opoo aporrptetai giat tte s1 = 1 ra s = 2 kai tte pq = 22 1 = 3,

3 enai prtoc.
to opoo enai topo afo o

(g)
s + 1 = p,
opte
q = s 1 = p 2,
dhlad
|p q| = 2.
(d)
s + 1 = q,
opte
p = s 1 = q 2,
dhlad
|p q| = 2.
Edame ti an oi
p, q
pq + 1 = s2 , tte
periptseic, |p q| = 2.
enai prtoi kai
kajema ap autc tic do
sumbanei na ap ta (g) kai (d). Se
46.
(a) 'Estw p o megalteroc prtoc pou enai mikrteroc ap ton n. Upojtoume ti

2p n kai ja katalxoume se topo. Ap to athma tou Bertrand uprqei prtoc q me
p < q < 2p (prte sth jsh tou n ton p). Tte
p < q < 2p n,
dhlad, o
enai prtoc mikrteroc ap ton
o megalteroc prtoc {ktw} ap ton
kai
q > p.
Aut enai topo afo o
tan
n.
n = 2: p2 = 3 < 4 = 22 . Upojtoume ti pk < 2k . Ap

k
k+1
k
to athma tou Bertrand, anmesa ston 2 kai ston 2
uprqei prtoc pj . Afo pk < 2
k
k
kai pj > 2 , qoume j > k (an tan j k ja eqame pj pk < 2 ). 'Ara k + 1 j , to
(b) Me epagwg, arqzontac ap
opoo shmanei ti
pk+1 pj < 2k+1 .

Aut apodeiknei to epagwgik bma.
'Estw
p k < 2k
x 4. Uprqei monadikc k 2
(2k ) k kai afo h enai
qoume
ttoioc ste
2k x < 2k+1 .
Tte ap thn
axousa, parnoume
(x) (2k ) k.
Ap thn llh pleur,
x < 2k+1 = log2 x < k + 1.

ra
(x) k > log2 x 1.

47.
Me epagwg wc proc
n.
Gia
n=3
zhtme thn
52+3
h opoa isqei. Upojtoume
ti
pk p1 + p2 + + pk1
gia kpoion
k 3. Uprqei prtoc pj me pk < pj < 2pk kai,

j > k ra pk+1 pj < 2pk . Ap thn epagwgik
skhsh, qoume
pwc sthn prohgomenh

upjesh petai ti
pk+1 < 2pk = pk + pk p1 + p2 + + pk1 + pk .

Aut apodeiknei to epagwgik bma.
48.
n enai rtioc. Tte n/2 N kai ap to athma tou Bertrand

n/2 < p < n. Parathrome ti o p den diaire kannan x n ektc
ta pollaplsia tou p enai oi arijmo p, 2p, 3p, . . ., kai qoume kp > n
Upojtoume prta ti o
uprqei prtoc
me
ap ton eaut tou:

gia kje
k 2.
'Ara sthn kanonik anaparstash tou

dhlad me peritt ekjth. Tte, o
n!
n! = 2 3 n
n = 2s + 1,
opte efarmzetai
ton eaut tou, ra
ja emfanzetai me ekjth
1,
p.
s < p < 2s. Pli, p s + 1 ra 2p 2s + 2 > n,
to prohgomeno epiqerhma: o p den diaire kannan x n ektc ap
o ekjthc tou enai 1 sthn kanonik anaparstash tou n!.
oi prtoi diairtec tou ja eqan rtio ekjth, ra kai o

An
den mpore na enai tleio tetrgwno: an tan, loi
brskoume prto
me
42
49.
'Estw
n 2.
Uprqei monadikc
s1
ttoioc ste
m n.
to ginmeno lwn twn perittn fusikn
Ac upojsoume ti
Pn
1
k=1 k
N.
2s n < 2s+1 .
Epshc, orzoume
Parathrste ti o
enai perittc.
Tte
n
n
X
X
2s1 B
1
= 2s1 B
N.
k
k
k=1
An
k n kai k 6= 2s , tte o k
m enai perittc (giat?).
kai o
k=1
grfetai monosmanta sth morf

'Ara
k | 2s1 B .
k = 2l m,
pou
0l<s
'Epetai ti
n
X 2s1 B
X
B
2s1 B
2s1 B
=
N.
=
s
2
2
k
k
s
k6=2
k=1
Aut enai topo afo o
50.
ton
enai perittc.
(a) O mgistoc koinc diairthc twn
22,
kai
51
enai o
(6, 51) = 3.
den diaire
1 | 115,
h exswsh
Afo o
h exswsh den qei akraiec lseic.
(b) O mgistoc koinc diairthc twn
33
kai
14
enai o
(33, 14) = 1.
Afo
qei akraiec lseic.

(g) O mgistoc koinc diairthc twn
ton
51.
ra
93,
14
35
kai
enai o
(14, 35) = 7.
Afo o
den diaire
Upologzoume prta to mgisto koin diairth twn 24 kai 138.
(24, 138) = 6.
Afo
6 | 18,
138
24 5 + 18
24
18 1 + 6
18
63
h exswsh qei akraiec lseic.
Brskoume mia lsh thc
exswshc.
24 18 = 24 (138 24 5) = 24 138 + 24 5
24 6 + 138 (1).
Pollaplasizontac ep 18/6=3 parnoume
24 18 + 138 (3) = 18.

Dhlad, mia lsh thc exswshc enai oi
'Eqoume
r1 = 24/6 = 4
kai
x0 = 18
r2 = 138/6 = 23.
x = 18 + 23t
pou o
52.
kai
y0 = 3.
'Ara oi lseic thc exswshc enai ta zeugria
kai
y = 3 4t
diatrqei touc akeraouc.
Upologzoume prta to mgisto koin diairth twn 123 kai 360.
360
123 2 + 114
123
114 1 + 9
114
9 12 + 6
61+3
32
1.9.
ra
(123, 360) = 3.
Afo
3 | 99,
Askseic
43
h exswsh qei akraiec lseic. Brskoume mia lsh thc
exswshc.
9 6 = 9 (114 9 12) = 9 13 114 = (123 114) 13 114
123 13 114 14 = 123 13 (360 123 2) 14
123 41 + 360(14).
Pollaplasizontac ep 99/3=33 parnoume
123 1353 + 360 (462) = 99.

Dhlad mia lsh thc exswshc enai oi
kai
r2 = 360/3 = 120.
x0 = 1353 kai y0 = 462.
x = 1353 + 120t
t diatrqei touc akeraouc.
360y = 99, lnoume to ssthma
pou o
wc proc
t Z.
'Eqoume
r1 = 123/3 = 41
'Ara oi lseic thc exswshc enai ta zeugria
Zhtme
y = 462 41t
kai
Gia na brome tic jetikc akraiec lseic thc
1353 + 120t
>
462 41t
>
t > 1353/120 t 11
kai
t < 462/41 t 12,
123x +
ra den
uprqei jetik lsh thc exswshc.
53.
O mgistoc koinc diairthc twn 2 kai 7 isotai me 1, ra h exswsh qei akraiec
lseic. Gia na brome mia lsh thc exswshc, grfoume
1 = 2 (3) + 7 1
kai pollapla-
sizontac ep 53 parnoume
2 (159) + 7 53 = 53.
Dhlad, mia lsh thc exswshc enai oi
x0 = 159 kai y0 = 53.
'Ara oi lseic thc exswshc
enai ta zeugria
x = 159 + 7t
t diatrqei touc akeraouc.
2x + 7y = 53, lnoume to ssthma
pou o
wc proc
t Z.
Zhtme
kai
y = 53 2t
Gia na brome tic mh arnhtikc akraiec lseic thc
159 + 7t
53 2t
t 159/7 t 23
kai
t 53/2 t 26,
ra uprqoun tsseric
mh arnhtikc lseic thc exswshc:
54.
x = 23
y=1
x = 16
y=3
x=9
y=5
x=2
y = 7.
O mgistoc koinc diairthc twn 28 kai 35 enai o 7, o opooc den diaire ton 136. 'Ara
55.
ax + bw = c. Afo (a, b) = 1, h exswsh qei akraiec lseic.

x, w enai mia lsh thc ax+bw = c, tte oi x, y = w enai lsh thc axby = c.
'Estw x0 , w0 mia lsh thc ax + bw = c. Tte, oi lseic autc thc exswshc enai
thc morfc x = x0 + bt kai w = w0 at, pou o t diatrqei touc akeraouc. Jtoume
y0 = w0 . Tte oi x0 , y0 enai lsh thc ax by = c, kai gia kje t Z, oi x = x0 + bt
Jewrome thn exswsh
Epshc, an
44
y = (w0 at) = y0 + at dnoun lec tic lseic thc ax by = c. Parathrome ti

a, b > 0, ra uprqei t0 N ttoioc ste: gia kje t t0 na qoume x0 + bt > 0 kai
y0 + at > 0 (ap thn Arqimdeia idithta: o t0 ja exarttai ap touc x0 kai y0 ). 'Ara, h
ax by = c qei peirec to pljoc jetikc akraiec lseic: tic x = x0 + bt, y = y0 + at
gia t = t0 , t0 + 1, . . ..
kai
x, y N ttoioi ste y n = 2xn . An d = (x, y), tte

r, s N me x = rd, y = sd kai (r, s) = 1. Antikajistntac sthn y n = 2xn
n
qoume s
= 2rn kai (r, s) = 1. Tte, rn | sn , ap pou parnoume r | s. Afo (r, s) = 1,
n
anagkastik r = 1 kai s
= 2. Eidiktera 2 | sn 2 | s. 'Omwc tte, s 2 ra sn > 2
n
afo n 2. Katalxame se topo, ra h y
= 2xn den qei lsh stouc fusikoc arijmoc.
56.
Upojtoume ti uprqoun
uprqoun
57.
y = 2a + 1. 'Eqoume y = (a + 1)2 a2 me (a + 1, a) = 1 kai sunepc h

(x, y, z) me x = 2a(a + 1) kai z = a2 + (a + 1)2 enai prwtarqik pujagreia trida,
(a) 'Estw
trida
smfwna me to Jerhma 1.8.2.

(b) Prokptei amswc ap to (a).
58.
Upojtoume ti to Pujagreio trgwno antistoiqe se kpoia trida
d kai m > s me (m, s) = 1, o nac rtioc kai o lloc

x = 2msd, y = (m2 s2 )d, z = (m2 + s2 )d kai d = (x, y, z).
uprqoun
x, y, z .
Tte
perittc, ttoioi ste

Afo to embadn tou
trignou isotai me thn permetr tou, qoume
xy = 2(x + y + z) = 2ms(m2 s2 )d2 = 4m(m + s)d,

ra
ds(m s) = 2.
m s enai perittc kai diaire ton 2, qoume m s = 1. Epshc, s = 1 s = 2.
s = 2 parnoume d = 1 kai m = 3, dhlad thn trida x = 12, y = 5 kai z = 13. Gia
s = 1 parnoume m = 2 kai d = 2, dhlad thn trida x = 8, y = 6, z = 10.
Afo o
Gia
59.
An
x, y, z
enai oi zhtomenec pleurc tou trignou kai
h aktna tou eggegrammnou
kklou, prpei na isqei h
2n = x + y z.
()
d kai m > s me (m, s) = 1, o

x = 2msd, y = (m2 s2 )d, z = (m2 + s2 )d
Prgmati, uprqoun
nac rtioc kai o lloc perittc, ttoioi
ste
kai
d = (x, y, z).
Tte
x + y z = (2ms + m2 s2 m2 s2 )d = (2ms 2s2 )d = 2s(m s)d.

Ap thn llh pleur, edame ti h aktna tou eggegrammnou kklou isotai me
ki aut apodeiknei thn
Zhtme loipn mia Pujagreia trida me
x = 2n2 + 2n
kai
s(m s)d,
().
x + y z = 2n.
Dokimste touc
y = 2n + 1,
z = 2n2 + 2n + 1:
(2n2 + 2n + 1)2 = (2n2 + 2n)2 + 2(2n2 + 2n) + 1 = (2n2 + 2n)2 + (2n + 1)2
kai
2n + 1 + 2n2 + 2n (2n2 + 2n + 1) = 2n.

52 akeraouc afnei uploipo 0, 50 1, 2, . . . , 49 diairomenoc
x kai y , afnoun to dio uploipo tte 100 | x y . An
qi tte toulqiston 50 ap touc 52 akeraouc afnoun uploipa 1, 2, . . . , 49, la
an do diaforetik metax touc, ra do ap autoc, stw oi z kai w , afnoun uploipa
i kai i gia kpoio i {1, 2, . . . , 49}. Tte 100 | z + w.
60.
Kajnac ap touc
me to
100.
An do akraioi, stw oi
1.9.
61.
(a) 'Estw
qi N
n1 , n2 , . . . , n101
Askseic
45
ni = 2ri qi me ri Z+ kai
1 ni 200 oi q1 , q2 , . . . , q101
oi dosmnoi akraioi. Grfoume
i. Efson
{1, 3, . . . , 199} ra parnoun 100 dunatc diaforetikc timc. Sunepc
r
r
qoume upoqrewtik qi = qj gia kpoia i 6= j . Tte ni = 2 i q kai nj = 2 j q me qi = qj = q
kai ni | nj an ri rj en nj | ni an rj ri .
peritt (dec epshc 'Askhsh 49) gia kje
ankoun sto snolo
(b) Oi akraioi
101, 102, . . . , 200
qoun aut thn idithta.
62. An an enai to jroisma aut tte a2 = 1/2 kai sunepc arke na dexoume ti
an1 = an gia kje n 3. Parathtome ti to an prokptei ap to an1 prosjtontac
1
ta klsmata thc morfc
me 1 p, q n, (p, q) = 1 kai p = n q = n kai afairntac
pq
1
me 1 p, q n, (p, q) = 1 kai p + q = n. 'Omwc gia p + q = n qoume
aut thc morfc
pq
1
1
p+q
1
+
=
=
pn
qn
pqn
pq
(p, n) = 1, (q, n) = 1 kai (p, q) = 1 enai an do isodnamec.
an an1 = 0 gia n 3.
kai oi sunjkec
ti
Sumperanoume
46
Keflaio 2
Isotimec
2.1
Eisagwg
2.1.1. m N. a, b Z, a (
) b m a b (mod m)
m | (a b).
2.1.2. m = 7.
3 24 (mod 7), 31 11 (mod 7), 15 64 (mod 7).
(mod m) , .
2.1.3. m N a, b, c Z.
(i) a a (mod m).
(ii) a b (mod m), b a (mod m).
(iii) a b (mod m) b c (mod m), a c (mod m).
m N a Z, q, r Z
a = mq + r 0 r < m. , a r
m. r a m
a r m ( a r (mod m)).
m mod m, r (mod m), r = 0, 1, . . . , m 1.
2.1.4. m N a, b Z. , a b (mod m)
a b m.
. a b (mod m) a
r (mod m) 0 r < m. a = mq + r q Z.
, a b (mod m), m | (a b) s Z
b = a + ms. b = a + ms = m(q + s) + r, b
r (mod m).
, a b r (mod m),
q, s Z a = mq + r b = ms + r.
a b = m(q s), m | (a b). a b (mod m).
48
Isotimec
, m Z,
a b a b (mod m),
r (mod m)
m r, r =
0, 1, . . . , m 1.
,
.
2.1.5. m N a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 Z. a1 b1 (mod m)
a2 b2 (mod m),
(i) a1 + a2 b1 + b2 (mod m).
(ii) a1 a2 b1 b2 (mod m).
(iii) ak1 bk1 (mod m) k N.
. (i) m | (a1 b1 ) m | (a2 b2 ), m |
(a1 b1 ) + (a2 b2 ), m | (a1 + a2 ) (b1 + b2 ).
(ii) a1 a2 b1 b2 = (a1 b1 )a2 + b1 (a2 b2 ). m | (a1 b1 )
m | (a2 b2 ), m | (a1 a2 b1 b2 ).
(iii) (ii) .
2.1.6. m N a, b, c Z c 6= 0.
(i) ac bc (mod m), a b (mod m/(c, m)).
(ii) ac bc (mod m) (c, m) = 1, a b (mod m).
c
.
(i) d = (c, m). m | c(a b), m
d | d (a b).

m
m c
d , d = 1 1.4.1, d | a b 1.4.2,
a b (mod m/(c, m)).
(ii) (i).
2.2
Sustmata upolopwn kai to mikr jerhma tou
Fermat
m N. M = {0, 1, . . . , m 1}
m.
a M m. ,
S m
a x S x a (mod m)). ,
S = {2, 4, 6} 3.
2.2.1. S
m S m x 6 y (mod m) x 6= y S.
2.2.
Sustmata upolopwn kai to mikr jerhma tou
Fermat
49
. S m.
i M xi S xi i (mod m).
{x0 , x1 , . . . , xm1 } S i 6= j M i 6 j (mod m)
xi 6 xj (mod m). S m ,
S = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xm1 }. , S
m , x y,
m x y (mod m),
.
S = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xm1 } xi 6 xj (mod m) i 6= j
a Z. i xi a (mod m)
xi a (mod m) xj a (mod m)
i j xi xj (mod m), .
i. m + 1
a, x0 , . . . , xm1
m m.
S a, xi a (mod m) i.
M = {a M : (a, m) = 1}. (m)
M . T
m T m
a m x T
x a (mod m). , S = {1, 15}
4. (x, m) = (y, m) x y (mod m)
M m.
2.2.1
.
2.2.2. T
m T (m) , m,
x 6 y (mod m) x 6= y T .
2.2.2 m
(m). : N N
Euler. , m N (m) a {1, 2, . . . , m}
(a, m) = 1. (6) = 2, (12) = 4 (p) = p 1
p. .
2.2.3. p r N (pr ) = pr1 (p 1).
. a pr
a p. a {1, 2, . . . , pr } (a, pr ) = 1
a pr1 p k, k {1, 2, . . . , pr1 },
(pr ) = pr pr1 .
2.2.4. m N k Z \ {0} (k, m) = 1.
(i) x m, kx
m.
(ii) x m, kx
m.
50
Isotimec
. (i) S m. kS
m , S. x, y S kx ky (mod m),
(k, m) = 1 2.1.6 x y (mod m), x = y.
kS := {kx : x S} m
m , 2.2.1, kS
m.
(ii) T m. (i)
kT T , (m),
m. , (k, m) = 1 (kx, m) = 1
x T , kT m. ,
2.2.2, kT m.
2.2.5. m, n N (m, n) = 1.
(i) x m y
n, nx + my
mn.
(ii) x m y n, nx + my
mn.
. (i) S1 = {x1 , . . . , xm } m
S2 = {y1 , . . . , yn } n. nxi + myj
nxr + mys (mod mn)), nxi nxr (mod m) (;). (m, n) = 1,
xi xr (mod m), xi = xr . yj = ys .
S = {nx + my : x S1 , y S2 } mn
mn. , 2.2.1,
S mn.
(ii) T1 = {x1 , . . . , x(m) } m, T2 =
{y1 , . . . , y(n) } n T = {nx+my :
x T1 , y T2 } . x T1 y T2
(nx + my, m) = (nx, m) = (x, m) = 1
(nx + my, n) = (my, n) = (y, n) = 1

(m, n) = 1. (m, n) = 1
(nx + my, mn) = 1, T mn.
a (a, mn) = 1. (a, m) = (a, n) = 1 ,
2.2.4 (ii), nT1 mT2
m n, . x T1 y T2 a nx (mod m)
a my (mod n). a nx + my (mod mn) nx + my T .
nx + my T a mn
T mn (
). T mn.
2.2.6. m, n N (m, n) = 1 (mn) = (m)(n).
. 2.2.5 (ii) mn (m)(n)
2.2.2.
2.3.
Grammikc isotimec
51
(24) = (3)(8) = 2 4 = 8 (pq) = (p 1)(q 1)

p q. N
2.2.6 .
.
2.2.7. n 2 n = pk11 pk22 pkr r .

r
r
Y
Y
1
kj 1
(n) =
pj
(pj 1) = n
.
(2.2.1)
1
pj
j=1
j=1
. 2.2.3, 2.2.6
k
(pki i , pj j ) = 1 i 6= j.
r
Y
j=1
k
pj j
Y
Y

r
r
r
Y
1
1
kj
k 1
1
=
=
pj 1
pj j (pj 1).
p
p
j
j
j=1
j=1
j=1
(2.2.2)
2.2.4 Fermat-Euler.
2.2.8. m N a Z \ {0} (a, m) = 1.
a(m) 1 (mod m).
(2.2.3)
. T = {x1 , . . . , x(m) } m.
2.2.4 (ii), aT = {ax1 , . . . , ax(m) }
m. 2.1.5 (ii)
x1 x(m) (ax1 ) (ax(m) ) = a(m) x1 x(m) (mod m).
(2.2.4)
(xi , m) = 1 i = 1, . . . , (m), (x1 x(m) , m) = 1.

(2.2.4) 2.1.6 (ii) .
2.2.8 Fermat.
2.2.9. p a Z. p
a ap1 1 (mod p).
. p a, (a, p) = 1
(p) = p 1. Fermat-Euler m = p.
2.3
Grammikc isotimec
. f : Z Z
m.
f (x) 0 (mod m): x
m .
52
Isotimec
, x
f (x) 0 (mod m) y x (mod m), f (y) 0 (mod m). ,
f (z) = ck z k + + c1 z + c0 ci Z ck 6= 0, y x (mod m)
y i xi (mod m), ci y i ci xi (mod m)
(2.3.1)
i = 0, 1, . . . , k
f (y) f (x) (mod m).
(2.3.2)
m .

( f (z) = az b).
.
2.3.1. m N a, b Z.
ax b (mod m)
(2.3.3)
(a, m) | b. ,
d = (a, m) m/d.
. x Z ax b (mod m) y Z
ax b = my,
ax my = b . 1.7.1
(a, m) | b. .
d = (a, m) | b x1 , x2 (2.3.3). m |
a
a(x1 x2 ), m
d | d (x1 x2 ). (a/d, m/d) = 1 ( 1.4.1),
(m/d) | x1 x2 . (2.3.3)
m/d.
d. x0
x0 , x0 +
m
2m
(d 1)m
, x0 +
, . . . , x0 +
.
d
d
d
0 s d 1

ms
as
a x0 +
= ax0 +
m ax0 b (mod m),
d
d
(2.3.4)
(2.3.5)
(2.3.3).
m. 0 s1 , s2 d 1
m
m
x0 + s1 x0 + s2 (mod m)
(2.3.6)
d
d
m | m
d (s1 s2 ), d | (s1 s2 ), s1 = s2
|s1 s2 | < d.
d m, (2.3.3)
d .
m, . ,
x0 + m
d r r Z. ,
q Z 0 s < d r = qd + s. ,
x0 +
m
sm
sm
m
r = x0 + (qd + s) = x0 +
+ mq x0 +
(mod m),
d
d
d
d
(2.3.7)
2.3.
Grammikc isotimec
53
m d
(2.3.4).
2.3.2. . .
() 5x 2 (mod 26).
d = (5, 26) = 1. .
, 5x26y = 2.
1 = 5(5)26(1) 2 5(10)26(2) = 2,
5 (10) 2 (mod 26). 10 (mod 26) , ,
16 (mod 26).
() 6x 15 (mod 21).
d = (6, 21) = 3 | 15. .
,
6x 21y = 15. 3 = 6 (3) 21 (1) 5
6 (15) 21 (5) = 15, 6 (15) 15 (mod 21).
15 (mod 21), , 6 (mod 21). m/d = 21/3 = 7,

6 (mod 21), 13 (mod 21), 20 (mod 21).
, , .
.
2.3.3. f : Z Z
m1 , m2 , . . . , mr , . m = m1 m2 mr ,

f (x) 0 (mod m)

f (x)
0 (mod m1 ),
f (x)
..
.
0 (mod m2 ),
..
.
f (x)
0 (mod mr )
.
. f (x) 0 (mod m), m | f (x). , mi | m
i = 1, . . . , r, mi | f (x). f (x) 0 (mod mi ) i = 1, . . . , r.
, x f (x) 0 (mod mi ), mi |
f (x) i = 1, . . . , r. mi ,
m = m1 m2 mr f (x). f (x) 0 (mod m).
2.3.3, m = pk11 pk22 pkr r ,
f (x) 0 (mod m) f (x) 0 (mod pki i ) ,
54
Isotimec
, r- (c1 , . . . , cr ) r
x (mod m)
c1 (mod pk11 ),
x c2 (mod pk22 ),
..
.
. ..
x cr (mod pkr r ).
, x (mod m) f (x) 0 (mod pki i ),
2.3.3 f (x) 0 (mod m).
.
2.3.4. m1 , m2 , . . . , mr (mi , mj ) = 1 i 6= j.
m = m1 m2 mr , c1 , . . . , cr Z
x
c1 (mod m1 ),
x
..
.
c2 (mod m2 ),
.
..
cr (mod mr )
x (mod m).
. i = 1, . . . , r Mi = m/mi .
(i) j 6= i mj | Mi ,
(ii) (Mi , mi ) = 1 i.
,
Mi y 1 (mod mi )
(2.3.8)
, bi (mod mi ).
x = c1 M1 b1 + + cr Mr br .
(2.3.9)
i = 1, . . . , r
ci Mi bi ci (mod mi )
(2.3.10)
Mi bi 1 (mod mi ),
cj Mj bj 0 (mod mi )
(2.3.11)
j 6= i, mj | Mj .
x = c1 M1 b1 + + cr Mr br ci (mod mi )
(2.3.12)
i = 1, . . . , r. , x . y
mi | (x y) i, mi
m = m1 m2 mr | (x y). x modulo
m: x y (mod m).
2.4.
2.4
Poluwnumikc isotimec
55
f (x) = cn xn + + c1 x + c0 n 2
ci (cn 6= 0). m = pk11 pkr r
2. 2.3.3, f (x) 0 (mod m)

(2.4.1)
f (x) 0 (mod pki i ), i = 1, . . . , r.

f (x) 0 (mod pk )
f (x) 0 (mod p).
.
2.4.1. f (x) = cn xn + + c1 x + c0 n 2
ci (cn 6= 0). a, b Z
f (a + b) = f (a) + bf 0 (a) + b2 s,
(2.4.2)
s Z f (a) f a.
. g(x) = f (a + x). g(x) x

g(x) = g(0) + g 0 (0)x + x2 h(x)
(2.4.3)
h(x) . g(b) =
f (a + b), g(0) = f (a) g 0 (0) = f 0 (a) x = b (2.4.3) (2.4.2)
s = h(b) Z.
2.4.2. f (x) = cn xn + + c1 x + c0 n 2
ci (cn 6= 0), p k 2.
x (mod pk ) f (x) 0 (mod pk ) x = z + ypk1
0 z < pk1 0 y < p
f (z) 0 (mod pk1 )
(2.4.4)
f (z)
+ yf 0 (z) 0 (mod p).
pk1
(2.4.5)
. x 0 x < pk .
y z x = ypk1 + z 0 z < pk1 .
0 y < p (;). 2.4.1
s Z
f (x) = f (z + ypk1 ) = f (z) + ypk1 f 0 (z) + (ypk1 )2 s.
k
2k2
(2.4.6)
k
p | p
( 2k 2 k) f (x) 0 (mod p )

f (z) + ypk1 f 0 (z) 0 (mod pk ).
(2.4.7)
pk1 | pk (2.4.6) pk1 | f (z), (2.4.4),
(2.4.5), (2.4.6) pk1 .
(2.4.4) (2.4.5)

f (z)
k1 0
k1
0
f (z) + yp
f (z) = p
,
+ yf (z) 0 (mod pk ),
(2.4.8)
pk1
(2.4.6), f (x) 0 (mod pk ).
56
Isotimec
f (x) 0 (mod pk ),
k 2. 2.4.2
f (x) 0 (mod p)
( ).
f (x) 0 (mod p), p
.
f p.
2.4.3. f : Z Z .
g : Z Z p,

f (x) g(x) (mod p)
x Z.
. f (x) = cn xn + + c1 x + c0 cn 6= 0. n p ( ).
p j n 1 r = r(j) p 1
xj xr(j) (mod p) x Z. j
j = (p1)q(j)+r(j) q(j), r(j) N 1 r(j) p1
( ). , (x, p) = 1
xj = (xp1 )q(j) xr(j) 1q(j) xr(j) = xr(j) (mod p)
Fermat, p | x
xj 0 xr(j) (mod p).
x Z
f (x) =
n
X
j=p
cj xj +
p1
X
j=0
cj xj
n
X
j=p
cj xr(j) +
p1
X
cj xj = g(x) (mod p)
j=0
g p.
f
p.
2.4.4 Lagrange. f (x) = cn xn + + c1 x + c0
p . p
cn . f (x) 0 (mod p) n .
. n . n = 0,
c0 0 (mod p), ,
, p cn = c0 .
n = 1, c1 x c0 (mod p)
. p c1 , d = (c1 , p) = 1
2.3.1.
n
f (x) = cn xn + + c1 x + c0 n.
2.4.
57
f (x) 0 (mod p) n + 1 x0 , x1 , . . . , xn p
. x Z,
f (x) f (x0 ) = (cn xn + + c1 x + c0 ) (cn xn0 + + c1 x0 + c0 ) = (x x0 )g(x),
g ,
n 1. , j = 1, . . . , n
(xj x0 )g(xj ) = f (xj ) f (x0 ) 0 (mod p),
p xj x0
g(xj ) 0 (mod p)
j = 1, . . . , n. g(x) 0 (mod p) n
p,
( g cn ).
2.4.5. f (x) = cn xn + + c1 x + c0
p . f (x) 0 (mod p)
n p | cj j = 0, 1, . . . , n.
. p | cn : , Lagrange
f (x) 0 (mod p) n . p | cn
g(x) = cn1 xn1 + + c1 x + c0 f (x) (mod p)
x Z. g(x) 0 (mod p) n ,
p | cn1 . ,
cn , cn1 , . . . , c1 , c0 p.
2.4.5 Wilson.
2.4.6. p
(p 1)! 1 (mod p).
: p = 2.
p .
f (x) = (xp1 1)
p1
Y
(x k).
k=1
f p 2 ( xp1 xp1 1
Qp1
k=1 (x k) ). Fermat,
k = 1, . . . , p 1
f (k) k p1 1 0 (mod p)
f (x) 0 (mod p) p 2 . p . ,
c0 = 1 (1)p1 (p 1)! = 1 (p 1)!,
1 (p 1)! (mod p).
58
Isotimec
: a Z (a, p) = 1
ax 1 (mod p) x (mod p) (x, p) = 1.
a {1, 2, . . . , p 1} b {1, 2, . . . , p 1}
ab 1 (mod p). b {1, 2, . . . , p 1}
a , , a = b a2 1 (mod p),
p | (a 1)(a + 1), a = 1 a = p 1. ,
{2, 3, . . . , p 2} (a, b) ab 1 (mod p)
(p 1)! 1 (p 1) 1 (mod p).
2.4.7. ,
n 2 (n 1)! 1 (mod n). (n 1)! + 1 = nx x N.
n , p. p < n, p
(n 1)!, p | 1, .
Wilson n
(n 1)! 1 (mod n). n .
2.5
Askseic
1. 7 | (32n+1 + 2n+2 ) n N.
2. n 5 1n + 2n +
3n + 4n .
3. a b (mod n1 ) a c (mod n2 ) b c (mod n),
n = (n1 , n2 ).
4. m > 2. 12 , 22 , . . . , m2
m.
5. p a Z. p a a 1
p 1 + a + a2 + + ap2 .
6. n n13 n (mod 1365).
7. n5 n n N.
8. p q ,
pq1 + q p1 1 (mod pq).
9. p a, b N. (a + b)p ap + bp (mod p).
10. p > 2 a, b N. ap + bp 0 (mod p),
ap + bp 0 (mod p2 ).
11. Euler,
31205 .
12. a n N. m
n | am 1 (a, n) = 1.
13. n 10 2n
2n+7.812.500 . : 7.812.500 = 4 59 .
2.5.
14. () (22 1) =
Qn1
i=0
Askseic
59
(22 + 1) n N.
n
() n (22 1) =
n
22 1 .
15. n (n!) = 2n .
16.
140x 133 (mod 301) 34x 60 (mod 98).
17.
x 5 (mod 6), x 4 (mod 11), x 3 (mod 17).
18. n .
2, 3, 4, 5 6 , 1, 2, 3, 4 5 .
7 , .
;
19. p (a, p) = 1 a.
x ap2 b (mod p) ax b (mod p).
, 6x 5 (mod 11) 3x
17 (mod 29).
20. ()
.
()
.
()
.
()
.
()
.
21. 7x4 + 19x + 25 0 (mod 27).
22. p q = (p 1)/2.
(q!)2 + (1)q 0 (mod p).
] .
23. p [ (p1)!
p
24. () m m 6, m | (m 1)!.
() n (n 1)! + 1 n.
25. p
.
2p1 1
p
60
Isotimec
-
1.
9 2 (mod 7),
Parathrome ti
ra
32n+1 = 3 32n = 3 9n 3 2n (mod 7).

Epomnwc
32n+1 + 2n+2 = 3 9n + 4 2n 3 2n + 4 2n = 7 2n 0 (mod 7),

dhlad
2.
7 | (32n+1 + 2n+2 ).
diaire to
1n + 2n + 3n + 4n
enai perittc tte
Prgmati, an o
en kai mno an o
enai perittc
n 2 (mod 4).
1n + 2n + 3n + 4n 1n + 2n + (2)n + (1)n = 0 (mod 5).

An
n = 2m
me
mZ
tte
1n +2n +3n +4n 1n +2n +(2)n +(1)n = 2(1+2n ) = 2(1+4m ) 2(1+(1)m ) (mod 5)
1n + 2n + 3n + 4n 0 (mod 5)
n = 2m 2 (mod 4).
kai sunepc
3.
Afo
n = (n1 , n2 )
ra
n | (a b) (a c) = c b,
4.
Oi
12 , 22 , . . . , m2
m ja prepe na
enai perittc, dhlad
qoume
n | n1 | a b
proc
an kai mno an o
enai
n | n2 | a c.
b c (mod n).
dhlad
to pljoc.
enai anistimoi
kai
An sqhmtizan plrec ssthma upolopwn wc
mod m.
'Omwc
m1>1
giat
m > 2,
kai
(m 1)2 = m2 2m + 1 1 = 12 (mod m).

5.
'Omwc
6.
Fermat qoume p | ap1 1 = (a1)(ap2 + +a2 +a+1).

p2
upjesh, ra p | a
+ + a2 + a + 1.
Ap to mikr Jerhma tou
(p, a 1) = 1
Parathrome ti
ap thn
1365 = 3 5 7 13.
Afo
(3) = 2, (5) = 4, (7) = 6
kai
(13) = 12,
qoume
(3), (5), (7), (13) | 12.

Ap to jerhma tou
Euler,
gia kje
(n ) n n (mod 3)
(n4 )3 n n (mod 5)
13
(n6 )2 n n (mod 7)
n13
n12 n n (mod 13).
n13 n
qoume
13
Afo o
nN
13
2 6
diairetai me touc prtouc
3, 5, 7, 13,
ja diairetai kai me to ginmen touc.
Sunepc h
n13 n (mod 1365)

isqei gia kje fusik
7.
5
'Estw
n n
n.
o akraioc autc. Profanc
gia kje
nN
diti
5 | n n
d | 25 2 = 30,
ra
d 30. 'Omwc o 30 diaire to

Fermat en profanc
ap to mikr Jerhma tou
2.5.
2 | n(n 1)
kai
Sumperanoume
8.
Afo
3 | n(n 1)(n + 1),

ti d = 30.
(p, q) = 1,
ra
Askseic
61
2 3 | n(n 1)(n + 1)(n2 + 1) = n(n4 1) = n5 n.
ap to mikr jerhma tou
Fermat
qoume
pq1 1 (mod q)
kai
q p1 1 (mod p).
pq1 + q p1 pq1 1 (mod q)
kai
pq1 + q p1 q p1 1 (mod p).
'Ara
p, q | (pq1 + q p1 ) 1
Ap tic
9.
Ap to mikr jerhma tou
petai ti
Fermat
pq | (pq1 + q p1 ) 1,
dhlad to zhtomeno.
qoume
(a + b)p a + b (mod p)
(a + b, p) = 1 tte (a + b)p1 1 (mod p) ra (a + b)p a + b (mod p), en an
p | a + b tte kai ta do mlh enai sthn klsh 0 (mod p)). Omowc ap a (mod p) kai
bp b (mod p), ra
ap + bp a + b (a + b)p (mod p).
(an
10.
Ap thn prohgomenh skhsh, an
Dhlad
p | (a + b)p ,
ra
p|a+b
(o
ap + bp 0 (mod p)
tte
(a + b)p 0 (mod p).
enai prtoc). 'Epetai ti
p2 | pp | (a + b)p ,
dhlad
(a + b)p 0 (mod p2 ).
400
'Eqoume (1000) = 400 kai (3, 1000) = 1 ra, ap to Jerhma Fermat-Euler, 3
1 (mod 1000). Prokptei ti 31205 = 35 (3400 )3 35 13 35 = 243 (mod 1000) kai

1205
sunepc ta tra teleutaa dekadik yhfa tou 3
enai ta 243.
11.
m
m
m
12. 'Estw n | a 1 kai d = (a, n). 'Eqoume d | a, ra d | a , kai d | n | a 1 opte
d | am 1 kai sunepc d | am (am 1) = 1, dhlad d = 1. Antstrofa, an (a, n) = 1
m
tte n | a
1 me m = (n) N, ap to Jerhma Fermat-Euler.
13.
Epshc, ap to Jerhma
n+459
n
kai sunepc
14.
1010 | 2n+45 2n . Profanc 210 | 2n+45 2n gia n 10.

10
9
Fermat-Euler qoume 510 | 2n (2(5 ) 1) = 2n (245 1) =
n
10
10
10
n+459
10 = 2 5 | 2
2 gia n 10.
Arke na dexoume ti
(a) Gnwrzoume ap th sqsh (1.6.5) ti
22 1 =
n1
Y
(22 + 1).
i=0
H proteinmenh isthta prokptei amswc ap thn pollaplasiastikthta thc sunrthshc
tou
Euler.
(b) Oi zhtomenoi akraioi enai oi
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Ap to (a) sumperanoume ti h protei-
nmenh exswsh enai isodnamh me thn exswsh
n1
Y
i=0
(22 + 1) = 22
62
Isotimec
2i
25
Enai gnwst ti gia
o akraioc
diairetai me to
kai sunepc o
25
diairetai me to
pou den enai dnamh tou
. 'Ara upoqrewtik
. Gia
2i
oi akraioi
me
enai prtoi kai sunepc
i=5
(2 + 1)
n5
n1
Y
+1
2 +1 = 2
640
0in1
(22 + 1) =
i=0
n1
Y
+1
641
n5
22 = 21+2+2
++2n1
= 22
i=0
(n!) = 2n
n = 5. Prgmati an n 6 tte to n! diairetai me to 3 6

3r tou 3 pou diaire to n! isqei r 2. To (n!)
r
r1
diairetai me to (3 ) = 2 3
kai sunepc 3 | (n!), opte to (n!) den enai dnamh tou
2. Gia n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 brskoume (n!) = 1, 1, 2, 8, 32, antstoiqa.
15.
'Eqoume
mno gia
kai sunepc gia th megalterh dnamh
16.
(a) Parathrome ti
(140, 301) = 7 | 133.
140x 133 (mod 301) qei 7

301/7 = 43. Gia na brome ma lsh,
'Ara h
lseic oi opoec ankoun sthn dia klsh wc proc

qrhsimopoiome ton Eukledeio algrijmo: qoume
301
2 140 + 21
140
6 21 + 14
21
1 14 + 7
14
2 7,
ra
7 = 21 14 = 21 140 + 6 21 = 7 21 140 = 7 (301 2 140) 140 = 7 301 15 140.

Pollaplasizontac ep
19
parnoume
140 (285) + 301 133 = 133,

dhlad
140 16 140 (285) 133(mod 301).

Mia lsh thc isotimac enai h
x1 = 16 (mod 301),
opte oi lseic enai
16 (mod 301), 59 (mod 301), 102 (mod 301), 145 (mod 301),
188 (mod 301), 231 (mod 301), 274 (mod 301).
(b) Parathrome ti
(34, 98) = 2 | 60. 'Ara h 34x 60 (mod 98) qei 2 lseic oi opoec
98/2 = 49. Gia na brome ma lsh, qrhsimopoiome ton
ankoun sthn dia klsh wc proc

Eukledeio algrijmo: qoume
98
2 34 + 30
34
1 30 + 4
30
74+2
2 2,
ra
2 = 30 7 4 = 30 7 34 + 7 30 = 8 30 7 34 = 8 98 23 34.
Pollaplasizontac ep
30
parnoume
34 (690) + 98 240 = 60,

dhlad
34 (4) 34 (690) 60(mod 98).
2.5.
Mia lsh thc isotimac enai h
x1 = 4 (mod 98),
Askseic
63
opte oi lseic enai
45 (mod 98), 94 (mod 98).

17. Orzoume M1 = 11 17 = 187, M2 = 6 17 = 102 kai M3 = 6 11 = 66. Oi isotimec
187y 1 (mod 6), 102y 1 (mod 11) kai 66y 1 (mod 17) qoun tic lseic b1 = 1,
b1 = 4 kai b1 = 8, antstoiqa. Prokptei ti o
x = c1 M1 b1 + c2 M2 b2 + c3 M3 b3 = 5 187 1 + 4 102 4 + 3 66 8 = 4151

enai lsh tou sustmatoc. Dhlad lsh enai h klsh
18.
785 (mod 1122).
Lste to ssthma
1 (mod 2)
2 (mod 3)
3 (mod 4)
4 (mod 5)
5 (mod 6)
0 (mod 7),
qrhsimopointac to Kinziko jerhma upolopwn kai brete th mikrterh jetik lsh tou
sustmatoc. Apnthsh:
19.
Afo
(a, p) = 1
x = 119.
qoume
ap1 1 (mod p).
An loipn
x ap2 b (mod p),
tte
ax ap1 b b (mod p).

Ap to parapnw blpoume ekola ti:
6x 5 (mod 11) qei lsh thn x 69 5 (mod 11). Afo 63 = 216

7 (mod 11), qoume 69 73 = 343 2 (mod 11). 'Ara 69 5 10 (mod 11) enai h lsh.
(a) H isotima
3x 17 (mod 29) qei lsh thn x 327 17 (mod 29).

(2) = 2 (16) 3 (16) = 48 10 (mod 29), ra
(b) H isotima
Tra
327 = 279 =
327 17 170 25 (mod 29)

enai h lsh.
20.
(a) Metax twn
proc ton
n 1, n
kai
n+1
enai sqetikc prtoc kai proc ton
n1
kai
n + 1.
x < y , ap touc n, n+1, n+2, n+3, n+4 qoun koin diairth

y x. 'Omwc 1 y x 4 kai sunepc d = 2, 3 4,
ra oi x, y enai kai oi do rtioi kai oi do pollaplsia tou 3. Ekola blpei kanec
ti metax twn n, n + 1, n + 2, n + 3, n + 4 uprqei pntote kpoioc pou den enai ote rtioc
ote pollaplsio tou 3. Autc enai sqetikc prtoc proc kajna ap touc uploipouc.
(b) An do akraioi, stw oi

to
tte o
diaire kai th diafor
(g) Prokptei me parmoio (all pio polploko) skeptik me to (b).

(d) Omowc me to (g).
(e) Aut den enai pntote dunat. Ap to Kinziko Jerhma upolopwn to ssthma
x 0 (mod 2)
x + 6 0 (mod 7)
x 0 (mod 17)
x 0 (mod 3)
x + 7 0 (mod 11)
x 0 (mod 19)
x + 1 0 (mod 5)
x + 5 0 (mod 13)
x wc proc 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 kai gia kje ttoia lsh x oi x,

x + 2, x + 4, . . . , x + 18 diairontai me to 2, oi x, x + 3, x + 6, . . . , x + 18 diairontai me to
qei monodik lsh
64
3,
Isotimec
x + 1, x + 6, x + 11 kai x + 16 diairontai me to 5, oi x + 6 kai x + 13 diairontai me

oi x + 7 kai x + 18 diairontai me to 11, oi x + 5 kai x + 18 diairontai me to 13, oi
x kai x + 17 diairontai me to 17 kai oi x kai x + 19 diairontai me to 19, opte kajnac
ap touc x, x + 1, . . . , x + 19 qei koin diairth me kpoion ap touc uploipouc.
oi
to
7,
x 16 (mod 27).
21.
Apnthsh:
22.
Parathrome ti
(1)q (q!)2
23.
p1
. 'Ara
2
1 (mod p)
p | 1 + (1)q (q!)2 . 'Epetai ti

p | (1)q 1 + (1)q (q!)2 = (1)q + (q!)2 ,
Wilson,
dhlad
(q!)2 + (1)q 0 (mod p).
gia kpoio
nN
np 1 = (p 1)!
p 3.
Ap to Jerhma tou
Wilson
qoume
(p 1)! =
kai sunepc
[
'Omwc o
k = 1, . . . , q =
q! (q)(q + 1) (1) q!(p q)(p q + 1) (p 1) = (p 1)!
Mporome na upojsoume ti
1 + np
gia kje
ap to jerhma tou
me lla lgia
p k k (mod p)
(p 1)!
np 1
]=[
] = n 1.
p
p
enai profanc rtioc, ra o
perittc kai o
]
n 1 = [ (p1)!
p
rtioc.
1 < a b < m. An a < b tte oi a kai

(m 1)! = 1 2 (m 1)
2
kai sunepc m = a b | (m 1)!. An a = b tte a 3 kai sunepc 2a < a = m opte
oi a kai 2a emfanzontai sto ginmeno (m 1)! = 1 2 (m 1) to opoo diairetai me to
a 2a = 2m.
(b) Oi mnoi jetiko akraioi me thn idithta aut enai oi n = 2, 3 kai 5. Gia aut arke na
dexoume ti o (n 1)! + 1 den enai dnamh tou n an n 6. 'Estw antijtwc ti n 6 kai
(n 1)! + 1 = nk gia kpoio jetik akraio k. H prohgomenh sqsh mpore na grafe wc
24.
(a) Grfoume ton
sth morf
m = ab
pou
enai do ap touc fusikoc pou emfanzontai sto ginmeno
(n 2)! = nk1 + + n2 + n + 1.
(n 1)! + 1 = nk enai perittc kai sunepc o
m = n 1 enai rtioc me m 6. Ap to erthma (a) prokptei
k1
ti n 1 = m | (m 1)! = (n 2)! kai epomnwc ti n 1 |= n
+ + n2 + n + 1.
i
Parathrntac ti n 1 (mod n 1) gia kje i prokptei ti n 1 | k . Tte mwc
n 1 k kai nk nn1 > (n 1)n1 + 1 > (n 1)! + 1, se antfash me thn upjesh.
Profanc o
25.
me
(n 1)!
enai rtioc, ra o
enai perittc kai o
Ja dexoume ti oi mnoi ttoioi prtoi enai oi
k N.
Profanc
p > 2,
(2
p1
p1
ra o
p1
2
1)(2
p1
2
u = 2 2 1 kai v = 2
prpei p | u p | v . Sthn
p=3
kai
p = 7.
'Estw
2p1 1 = pk2
enai rtioc kai mporome na gryoume
+ 1) = pk2 .
uv = pk2
(u, v) = 1. Afo o p enai

u/p v = k2 kai (u/p, v) = 1
2
opte ap to Lmma 1.8.2 prokptei ti oi u/p kai v enai tleia tetrgwna, opte v = r
p1
2
2
me r N. Omowc sth deterh perptwsh qoume u = r me r N. An 2 2
+ 1 = r tte
p1
2 2 = r2 1 = (r 1)(r + 1) kai sunepc oi r 1 kai r + 1 enai kai oi do dunmeic tou
p1
2. H mnh dunatthta enai h r = 3, opte (p 1)/2 = 3 kai p = 7. 'Estw 2 2 1 = r2 ,
p1
dhlad 2 2
= r2 + 1. Profanc o r enai perittc, ra r2 + 1 2 (mod 4). Sunepc o
p1
2 2 den diairetai me to 4 kai upoqrewtik (p 1)/2 = 1, dhlad p = 3.
Jtontac
prtoc
+1
p1
2
qoume
prth perptwsh qoume
kai
Keflaio 3
Arijmhtikc sunartseic
3.1
Eisagwg
3.1.1. f : N C .
, f : N C
m, n (m, n) = 1
f (mn) = f (m)f (n).
(3.1.1)
3.1.2.
N Z
.
() U : N N U (n) = 1 n N. U
: , U (mn) = 1 = U (m)U (n) m, n N.
U .
() I : N N I(n) = n n N. I
: m, n N I(mn) = mn = I(m)I(n).
() d : N N, d(n)
n.
X
d(n) =
1.
(3.1.2)
k|n
() : N N, (n)
n.
X
(n) =
k.
(3.1.3)
k|n
() Euler : N N, (n)
x n n.
() : N Z+ , (n)
n.
() : N Z,
(
0,
n m2 > 1
(n) =
(1)(n) , n = p1 p2 . . . p(n) , pi
66
Arijmhtikc Sunartseic
. M
obius.

.
.
.
3.1.3. f : N C .
g : N C
X
g(n) =
f (k)
(3.1.4)
k|n
.
. m, n N (m, n) = 1. k | mn.
1.4.5, k k = k1 k2 k1 | m, k2 | n.
, k1 | m k2 | n k = k1 k2 mn.
m n
mn:
k1 , k2 m, n, k1 k2 mn.

g(mn) =
f (k) =
XX
f (k1 k2 ).
(3.1.5)
k1 |m k2 |n
k|mn
k1 | m k2 | n (k1 , k2 ) = 1. f , f (k1 k2 ) = f (k1 )f (k2 ). (3.1.5)
XX
X
X
g(mn) =
f (k1 )f (k2 ) =
f (k1 )
f (k2 ) = g(m)g(n), (3.1.6)
k1 |m k2 |n
k1 |m
k2 |n
g .
3.2
Oi sunartseic
d kai
d
3.1.3.
3.2.1. d .
.
d(n) =
X
k|n
1=
X
k|n
U (k) (n) =
X
k|n
k=
I(k).
(3.2.1)
k|n
U I ,
3.1.3.
3.2.
Oi sunartseic
kai
67
3.2.1 d(n) (n) n. f n = p1k1 pk22 pkr r 1,
f (n) = f (pk11 )f (pk22 ) f (pkr r ).

(3.2.2)
(pk11 , pk22 pkr r ) = 1
. f ,
f (pk ) p k N.
3.2.2. n 2 n = pk11 pk22 pkr r .
r
Y
d(n) =
(1 + kj )
(3.2.3)
j=1
(n) =
pk11 +1 1 p2k2 +1 1
pkr +1 1
r
.
p1 1
p2 1
pr 1
(3.2.4)
. pk 1, p, p2 , . . . , pk .
d(pk ) = k + 1
(3.2.5)
(pk ) = 1 + p + + pk =
pk+1 1
.
p1
(3.2.6)
d , (3.2.2)
d(n) =
r
Y
d(pj j ) =
j=1
r
Y
(1 + kj )
(3.2.7)
j=1
(n) = (pk11 )(pk22 ) (pkr r ) =
p1k1 +1 1 p2k2 +1 1
pkr +1 1
r
p1 1
p2 1
pr 1
(3.2.8)
n 2 n = pk11 pk22 pkr r . n = 1

d(n) = 1 (n) = 1.
3.2.3. n (n) = 2n,
n (
) n.
n = 6 n = 28 (
6 = 1 + 2 + 3 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14).
.
.
3.2.4 ( -Euler). m N 2m 1
. , 2m1 (2m 1) .
.
68
3.2.5. 1.29 2m 1 ,
m . ,
2p1 (2p 1) p 2p 1 .
. n = 2m1 (2m 1), 2m 1 .
(2m1 , 2m 1) = 1

(n) = (2m1 )(2m 1) =
2m 1 m
2
21
(3.2.9)
(p) = p + 1 p.
(n) = 2 2m1 (2m 1) = 2n,
(3.2.10)
n .
, n . n
n = 2m1 k, m > 1 k .
k = 2m 1 k . n (2m1 , k) = 1,
2n = (n) = (2m1 )(k) = (2m 1)(k),

(3.2.11)
k
2m k
=k+ m
.
(3.2.12)
2m 1
2 1
(k) N, k/(2m 1) k.
(3.2.12) k
k. ,
k k/(2m 1) k, k
k/(2m 1) = 1, k = 2m 1. n = 2m1 (2m 1)
2m 1 .
(k) =

d(n). p d(p) = 2 , d(n)
n . d(n).

.
3.2.6. k N C > 0 n N
d(n) > C(ln n)k .
(3.2.13)
. n ( n)
. (k + 1) p1 < p2 <
< pk < pk+1 n
n = (p1 p2 pk pk+1 )m ,
m . 3.2.2
d(n) =
k+1
Y
(m + 1) = (m + 1)k+1
j=1
(3.2.14)
3.2.
Oi sunartseic
kai
k
C(ln n)k = Cmk ln(p1 p2 pk+1 ) .
69
(3.2.15)
k
mk+1 > Cmk ln(p1 p2 pk+1 ) ,
(3.2.16)
k
m > C ln(p1 p2 pk+1 ) ,
d(n) = (m + 1)k+1 > mk+1 > C(ln n)k .
. ,
.
3.2.7. > 0 C() > 0
d(n) C()n
(3.2.17)
n N. , n n .
. 0 < < 1.
n 2 n = pk11 pkr r ,
1 + k1
d(n)
1 + kr
= k1 kr .

n
p1
pr
(3.2.18)
p1 , . . . , pr . pj 2 pj < 21/ ,
1 + kj
1 + kj
1 + kj
1 + kj
1
kj = (ln 2)k <
,
(3.2.19)
<
kj
j
2
1 + (ln 2)kj
(ln 2)
e
pj
1 + (ln 2)kj > (ln 2)(1 + kj ). pj 21/ ,
1 + kj
k
pj j
1 + kj
1.
2kj
(3.2.20)

d(n)
n
Y
{pP :p<21/ }
1
=: C(),
(ln 2)
(3.2.21)
C() :
21/ 1/[(ln 2)] .
(n) n .
3.2.8. n N
(n) n(1 + ln n).
(3.2.22)
.
(n) =
X
k|n
k=
Xn
k|n
n
X
1
s=1
(3.2.23)
70
n/k n
k n.
n
X
1
s=1
1+
1
dt
+ +
t
n1
dt
=1+
t
dt
= 1 + ln n,
t
(3.2.24)
(n) n(1 + ln n).
3.3
H sunrthsh tou
M
obius
: N Z Mobius
(
0,
n m2 > 1
.
(n) =
(1)(n) , n = p1 p2 . . . p(n) , pi
n = 1 (1) = 0, (1) = (1)0 = 1.
, (n) = 0
p p2 | n. n
n. ,
n (n) = 1.
Mobius,
Riemann ( 1.6).
, ,
: , ,
!
!
X
X
1
(n)
=1
(3.3.1)
ns
ns
n=1
n=1
s. ,
X
1
ms
m=1
X
(k)
k=1
!
=
ks
(k)
ns
n=1 {k,m:km=n}
X
X
1
(k) s ,
n
n=1
X
k|n
(3.3.1)
(
X
k|n
(k) =
1,
0,
n = 1,
.
n > 1
Mobius (
).
3.3.1. M
obius .
3.3.
H sunrthsh tou
bius
Mo
71
. m, n N (m, n) = 1. m n , mn, (mn) = 0 = (m)(n).

m n ,
m n , (m, n) = 1. mn
(mn) = (m) + (n).
(mn) = (1)(mn) = (1)(m)+(n) = (1)(m) (1)(n) = (m)(n).
(3.3.2)
, (m, n) = 1 (mn) = (m)(n). .

.
3.3.2. n N
(
X
(k) =
k|n
1,
0,
n = 1,
.
n > 1
(k).
.
g(n) =
(3.3.3)
k|n
, 3.1.3 g . p , k 1
g(pk ) = (1) + (p) + (p2 ) + + (pk ) = 1 + (1) + 0 + + 0 = 0
(3.3.4)
( k = 1 ). g
, n = pk11 pk22 pkr r
2,
g(n) = g(pk11 )g(pk22 ) g(pk+r
) = 0.
(3.3.5)
r
, g(1) = (1) = 1.
3.3.2
M
obius.
3.3.3 ( Mobius). f : N C
. g : N C
g(n) =
f (k).
(3.3.6)
k|n
f (n) =
X
k|n
n N.
(k)g
n
k
X n
g(k)
k
k|n
(3.3.7)
72
(k)g
n
k
k|n
(k)
f (d) =
k|n
d| n
k
X
f (d)
(k)
d|n
k| n
d
(k)f (d)
{k,d:kd|n}
= f (n),
P
(k) = 0 d = n
, 3.3.2,
k| n
d
1. :
n/k n k n.
:
3.3.4. g : N C .
f : N C
X n
f (n) =
g(k)
(3.3.8)
k
k|n
n N,
g(n) =
f (k)
(3.3.9)
k|n
n N.
.
X
f (k)
k|n
X n X X n
g(d)
f
k
kd
n
d| k
k|n
k|n
X
X n/d
X
X
=
g(d)
g(d)
(k)
k
n
n
d|n
k| d
d|n
k| d
g(n),
3.3.2.
Mobius
3.1.3.
3.3.5. f : N C .
g : N C
g(n) =
f (k)
k|n
, f .
(3.3.10)
3.3.
H sunrthsh tou
. Mobius,
n
X
f (n) =
(k)g
.
k
bius
Mo
73
(3.3.11)
k|n
m, n N (m, n) = 1. : k1 , k2 m, n , k1 k2
mn. , (k1 , k2 ) = 1 (m/k1 , n/k2 ) = 1, (m, n) = 1.
, g ,
mn
X
f (mn) =
(k)g
k
k|mn

XX
m n
=
(k1 k2 )g
k1 k2
k1 |m k2 |n

XX
m
n
=
(k1 )(k2 )g
g
k1
k2
k1 |m k2 |n

X
X
n
m
(k2 )g
=
(k1 )g
k1
k2
k2 |n
k1 |m
= f (m)f (n),
f .
3.3.6 ( ).
XX
A(k, d),
(3.3.12)
k|n d| n
k
A mbN N.
, A(k, )
n/k, k n.
k,
n. d | (n/k) d
n. d | n, A(k, d)
k k | n d | (n/k).
k k | (n/d) (;).

XX
A(k, d).
(3.3.13)
d|n k| n
d

XX
k|n d| n
k
A(k, d) =
XX
A(k, d)
(3.3.14)
d|n k| n
d
(
3.3.3 3.3.4).
74
3.4
H sunrthsh tou
Euler
Euler : N N :
n N (n) x {1, . . . , n} (x, n) = 1.

.
3.4.1. n
X
(k) = n.
(3.4.1)
k|n
. k n
Bk = {x : 1 x n (x, n) = k}.
(3.4.2)
Bk {1, . . . , n}. |A| A,

X
|Bk | = n.
(3.4.3)
k|n
k n
Ck = {y : 1 y n/k (y, n/k) = 1}.
(3.4.4)
x Bk x/k Ck . , x Bk
x n (x, n) = k, x/k N, x/k n/k, (x/k, n/k) = (x, n)/k = 1.
, y Ck , ky n (ky, n) = (ky, k(n/k)) = k(y, n/k) = k,
ky Bk . , gk : Bk Ck gk (x) = x/k
. Ck
n
|Bk | = |Ck | =
(3.4.5)
k
k. (3.4.3)
X
X n X
X
=
|Ck | =
|Bk | = n,
(k) =
k
k|n
k|n
k|n
(3.4.6)
k|n
.
3.4.2. .
. I(n) = n ,
3.4.1 3.3.5.
3.4.3. n
(n) =
X
k|n
(k)
X (k)
n
=n
.
k
k
(3.4.7)
k|n
. Mobius ( 3.3.3).
3.4.
H sunrthsh tou
Euler
75
n = pk11 pk22 pkr r n,

(n) = n
r
Y
j=1
1
1
pj

=
r
Y
k 1
pj j
(pj 1)
(3.4.8)
j=1
2.2.7 .
( 2.2.7). . 3.4.3 . p
k 1,

X (d)
(1) (p)
1
k
k
k
k
=p
+
=p 1
,
(3.4.9)
(p ) = p
d
1
p
p
k
d|p
(1) = 1, (p) = 1 (ps ) = 0 s 2. n = pk11 pk22 pkr r

2,
(n) =
r
Y
pj j

1
j=1
1
pj

=
r
Y
pj j
j=1

r
r
Y
Y
1
1
1
=n
1
.
pj
pj
j=1
j=1
(3.4.10)
.
(n). (n) n 1
n 2, n .
. ,
,
(n) n n ,
(n) n n.
:
(n)(n) n2 .
3.4.4. n
1
(n)(n)
<
1.
2
n2
(3.4.11)
. n = 1 (n) = (n) = 1,
. n 2
n = pk11 pk22 pkr r .
k +1
r
Y
pj j 1
(n) =
(3.4.12)
pj 1
j=1
(n) =
r
Y
k 1
pj j
(pj 1),
(3.4.13)
j=1
(n)(n) =
r
Y
j=1
k 1 k +1
pj j (pj j
1) =
r
Y
j=1
2k
pj j
1
k +1
pj j
!
,
(3.4.14)
76
(n)(n) = n
r
Y
j=1
1
k +1
pj j
!
.
(3.4.15)
1,
(n)(n)
1.
n2
(3.4.16)
,
!

r
n
r
Y
Y
Y
1
1
1
1 2
1 2
1 kj +1
p
m
pj
m=2
j=1
j=1
=
n
n
Y
n+1 1
n+1
1
m+1 Y m1
=
=
> ,
m
m
2
n
2n
2
m=2
m=2
(n)(n)/n2 > 1/2.

(n) n(1 + ln n) 3.2.8,
(n).
3.4.5. n N
(n) >
n
.
2(1 + ln n)
(3.4.17)
. 3.4.4 3.2.8
1
(n)(n)
(n)n(1 + ln n)
<
2
2
n
n2
(3.4.18)
n N.
3.5
Askseic
1.
Y
k = nd(n)/2 .
k|n
2. d(n) n .
3.
2
X
k|n
d(k)3 =
d(k) .
k|n
4. d(n) d(2n 1) n.
5. () d(n) < 2 n n N.
() n d(2n) = n.
3.5.
6. n . (n) > n +
Askseic
77
n.
7. 6.
8. n .
X1
= 2.
k
k|n
9. n. n
n n.
10. a N :
, a = p1 p2 pk , pi
k .
k a a.
X
(k) = 0.
k
11. f (n) = (1)n1

n
X
h(n) =
(1)k1
k
k|n
n N.
12.
X
(k)d
n
k
k|n
(k)
n
k
k|n
=1
=n
n N.
13.
X 2 (d)
d|n
(d)
n
(n)
n N.
14.
n
X
k=
k=1
(k,n)=1
n(n)
2
n N.
15. (n)d(n) n n N.
16. n 30 (n) = d(n).
17. 6 | n (n) n/3.
78
18. n N (n) | n. n = 2a 3b
a, b Z+ .
19. p1 < p2 < < pN .
(p1 p2 pN ) = 1 (,
).
20.
X
k|n
(k)
n
k
= nd(n)
n N.
21. (n) + (n) = nd(n) n .
22. f : N C . m, n N,
d = (m, n) D = mn/d
f (m)f (n) = f (d)f (D).
: m, n.
3.5.
Askseic
79
-
1.
'Otan o
n, tte o n/k
n. 'Ara
2
Y
Y
Y Yn
k =
=
n = nd(n) ,
k
k
diatrqei touc jetikoc diairtec tou
jetikoc diairtec tou
k|n
k|n
2.
An
d(1)
n = 1,
perittc.
tte
d(n) = 1
n.
isotai me
d(n).
'Epetai to zhtomeno.
o 1 enai tleio
n = pk1 1 pk2 2 pkr r
kai to zhtomeno isqei:
tetrgwno kai o
n 2
enai h kanonik
Upojtoume loipn ti
anaparstash tou
k|n
k|n
afo to pljoc twn jetikn diairetn tou
diatrqei ki autc touc
kai ti
Tte,
d(n) = (k1 + 1)(k2 + 1) (kr + 1),

d(n) enai perittc an kai mno an loi oi kj enai rtioi (an kpoioc kj enai perittc
d(n) diairetai me ton rtio kj + 1, dhlad enai rtioc). Ap thn llh pleur, loi
oi kj enai rtioi an kai mno an o n enai tleio tetrgwno. Prgmati, an kj = 2sj tte
n = m2 pou m = ps11 ps22 psrr . To antstrofo elgqetai entelc anloga.
ra o
tte o
3.
Orzoume tic arijmhtikc sunartseic
A(n) =
d(k)3
kai
B(n) =
k|n
Deqnoume prta ti oi
kai
d(k).
k|n
enai pollaplasiastikc: an
(m, n) = 1,
X X
d(k1 )r d(k2 )r
tte gia
r = 1, 3
qoume
d(k)r
d(k1 k2 )r =
k1 |m k2 |n
k|mn
X X
k1 |m k2 |n
k1 |m
d(k1 )
d(k2 )
k2 |n
d enai pollaplasiastik kai to ti tan oi k1 , k2 diatrqoun

m, n antstoiqa, tte o k1 k2 diatrqei touc jetikoc diairtec
tou mn, kai (k1 , k2 ) = 1 afo (m, n) = 1.
2
Afo h B enai pollaplasiastik, to dio isqei kai gia thn B . Arke loipn na
k
2 k
elgxoume ti A(p ) = B (p ). 'Eqoume:
pou qrhsimopoisame to ti h
touc jetikoc diairtec twn
A(pk ) = d(1)3 + d(p)3 + + d(pk )3 = 13 + 23 + + (k + 1)3

kai

2
B 2 (pk ) = d(1) + d(p) + + d(pk ) = (1 + 2 + + (k + 1))2 .
'Omwc,
13 + 23 + + (k + 1)3 =
(k + 1)2 (k + 2)2
= (1 + 2 + + (k + 1))2 ,
4
to opoo apodeiknei to zhtomeno.
4.
A to snolo twn jetikn diairetn tou n kai B to snolo twn jetikn diairetn
2n 1. Orzoume mia apeiknish g : A B me g(k) = 2k 1. H g enai kal orismnh:
k
n
an k | n tte (2 1) | (2 1). H g enai profanc na proc na, ra to A qei to pol
n
tsa stoiqea sa qei to B . Me lla lgia, d(n) d(2 1).
'Estw
tou
80
d | n tte d n n/d n (diaforetik ja eqame

n = n n < d (n/d) = n) kai sunepc d {1, 2, . . . , [ n]} n/d {1, 2, . . . , [ n]}.

Prokptei ti to pljoc d(n) twn jetikn diairetn tou n den xepern to diplsio tou
pljouc twn stoiqewn tou {1, 2, . . . , [ n]}, epomnwc d(n) 2 n. Ekola blpoume ap
5.
(a) Parathrome ti an
ta parapnw ti h perptwsh thc isthtac den ufstatai.
d(2n) = n, ap to
n < 8 enai oi n = 4
(b) An
lseic me
6.
(a) qoume
kai
n = d(2n) < 2 2n,
ra
n<2 2
n < 8.
Oi
n = 6.
n enai snjetoc, ra uprqoun m s > 1 ttoioi ste n = ms.
m n. 'Epetai ti
(n) n + m + 1 n + n + 1 > n + n.
Eidiktera,
n m2
dhlad
7.
Upojtoume ti o
r 2: nac prtoc
(n) = 2n dhlad
n = p1 pr
enai tleioc, pou
p1 < < pr (parathrste ti

Afo o n enai tleioc, qoume
arijmc den mpore na enai tleioc).
(p1 + 1) (pr + 1) = 2p1 pr .

p1 = 2. An qi, tte to arister mloc diairetai me 4 (giat kje
pi + 1 enai rtioc kai r 2) en h megalterh dnamh tou 2 pou diaire to dexi mloc enai
o 2 (to ginmeno p1 pr enai perittc arijmc). Aut odhge se topo. Afo p1 = 2,
Deqnoume prta ti
qoume
3(p2 + 1) (pr + 1) = 4p2 pr .

3 | 4p2 pr , uprqei 2 i r ttoioc ste 3 | pi , to opoo mpore na sumbe mno
pi = 3 (o pi enai prtoc). 'Ara p2 = 3. An uprqe ki lloc prtoc diairthc, p.q. o
p3 , tou n tte ja eqame (p3 + 1) | 4p2 pr , opte (p3 + 1) | 4 to opoo apokleetai giat
p3 + 1 5 + 1 = 6 (p3 + 1) | pi gia kpoion i 3 to opoo apokleetai giat o p3 + 1 enai
rtioc en loi oi pi , i 3 peritto.
'Ara o n prpei na qei mno do prtouc diairtec, touc p1 = 2 kai p2 = 3. Ekola elgqoume ti o n = 2 3 = 6 enai tleioc, ra autc enai o monadikc elejeroc
Afo
an
tetragnwn tleioc arijmc.
8.
Afo o
enai tleioc, qoume
(n) =
k = 2n.
k|n
'Omwc
k=
k|n
X1
Xn
=n
.
k
k
k|n
k|n
Ap tic do prohgomenec sqseic blpoume ti
X1
= 2.
k
k|n
9.
n = pk1 1 pkr r tleioc arijmc, pou p1 < < pr

k
ti r 2. An tan n = p , pou p 3, ja eqame
'Estw
prta
(n) = 2n =
ap pou ja parname
pk+1 = 2pk 1
peritto prtoi. Deqnoume
pk+1 1
= 2pk ,
p1
kai sunepc ti
p | 1,
prgma adnato.
3.5.
n qei loipn toulqiston do (perittoc) prtouc diairtec.
Askseic
Afo o
81
n enai tleioc,
qoume
(1 + p1 + + pk1 1 ) (1 + pr + + pkr r ) = 2pk1 1 pkr r .

ki enai perittc tte o si = 1 + pi + + pki i enai rtioc, en an o
ki enai rtioc tte o si enai perittc (o si enai jroisma ki + 1 perittn arijmn). 'Ara
x
to arister mloc diairetai me 2 an x ap touc ki enai peritto, kai enai perittc arijmc
an loi oi ki enai rtioi. Afo to dexi mloc enai thc morfc 2 m me ton m peritt,
anagkastik qoume x = 1 (giat?). Dhlad akribc nac ap touc pi qei peritt ekjth
sthn kanonik anaparstash tou n.
Parathrome ti an o
10.
Parathrome ti gia kje jetik diairth
enai thc morfc
pi1 pis
kai o
a/k
arijmc (kpoioi ap touc prtouc diairtec tou
a/d).
a isqei (d) = (a/d). Prgmati: o

pj1 pjr pou s + r = k dhlad rtioc
a sqhmatzoun ton d kai oi uploipoi ton
tou
thc morfc
Tte
(d)(a/d) = (1)s (1)r = (1)k = 1,

dhlad oi
(d)
kai
(a/d)
enai omshmoi.
Afo
(d), (a/d) = 1,
petai ti
(d) =
(a/d).
A = {d | a : d < a} kai B = {u | a : u > a}. O a den enai tleio

tetrgwno, ra to A B enai to snolo lwn twn jetikn diairetn tou a. Epiplon,
B = {a/d : d A} giat an d enai nac jetikc diairthc tou a mikrteroc ap a, tte o
a/d enai jetikc diairthc tou a megalteroc ap a kai antistrfwc. Ap thn Prtash
Jtoume
2.3.2 qoume
(d) = 0.
d|a
'Omwc
(d) =
(d) +
dA
d|a
(d) = 2
dB
(d).
dA
'Ara
(d) = 0.
{d|a:d< a}
11.
'Estw
m, n N
(m, n) = 1.
me
(1)
Jloume na dexoume ti
mn1
= (1)m1 (1)n1
mn m n + 1 = (m 1)(n 1) enai rtioc. Aut den ja mporose na

m, n tan kai oi do rtioi, to opoo apokleetai afo upojsame ti
(m, n) = 1. 'Ara h f (n) = (1)n1 enai pollaplasiastik. H sunrthsh
n X
n
X
h(n) =
(1)k1
=
f (k)
k
k
dhlad ti o
isqei mno an oi
k|n
enai pollaplasiastik (giat oi
f,
k|n
enai pollaplasiastikc, qoume qrhsimopoisei ar-
ketc forc aut to epiqerhma). Upologzoume prta thn tim
k 1.
h(pk ),
pou
prtoc kai
'Eqoume
h(pk )
=
=
k1
(pk ) + (1)p1 (pk1 ) + + (1)p

k1
(1)
p 1
(1) + (1)
= (1)
k1
(p) + (1)p
k
p 1
+ (1)
(1)
p enai perittc prtoc tte o pk1 enai perittc kai o pk 1 enai rtioc, en
p = 2 kai k > 1 qoume to antjeto. Sunepc h(pk ) = 0 ektc an p = 2 kai k = 1,
opte h(2) = 2. Afo h h enai pollaplasiastik, gia kje n 3 qoume h(n) = 0.
0
Tloc h(1) = (1) (1) = 1.
'Omwc an o
an
82
12.
'Eqoume
M
obius
d(n) =
k|n
U (k),
pou
U (k) = 1
k N.
gia
parnoume
1 = U (n) =
(k)d
k|n
I(k), pou I(k) = k,

n
X
n = I(n) =
(k)
.
k
Me entelc anlogo trpo h sqsh
(n) =
n
Ap ton tpo antistrofc tou
k|n
dnei
k|n
13.
Kai ta do mlh thc proteinmenhc isthtac enai pollaplasiastikc sunartseic tou
kai sunepc arke na dexoume ti tautzontai tan o
tte
n = pr
enai dnamh prtou. An
X 2 (d)
(1)2
p
n
=1+
=
=
.
(d)
p1
p1
(n)
d|n
14.
Parathrome ti an
1kn
tte
n
X
(k, n) = 1
n
X
k=
k=1
(k,n)=1
an kai mno an
(n k, n) = 1.
'Ara
(n k).
k=1
(k,n)=1
'Epetai ti
n
X
k=1
(k,n)=1
15.
An
n = pr
me
n
n
X
X
1
1
k=
k+
(n k) =
2
2
k=1
k=1
(k,n)=1
prto kai
r1
(k,n)=1
n
X
n=
k=1
(k,n)=1
n(n)
.
2
tte
(n)d(n) = (pr )d(pr ) = pr1 (p 1)(r + 1) pr1 2(p 1) pr1 p = pr = n.

An
n = pr11 pr22 prss
geniktera tte
(n)d(n) = (pr11 )d(pr11 ) (pr22 )d(pr22 ) (prss )d(prss ) pr11 pr22 prss = n.
16.
Apnthsh:
17.
'Eqoume
r1
18.
23
s1
n = 1, 3, 8, 10, 18, 24, 30.
n = 2r 3s m me r, s 1
(m) 2r 3s1 m = n/3.
Ja upojsoume ti
anaparstash tou
n,
kai
(m, 6) = 1
n = 2a 3b pk3 3 pkr r ,
pou
opte
(n) = (2r )(3s )(m) =
a, b 0 kai ki > 0,
a, b > 0, qoume
enai h kanonik
kai ja katalxoume se topo. An
(n) = 2a1 3b1 2 p3k3 1 (p3 1) pkr r 1 (pr 1),

kai ap thn upjesh,
2a 3b1 (p3 1) (pr 1) | 2a 3b p3 pr .

2 pou diaire to dexi mloc enai 2a en to arister mloc
2a+1 afo oi p3 1, . . . , pr 1 enai rtioi (exhgste).
a k3
kr
ti n = 2 p3 pr , pou a > 0, pi 5 kai ki > 0. 'Opwc prin, parnoume
'Omwc, h megalterh dnamh tou

diairetai me
'Estw
2a1 (p3 1) (pr 1) | 2a p3 pr = (p3 1) (pr 1) | 2p3 pr .
3.5.
Askseic
83
(p3 1) | 2p2 pr , to opoo enai topo giat ja eqame (p3 1) | 2 (p3 1) | pj

j , topo afo o p3 1 enai rtioc kai megalteroc soc tou 4.
kr
b k3
Me anlogo trpo katalgoume se topo an upojsoume ti n = 3 p3 pr , pou
k3
kr
b > 0, pi 5 kai ki > 0 n = p3 pr , pou pi 5 kai ki > 0.
'Omwc tte
gia kpoion
19.
1 < x < p1 p2 pN . Tte o x qei toulqiston nan prto diairth, o opooc

pi , i = 1, . . . , N (qoume upojsei ti auto enai loi oi prtoi).
(x, p1 p2 . . . pN ) > 1. 'Epetai ti
'Estw
enai kpoioc ap touc

'Ara
(p1 p2 . . . pN ) = 1
1 x p1 p2 . . . pN , mno o 1 enai sqetik
enai pollaplasiastik, ra
(ap louc touc
prtoc proc ton
p1 p2 . . . pN ).
Ap thn llh pleur, h
(p1 p2 . . . pN ) = (p1 )(p2 ) . . . (pN ) (2)(3) = 1 2 = 2

(oi prtoi do ap touc
p1 , . . . , p N
enai oi
p1 = 2
kai
p2 = 3).
Katalxame se topo, ra
uprqoun peiroi prtoi arijmo.
20.
, kai d enai
P
h(n) = k|n (k) nk enai
r
r
r
ti h(p ) = p d(p ). 'Eqoume
Qrhsimopointac to gegonc ti oi
elgqoume ti oi
nd(n)
kai
Arke loipn na elgxoume
h(pr )
pollaplasiastikc sunartseic,
pollaplasiastikc sunartseic.
(1)(pr ) + (p)(pr1 ) + + (pr1 )(p) + (pr )(1)
1 pr1 (p 1) + (1 + p)pr2 (p 1) + + (1 + p + + pr1 )(p 1)

+(1 + p + + pr )
21.
An o
(pr pr1 ) + (pr pr2 ) + (pr 1) + (1 + p + + pr1 ) + pr
(r + 1)pr = pr d(pr ).
enai prtoc, tte
(n) = n + 1, (n) = n 1
kai
d(n) = 2.
'Ara
(n) + (n) = n + 1 + n 1 = 2n = nd(n).

(n) + (n) = nd(n), ap thn prohgomenh skhsh qoume
n
X
(n) + (n) = (n)(1) + (1)(n) =
(k)
.
k
Antstrofa, an upojsoume ti
k|n
Ap thn teleutaa isthta gnetai faner ti to jroisma sto dexi mloc apoteletai mno
ap touc do rouc pou emfanzontai sto arister mloc (allic, to dexi mloc ja tan
gnsia megaltero). 'Omwc aut shmanei ti o
kai ton
n.
Dhlad, o
qei mno do jetikoc diairtec: ton
enai prtoc.
pri i pou p1 , p2 ,Q
. . . , pt enai diakekrimnoi
i
t
prtoi kai ri , si enai m arnhtiko akraioi. Tte d = (m, n) =
i=1 pi kai D = mn/d =
Qt
i
i=1 pi pou i = min{ri , si } kai i = min{ri , si }. Parathrntac ti {ri , si } = {i , i }
gia kje i, ap thn pollaplasiastikthta thc f qoume
22.
Grfoume
m =
Qt
i=1
pri i
kai
n =
f (m)f (n)
Qt
i=1
t
Y
f (pri i )
i=1
t
Y
t
Y
i=1
i
f (p
i )
i=1
f (psi i )
f (d)f (D).
t
Y
i=1
f (pi i )
84
Keflaio 4
O tetragwnikc nmoc
antistrofc
4.1
H txh enc akeraou wc proc
n > 1 . Euler a Z
(a, n) = 1,
a(n) 1 (mod n)
(4.1.1)
Euler. a
1 n.
4.1.1. n > 1 a Z (a, n) = 1. a n
k ak 1 (mod n). 1
1 n.
4.1.2. n = 7 a = 2.
2
21 2, 22 4, 23 1, 24 2, 25 4, 26 1, . . .
7. 2 3 7.
4.1.3. () a b (mod n) as bs (mod n)
s 1. a b n.
() (a, n) = d > 1,
ax 1 (mod n)
(4.1.2)
. s 1 as
1 (mod n): , x = as1 (4.1.2).
(a, n) = 1 a n.
() , a = 2 k = 3,
(n) = (7) = 6. k | (n).
.
86
O tetragwnikc nmoc antistrofc
4.1.4. n > 1 a Z (a, n) = 1. a k

n,
as 1 (mod n) k | s.
(4.1.3)
, k | (n).
. s = kx x, ak 1 (mod n)
as = (ak )x 1x = 1 (mod n).
(4.1.4)
, as 1 (mod n). s = kq + r
0 r < k. akq 1 (mod n),
ar akq ar = as 1 (mod n).
(4.1.5)
a k 0 r < k, r = 0. s
k.
, a(n) 1 (mod n) k | (n).
4.1.5. () 4.1.4,
2 13,
s = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 ( (13) = 12).
2 13 k = 12.
() 4.1.4 .
n > 1 k | (n). a Z (a, n) = 1
k; : n = 12 (12) = 4.
12 1, 5, 7, 11 (mod 12).
11 1 (mod 12) 52 72 112 1 (mod 12). 4 | (12),
a Z 4.
4.1.6. n > 1 a Z (a, n) = 1. a k
n, ai aj (mod n) i j (mod k).
. i > j ai aj (mod n). n | aj (aij 1)
(aj , n) = 1 n | (aij 1). aij 1 (mod n),
4.1.4 k | (j i), j i (mod k). ,
i = j + kq ai = (ak )q aj 1k aj = aj (mod n).
4.1.7. n > 1 a Z (a, n) = 1. a k
n, a, a2 , . . . , ak mod n.
as n a n.
4.1.8. n > 1 a Z (a, n) = 1. a k
n, as n k/(k, s).
. d = (k, s) r as .
1.4.1 k1 , s1 N (k1 , s1 ) = 1 k = k1 d s = s1 d.

(as )k1 = (as1 d )k/d = (ak )s1 1 (mod n).
(4.1.6)
4.2.
Prwtarqikc rzec
87
4.1.4,
r | k1 =
k
k
=
.
d
(k, s)
(4.1.7)
,
asr = (as )r 1 (mod n)
(4.1.8)
k | sr k1 d | s1 dr. k1 | s1 r (k1 , s1 ) = 1
k/(k, s) = k/d = k1 | r.
4.1.9. n > 1 a Z (a, n) = 1. a k
n, as k n (k, s) = 1.
4.2
Prwtarqikc rzec
4.2.1. n > 1 a Z (a, n) = 1. a

n a n (n).
4.2.2. 3
7. 6 = (7). , n
.
: ,
9 = 32 2.
. ,
2, 4, pk , 2pk p k 1.
,
.
4.2.3. (a, n) = 1 a n,
a, a2 , . . . , a(n) n.
. 4.1.7 a, a2 , . . . , a(n) n.
(n) (a, n) = 1
n. ,
n.
p . Lagrange.
4.2.4. p d | (p 1).
xd 1 0 (mod p)
d .
(4.2.1)
88
. p 1 = dk k.
xp1 1 = (xd 1)g(x),
(4.2.2)
g(x) = xd(k1) + + xd + 1 dk d = p 1 d.
Fermat, xp1 1 0 (mod p) p 1
. Lagrange, g(x) 0 (mod p) p 1 d
.
(4.2.2) xp1 1 0 (mod p)
g(x) 0 (mod p) xd 1 0 (mod p) (
p ). xd 1 0 (mod p)
p 1 (p 1 d) = d . , Lagrange,
xd 1 0 (mod p) d
.
4.2.5. p d | (p 1).
(d) , p, d.
. d | (p 1) (d) x Sp := {1, . . . , p 1}
d. (p) = p 1, x Sp
p 1. , d p 1 Sp .
,
X
p1=
(d).
(4.2.3)
d|p1
, 3.4.1
p1=
(d).
(4.2.4)
d|p1
(d) (d) d | p 1 (4.2.3) (4.2.4)

(d) = (d) d | p 1, .
:
() (d) = 0 (d) (d).
() (d) > 0. a Sp d.
a, a2 , . . . , ad p s = 1, . . . , d
(as )d = (ad )s 1 (mod p).
(4.2.5)
, a, a2 , . . . , ad xd 1 0 (mod p).
x Sp x p d,
x xd 1 0 (mod p)
as , s = 1, . . . , d. , (d) as , 1 s d
d. , 4.1.8 as d
d/(d, s) = d, (d, s) = 1. 1 s d
(d, s) = 1 (d).
(d) = (d).
4.2.6. p .
4.2.
Prwtarqikc rzec
89
. (p 1) = ((p)) ,
p, p 1.
p.
.
4.2.7. n > 1 , n = 2 n = 4 n = pk
n = 2pk , p k 1.
. n = pk11 pkr r n
mi = pki i i = 1, . . . , r.
(mi )
L = [(m1 ), . . . , (mr )].
(4.2.6)
(n) = (m1 ) (mr ),
(4.2.7)
L | (n).
a n. (a, mi ) =
1 i, a(mi ) 1 (mod mi ) Euler.
aL 1 (mod mi ) i = 1, . . . , r mi

aL 1 (mod n).
(4.2.8)
, a n a n
(n). (4.2.8) (n) | L
(n) = (m1 ) (mr ) = L = [(m1 ), . . . , (mr )].
(4.2.9)
(4.2.9), (mi ) (;).

. , n
pi pj , (mi ) = (pki i ) = pki i 1 (pi 1)
(mj ). n :
(i) n = pk , p k 1.
(ii) n = 2s pk , p s, k 1. s 2
(2s ) = 2s1 (pk ) =
pk1 (p 1). n = 2pk .
(iii) n = 2s , s 1. 2, 4 :
1 2 3 4 (;).
2 ,
s 3 , a Z,
a
(2s )
2
1 (mod 2s )
(4.2.10)
(
2). (2s )/2 = 2s2 . a . s = 3
a2 1 (mod 8)
(4.2.11)
( 7 1).
r2
a2
1 (mod 2r )
(4.2.12)
90
r2
a2
= 1 + t 2r ,
r1
a2
= (1 + t 2r )2 = 1 + t 2r+1 + t2 22r 1 (mod 2r+1 ).
(4.2.13)
.
(i)-(iii) n > 1
n = 2 n = 4 n = pk
n = 2pk , p k 1.
4.2.8. n = 2, n = 4, n = pk ,
n = 2pk , p k 1, (
).
4.3
Tetragwnik uploipa kai to smbolo tou
Legendre
p a, b, c Z (a, p) = 1.
ax2 + bx + c 0 (mod p).

(4.3.1)
(a, p) = 1 p , (4a, p) = 1. (4.3.1)

4a(ax2 + bx + c) 0 (mod p).
(4.3.2)
4a(ax2 + bx + c) = (2ax + b)2 (b2 4ac),
(4.3.3)
y = 2ax + b s = b2 4ac y 2 s (mod p). y,

2ax + b y (mod p) x.

. p a

x2 a (mod p).
(4.3.4)
.
Lagrange, (4.3.4) . , p | a
(4.3.4) x 0 (mod p).
(a, p) = 1 x0 x20 a (mod p),
(p x0 )2 = p2 2px0 + x20 x20 a (mod p).
(4.3.5)
, x0 p x0 mod p: p | 2x0 ,
(x0 , p) = 1 p .
(a, p) = 1 (4.3.4)
.
4.3.1. p a Z (a, p) = 1.
a p x2 a (mod p) () .
, a p.
4.3.
Legendre
91
4.3.2.
13. 1, 2, . . . , 12
13.
12 122
22 112
4 (mod 13)
32 102
9 (mod 13)
1 (mod 13)
3 (mod 13)
12 (mod 13)
4 9
5 8
62 72
10 (mod 13).
13 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12 (mod 13).

6 = 131
13. ,
2
2
2 2
13 (
1 , 2 , . . . , 62 = 131
2
13).
, .
4.3.3. p . (p 1)/2
p p,
2
1 ,2 ,...,
p1
2
2
.
. p
12 , 22 , . . . , (p 1)2 (mod p)
(4.3.6)

(4.3.6). (p 1)/2 p
p. (p i)2 i2 (mod p) 1 i (p + 1)/2
2
12 , 22 , . . . , p1
p (
2
(p 1)/2 p).
( Euler) , ,
a p.
4.3.4. p a Z (a, p) = 1.
a p
a
p1
2
1 (mod p).
(4.3.7)
,
a
p1
2
1 (mod p).
(4.3.8)
. a p. x (x, p) = 1 x2 a (mod p).

xp1 a
p1
2
(mod p).
(4.3.9)
92
xp1 1 (mod p) Fermat,

(4.3.7).
xp1 1 = (x
p1
2
1)(x
p1
2
+ 1) 0 (mod p)
(4.3.10)
p 1 Fermat.
A
= {a : 1 a p 1 a p},
= {a : 1 a p 1 a p},
= {a : 1 a p 1 a
= {a : 1 a p 1 a
p1
2
p1
2
1 0 (mod p)},
+ 1 0 (mod p)}.
A B = {1, . . . , p 1} A, B
(p1)/2 4.3.3. (4.3.10) C D =
{1, . . . , p 1}: 1 a p 1
p | ap1 1 = (a
p1
2
1)(a
p1
2
+ 1),
(4.3.11)
p|a
p1
2
1p|a
p1
2
+1
(4.3.12)
, , ,
p | 2 (;) . , Lagrange C, D (p 1)/2 .
C, D (p 1)/2
(, 4.2.4).
, A C, D B. A = C B = D .
4.3.5.
p a Z (a, p) = 1.
Legendre ap :
(
+1,
a
=
p
1,
p
.
p

p | a ap = 0. , a Z

1 + ap x2 a (mod p).
Legendre .
4.3.6. p a, b Z (a, p) =
(b, p) = 1. :

(i) a b (mod p) ap = pb .
2
(ii) ap = 1.

p1
(iii) ap a 2 (mod p).
4.3.

(iv)
ab
p

(v)
1
p
Legendre
93

a
p
b
p
= 1
1
p
.

= (1)
p1
2
. (i) a b (mod p)) x2 a (mod p) x2 b (mod p)

, a p
b p.
(ii) x2 a2 (mod p) x = a. (a, p) = 1
(a2 , p) = 1. a2 p.

(iii) ap = 1 a p,
p1

a 2 1 (mod p).
Euler
p1
a
, p = 1 a 2 1 (mod p). ,

p1
a
a 2 (mod p).
p
(iv)

p1
p1 p1
ab
a
b
(ab) 2 = a 2 b 2
(mod p).
p
p
p
(4.3.13)
(4.3.14)

p|
ab
p

a
b
ab
a
b
{2, 0, 2}
p
p
p
p
p
(4.3.15)
ab
p

a
b
=
.
p
p
(4.3.16)
(v) (ii) 1 = 12 .

p1
1
(1) 2 (mod p)
(4.3.17)
p

p1
1
p|
(1) 2 {2, 0, 2}
p
(4.3.18)
p .
4.3.6 Legendre.
4.3.7. x2 38 (mod 13)
.

131
38
1
38
38
38
2
=
= (1)
=
.
(4.3.19)
13
13
13
13
13
94
(iv) (v). , (i)

38
12
=
(4.3.20)
13
13
(iv) (ii)
2 2
12
2 3
2
3
3
=
=
=
.
13
13
13
13
13

3
. ,
13

3
36 = (27)2 1 (mod 13),
13
(4.3.21)
(4.3.22)
38
13

=
3
13

= 1,
(4.3.23)
.
( Gauss)
Legendre.
4.3.8. p a (a, p) = 1.

p1
a .
(4.3.24)
S = a, 2 a, . . . ,
2
n S p/2
p,

a
= (1)n .
(4.3.25)
p
. a, 2 a, . . . , p1
2 a p
p. p
:
() r1 , . . . , rm 0 < ri < p/2.
() s1 , . . . , sn p/2 < sj < p
( p/2 , ). ri sj
p,
m+n=
p1
,
2
(4.3.26)
S. ri , p sj ,
{1, . . . , (p 1)/2}.
ri 6= p sj
(4.3.27)
i = 1, . . . , m j = 1, . . . , n. , u, v {1, . . . , (p 1)/2}
ri ua (mod p) sj va (mod p). ri = p sj ,
p = ri + sj | (u + v)a
(4.3.28)
4.3.
Legendre
95
(a, p) = 1 p | (u + v), 2
u + v p 1. {r1 , . . . , rm , p s1 , . . . , p sn }
{1, . . . , (p 1)/2}. (;)

p1
! = r1 rm (p s1 ) (p sn ) (1)n r1 rm s1 sn (mod p).
2
(4.3.29)
, ri , sj
S.
(p1)/2
r1 rm s1 sn
(ua) = a
p1
2
u=1

p1
! (mod p).
2
(4.3.29) (4.3.30)

p1
p1
n p1
2
! (1) a
! (mod p)
2
2

!, p = 1
p1
2
(1)n a

p1
2
1 (mod p).

p1
a
a 2 (1)n (mod p)
p
(4.3.30)
(4.3.31)
(4.3.32)
(4.3.33)
4.3.6(iii).
Gauss ,
p2 .
4.3.9. p

p2 1
2
= (1) 8 .
p

, p2 = 1 p = 8k 1 p2 = 1 p = 8k 3.
. Gauss

2
= (1)n ,
p
(4.3.34)
(4.3.35)
n x S = {2, 4, 6, . . . , p 1}
p/2 p. S 0
x < p, p/2.
1 k (p 1)/2 2k > p/2 k > p/4. ,
p 1 hpi
n=
.
(4.3.36)
2
4
( p ):
96
() p = 8k + 1,
n=

8k + 1
8k
= 4k 2k = 2k.
2
4
() p = 8k + 3,

8k + 2
8k + 3
n=
= (4k + 1) 2k = 2k + 1.
2
4
() p = 8k + 5,
n=

8k + 5
8k + 4
= (4k + 2) (2k + 1) = 2k + 1.
2
4
() p = 8k + 7,
n=

8k + 6
8k + 7
= (4k + 3) (2k + 1) = 2k + 2.
2
4
(1)n = 1 p = 8k 1 (1)n = 1 p = 8k 3. ,
2
p 81 p = 8k 1 p = 8k 3,
(4.3.34).
.
; 2 = 12 +12 ,
5 = 12 + 22 , 13 = 22 + 32 17 = 12 + 42 3, 7, 11
19 .
4.3.10. p p = a2 + b2 a, b
p 1 (mod 4).
. a, b .
a b . a2 0 (mod 4) b2 1 (mod 4)
p = a2 + b2 1 (mod 4).
p 4.3.10.
4.3.11. p p = a2 + b2
a, b p 1 (mod 4).
. p 1 (mod 4). (p 1)/2

p1
1
= (1) 2 = 1,
p
1 p. t Z t2 1 (mod p).
xt y x, y {0, 1, . . . , [ p]}. (x, y)

2
2
([ p] + 1]) > ( p) = p p
p. (x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
x1 t y1 x2 t y2 (mod p).
4.4.
97
x1 x2 0 x1 x2 [ p] < p |y1 y2 | < p.

x = x1 x2 y = y1 y2 . xi , yi
xt y (mod p) 0 < x2 + y 2 < 2p. t
x2 + y 2 x2 t2 + y 2 0 (mod p). p p
0 2p x2 + y 2 = p.
4.3.10.
4.4

p q . Legendre pq pq .
.

p1 q1
p
q
(4.4.1)
= (1) 2 2 .
q
p
, , a
p a (a, p) = 1.

Gauss.
4.4.1. p a
(a, p) = 1,

a
= (1)N ,
(4.4.2)
p
(p1)/2
N=
k=1

ka
.
p
(4.4.3)
. 4.3.8,

p1
a .
(4.4.4)
S = a, 2 a, . . . ,
2
k = 1, . . . , (p 1)/2
ka = qk p + tk ,
qk Z 1 tk p 1. ,

ka
= qk
p
(4.4.5)
(4.4.6)
k,
ka = [ka/p] p + tk .
(4.4.7)
4.3.8, tk < p/2 tk

r1 , . . . , rm , tk > p/2, tk s1 , . . . , sn .
98

(p1)/2
(p1)/2
ka =
k=1
[ka/p] p +
n
X
ri +
i=1
k=1
n
X
sj .
(4.4.8)
j=1
, 4.3.8 r1 , . . . , rm , ps1 , . . . , psn

1, 2, . . . , (p 1)/2.
(p1)/2
k=
m
X
i=1
k=1
ri +
n
X
(p sj ) = pn +
j=1
m
X
i=1
ri
n
X
sj .
(p1)/2
(p1)/2
n
X
X
X
(a 1)
k = p
[ka/p] n + 2
sj .
k=1
(4.4.9)
j=1
(4.4.10)
j=1
k=1
p a :
2 (4.4.10)
(p1)/2
(p1)/2
X
X
k 1
[ka/p] n (mod 2),
(4.4.11)
0
k=1
k=1
(p1)/2
nN =
k=1
ka
p

(mod 2).
(4.4.12)

a
= (1)n = (1)N ,
p
(4.4.13)
4.3.8.
4.4.2 ( , Gauss). p q
,

p1 q1
p
q
= (1) 2 2 .
(4.4.14)
q
p
. xy- (0, 0), (p/2, 0),
(0, q/2) (p/2, q/2). R ( ).
(n, m)
R. p q , (n, m) R
1 n (p 1)/2 1 m (q 1)/2.

p1 q1
L=
.
(4.4.15)
2
2
R (0, 0) (p/2, q/2).
y = (q/p)x, py = qx. (n, m)
4.4.
99
, pm = qn. (p, q) = 1 q | m
p | n, 1 n (p 1)/2 1 m (q 1)/2.
(n, m) T1 ( ) T2
( ) R.
, (n, m) R .
(k, 0), 1 k (p 1)/2,
(k, 0) T1 (k, y) 0 < y < kq/p.
, [kq/p]. k
T1
(p1)/2
[kq/p].
(4.4.16)
k=1
T2
(q1)/2
[lp/q].
(4.4.17)
l=1
, L R
(p1)/2
(q1)/2
X
X
p1 q1
=
[kq/p] +
[lp/q].
L=
2
2
k=1
(4.4.18)
l=1
4.4.1

P(q1)/2
P(p1)/2
p
q
= (1) l=1 [lp/q] (1) k=1 [kq/p]
q
p
=
(1)
(1)
P(q1)/2
l=1
p1 q1
2 2
P(p1)/2
[lp/q]+ k=1
[kq/p]
.
4.4.3. Legendre

196
12
=
23
23
196 = 23 8 + 12,

196
23
:
(4.4.19)

22
3
3
=
.
(4.4.20)
23
23
23

3
23
. ,

3
23
= (1)11 = 1.
(4.4.21)
23
3
12
23
,

23
3

2
=
2 1 (mod 3)
3
(4.4.22)
100
23
3

= 1.
(4.4.23)
,

4.5
196
23

= (1)
23
3

= 1.
(4.4.24)
Askseic
1. () 3n (mod 8) n N.
() (m, n) 2m 3n = 1.
2. :
() a 2k p, ak 1 (mod p).
() a n 1 n, n .
3. n 1. n2 + 1
4k + 1.
4. 17.
5. r n. rk n
(k, (n)) = 1.
6. r p. :
() p 1 (mod 4) r p.
() p 3 (mod 4) r (p 1)/2 p.
7.
x2 + 7x + 10 0 (mod 11)
5x2 + 6x + 1 0 (mod 23).

8. p = 2k + 1 ,
p p.
9. Legendre

19
23
20
18
72
,
,
,
,
.
23
59
31
43
131
10. p a (a, p) = 1.

x2 + py + a = 0

a
= 1.
p
11. () p a, b Z p.
a, b ab p.
4.5.
Askseic
101
() p n N
p | (n2 2)(n2 3)(n2 6).
12. p p 1 (mod 4),
(p1)/2
a=1

a
p
pa
p
a
p

= 0.

.
13. p .
X
p1
2

a
p
= 1,
0 (mod p).
k|a
14. p q p = q + 4x
x,

x
x
=
.
p
q
15. x2 11 (mod 35).
16. p
3
p
= 1.
17. 5.
18. p . p 1 (mod 4),
p1
X
k
k
=0
p
k=1
p1
X
k=1
(k/p)=1
k=
p(p 1)
.
4
19. p . p 3 (mod 4)
p1
X
k=1

:
pk
p

p1
X
k
k
=p
k
.
k
p
p
2
k=1

k
p
20. 2 5n 4 5n1 n N.
102
-
1, 3. Prgmati gia n N qoume 32n = 9n 1n =
1 (mod 8) kai 3
= 3 3 3 1 = 3 (mod 8).
n
(b) An m 3 tte 3
= 2m 1 1 7 (mod 8), to opoo enai adnato ap to (a).
Sunepc m 2 opte oi mnec lseic enai oi (m, n) = (1, 0) kai (2, 1).
1.
(a) Ta dunat uploipa enai ta
2n+1
2.
2n
(a) Ap thn upjesh qoume
p | a2k 1 = (ak 1)(ak + 1).

ak 1 (o a ja eqe
qoume upojsei ti h txh tou wc proc p enai sh me 2k ).
k
ti a 1 (mod p).
'Omwc o
den mpore na diaire ton
k en
p | ak + 1, to opoo shmanei
txh mikrterh sh tou

'Ara
n enai snjetoc, tte (n) < n 1 (giat?). Ap to jerhma tou Euler, an

(a, n) = 1 tte a(n) 1 (mod n), ra o a qei txh kpoion diairth tou (n), dhlad
kpoion fusik gnsia mikrtero tou n 1.
(b) An o
3.
'Estw
nac perittc prtoc diairthc tou
n2 + 1.
Tte
n2 1 (mod p),
ra
n4 = (n2 )2 (1)2 = 1 (mod p).

'Epetai ti h txh tou
uprqei
4.
kZ
p isotai
p 1 = 4k.
wc proc
ttoioc ste
me
(giat?).
'Ara
4 | (p) = p 1,
opte
3 enai prwtarqik rza tou 17. An r enai h txh tou 3 wc proc 17 tte (Jerhma
r | (17) = 16. 'Omwc 31 3 (mod 17), 32 9 (mod 17), 34 13 (mod 17)
38 132 (4)2 = 16 (mod 17), opte upoqrewtik r = 16.
O
4.1.1)
5.
rk
wc proc n enai sh me d/(k, d) pou d h txh tou r wc proc

n. Afo o r enai prwtarqik rza tou n qoume d = (n). Dhlad h txh tou rk wc proc
n enai sh me (n)/(k, (n)). O rk ja enai ki autc prwtarqik rza tou n an kai mno an
(n)/(k, (n)) = (n), dhlad an kai mno an (k, (n)) = 1.
Xroume ti h txh tou
6. (a) 'Estw k h txh tou r wc proc p. Tte k | (p) = p 1 kai den mporome na qoume
k = (p 1)/2 giat o (p 1)/2 enai rtioc opte ja eqame
r(p1)/2 = (r)(p1)/2 1 (mod p),

r enai
2k < p 1 kai
to opoo den isqei afo o
k < (p 1)/2
opte
p.
prwtarqik rza tou
An loipn
k 6= p 1,
tte
r2k = [(r)k ]2 12 = 1 (mod p),

to opoo enai pli topo. 'Epetai ti
(b) 'Opwc prin blpoume ti h txh
(p 1)/2.
Epshc o
(p 1)/2
k = p 1,
tou
dhlad o
wc proc
enai prwtarqik rza tou
p.
den mpore na enai mikrterh ap
enai perittc, ra
(r)(p1)/2 = r(p1)/2 .
Arke loipn na dexoume ti
r(p1)/2 1 (mod p).
Aut prokptei ap thn
p | rp1 1 = (r(p1)/2 1)(r(p1)/2 + 1).

O
p den diaire ton r(p1)/2 1 (giat h txh tou r
wc proc
p enai p1), ra p | r(p1)/2 +1.
4.5.
7.
(a) H
x2 + 7x + 10 0 (mod 11)
Askseic
103
enai isodnamh me thn
4x + 28x + 40 = (2x + 7)2 9 0 (mod 11)

y = 2x + 7 kai lnoume thn y 2 9 (mod 11) h opoa qei
y 3 (mod 11) kai y 3 (mod 11). Arke loipn na lsoume tic
(4, 11) = 1.
giat
Jtoume
profanec lseic
2x + 7 3 (mod 11)
kai
2x + 7 3 (mod 11)
2x 4 7 (mod 11)
kai
2x 10 1 (mod 11).
tic
, isodnama, tic
Oi lseic touc enai oi
x 9 (mod 11)
kai
x 6 (mod 11).
(b) 'Omoia.
8.
'Estw ti o akraioc
wc proc
den enai tetragwnik uploipo tou
kai stw
r | (p) = p 1 = 2k
1 (mod p)
r>2
p.
a
Euler
h txh tou
Ap to Jerhma 4.1.1 qoume

en to kritrio tou
2k1
(Jerhma 4.3.2) dnei
. Ap thn teleutaa sqsh kai thn isotima
2r
k1
k
prokptei
(giat?) kai sunepc upoqrewtik
.
1 (mod p)
9.
Qrhsimopoiome tic basikc idithtec tou sumblou tou
r =2 =p1
Legendre
kai ton tetragwnik
nmo antistrofc.
2

23
4
= (1)911 19
= 19
= 219 = 1.

29 23
59
23
= (1)
= (1)1129 23
= 13
= (1)611 23
=
(b)
59
59
23
13

5
13
= 13
= 53 = 53 = 23 = 1.
5
22 5

20
5
(g)
= 31
= 31
= (1)215 31
= 31
= 15 = 1.
31
31
5
5
19
23
(a)
Ta uploipa smbola tou
10.
Legendre
An uprqoun akraioi
x, y
Antstrofa, an
p | x +a.
11.
a
p
= 1,
a, b
(a) Afo oi
ttoioi ste
tte uprqei
'Ara uprqei akraioc
x2 + py + a = 0,
ra kpoio ap ta tra smbola tou

ap touc
a, b
ab
kai
p 6= 2, 3,
enai teragwnik uploipo
x +a = py .
ab
p
'Epetai ti
Legendre
1,
12.
p=3
(p 1)/2
p | n2 3
to zhtomeno isqei me
n=2
enai rtioc, ra gia kje
dhlad
x +p(y)+a = 0.
den mporon na enai loi soi me
parnei thn tim
1,
1.
dhlad toulqiston nac
p.
Kpoioc ap touc
ttoioc ste
p | n2 6.
p | (n2 2)(n2 3)(n2 6).

p=2
5
13
Gnwrzoume ti
Se kje perptwsh,
An
x2 a (mod p),
p isqei kai h (ab, p) = 1.

a
b
=
.
p
p
a = 2 kai b = 3 sto (a).

tou p. 'Ara uprqei n N
p | n2 2
2
13
x2 +
a
0 (mod p)
a
Epomnwc,
= 1.
p
ttoioc ste
enai tetragwnik uploipo tou
parnoume
tte
enai prtoi proc ton
Afo oi trec auto arijmo parnoun tic timc
(b) An
qei lseic.
xZ
ttoioc ste
upologzontai me ton dio trpo.
x2 a (mod p)
dhlad h tetragwnik isotima
10
13
n=3
antstoiqa.
a = 1, . . . , (p 1)/2
qoume
(p a)(p1)/2 (a)(p1)/2 = a(p1)/2 (mod p).
2, 3
kai
23 = 6
104
Ap to kritrio tou
Euler
petai ti

a
pa
=
.
p
p
Epomnwc,
(p1)/2
X
a=1
'Omwc to smbolo
ap
wc
p1

a
p
a
p
(p1)/2
a=1
parnei tic timc
(oi misc timc tou
(p1)/2
a
p
a=1
kai
ap
pa
p

=
p1
X
a
a=1
(p 1)/2
forc kajc to
enai tetragwnik uploipa tou
kinetai
kai oi llec misc
qi). 'Ara to teleutao jroisma enai so me mhdn. 'Epetai to zhtomeno.
13.
'Otan o
a, o k/a diatrqei touc diairtec

a/k
a/k
k
a
k
=
= 1, ra
=
.
p
p
p
p
p
diatrqei touc diairtec tou
tou
kai
'Ara
Xk
k|a
Epshc, ap to kritrio tou
Xk
k|a
X a/k
k|a
= 0.
Euler,
X
p1
2
k|a
Xk
k|a
(mod p).
'Ara
p1
2
0 (mod p).
k|a
14.
'Eqoume
2

q1
x
x
2
4x
pq
q
q
=
=
=
=
= (1) 2
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
kai omowc
Ap

x
4x
pq
p
=
=
=
.
q
q
q
q
ta parapnw kai to nmo antistrofc tou Gauss prokptei ti

q1
q1
p1 q1
p+1 q1
x
x
q
p
= (1) 2
= (1) 2 + 2 2 = (1) 2 2 = 1
p
q
p
q
diti
p q (mod 4)
ap thn upjesh kai sunepc nac ap touc
p+1 q1
,
enai rtioc.
2
2
x2 1 (mod 5) kai
x 4 (mod 7). Oi isotimec autc qoun lseic x 1 (mod 5) kai x 2 (mod 7)
antstoiqa kai odhgon stic lseic x 16, 26 (mod 35) thc arqikc isotimac.
15.
H dosmnh isotima enai isodnamh me to ssthma twn isotimin
16.
Prpei
(p, 3) = 1 kai

p p
p1
p1
31 p1
3
3
1=
= (1) 2
= (1) 2 (1) 2 2
=
p
p
3
3
opte prpei kai arke
p 1 (mod 3).
4.5.
17.
Prpei
(p, 5) = 1
18.
105
kai
1=
opte
Askseic

p p
51 p1
5
= (1) 2 2
=
p
5
5
p 1 (mod 5).
'Opwc sthn 'Askhsh 12 qoume
p1
X
k
k
p

k
p
pk
p
gia kje akraio
k.
Sunepc

p1
p1
X
X
k
pk
k
+
(p k)
p
p
k=1
k=1

p1
p1
X
X
k
k
k
+
(p k)
p
p
k=1
k=1
p1
X
k
p
=0
p
k=1
k=1
ap pou prokptei h prth ap tic proteinmenec isthtec. Jtontac
p1
X
Ap =
k,
k=1
(k/p)=1
h isthta aut grfetai
Bp =
19.
Ap Bp = 0.
p1
X
Bp =
Profanc mwc
p(p1)
opte
2
Ap =
'Eqoume
gia kje akraio
k
2
pk
p

=
k
p

= (1)
p1
2

k
k
=
p
p
kai sunepc
p1
X
k=1

k
k
p
2
p1
X

X

p1
k
pk
2
+
k
(p k)
p
p
k=1
k=1

p1
p1
X
X
k
k
k2
(p k)2
p
p
k=1
k=1

p1
p1
X
X
k
k
2
(2kp p )
= 2p
k
p
p
k=1
20.
Ap + B p =
p(p1)
.
4
diti
k=1
(k/p)=1
Pp1
k=1
p2

k
p
k=1
= 0.
o 2 qei prgmati txh 4 wc proc 5.

n + 1. 'Estw k h txh tou 2 wc proc
5n+1 opte k | (5n+1 ) = 4 5n kai k < 4 5n . 'Eqoume 2k 1 (mod 5n+1 ) kai sunepc
2k 1 (mod 5n ), ra h txh tou 2 wc proc 5n , pou enai sh me 4 5n1 ap thn upjesh
n1
thc epagwgc, diaire to k . Ap tic sqseic 4 5
| k, k | 4 5n kai k < 4 5n prokptei
n1
45n2
ti k = 4 5
. Ap to Jerhma Fermat-Euler o 2
1 diairetai me to 5n1 all
n
qi me to 5
(allic h prtash den ja sque gia ton n), sunepc mporome na gryoume
n2
245
= 1 + 5n1 q me q N sqetikc prto proc to 5. Ap thn tautthta
Ja qrhsimopoisoume epagwg sto
'Estw ti h prtash isqei gia ton
n.
Gia
n=1
all qi gia ton
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
106
prokptei
245
n1
(245
5n+1 (54n6 q 5 + 53n4 q 4 + 2 52n3 q 3 + 2 5n2 q 2 ) + 5n q
n1
qei txh
)5 1 = (1 + 5n1 q)5 1
245
1 den diairetai me to 5n+1 , prgma to opoo antifskei sto ti o
n1
n+1
k = 45
wc proc 5
. H antfash aut oloklhrnei to epagwgik bma.
kai sunepc o
n2

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Shmeiseic

Diairetthta kai prtoi

To snolo twn akerawn

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

Diairetthta kai Eukledia Diaresh

ak = ak1 + ak2 < xk1 + xk2 ,

ak < xk xk1 + xk2 < xk ,

x > max{1, 3, (1 + 5)/2} = 3.

Diairetthta kai Eukledia Diaresh

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

(vii) a, b Z \ {0} a | b |a| |b|.

b a(q + 1) S. b a(q + 1) = r a < r,

Diairetthta kai Eukledia Diaresh

1.2.3. 1.2.2, b b = 2q + r, q Z r {0, 1}. b

x31 = 4z13 2y13 , x1 .

d1 > d2 > > dn > dn+1 > .

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

n m q > 0 0 < q < qm qm + r = n.

Mgistoc koinc diairthc

Mgistoc koinc diairthc

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

d1 = (a, b) d2 = (a, r1 ). d1 | a d1 | b, d1 | b aq1 = r1 .

(rn1 , rn ) = (rn qn+1 , rn ) = rn ,

Basik lmmata diairetthtac

1.3.4. (391, 2533).

1.3.3 ( a = 391 b = 2533) (391, 2533) = 17.

391 (2533 391 6) 2

391 13 + 2533 (2),

Basik lmmata diairetthtac

r1 | r1 mx r1 | r2 m r1 | r2 my. r1 | (r1 mx + r2 my) = m.

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

Anlush se ginmeno prtwn paragntwn

H apeira twn prtwn arijmn

H apeira twn prtwn arijmn

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

H apeira twn prtwn arijmn

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

H apeira twn prtwn arijmn

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

A ' 1.08366. Gauss

Chebyshev (1848) (1.6.29) , 1. (1850)

Mia grammik diofantik exswsh

Mia grammik diofantik exswsh

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

y1 = x1 + (a2 /d)t y2 = x2 (a1 /d)t .

r1 = a1 /d r2 = a2 /d. 1.4.1 (r1 , r2 ) = 1. r2 |

Pujagreiec tridec kai to {teleutao jerhma} tou

t Z. t > 100 t < 4250/43 ' 98.83 . . ..

Pujagreiec tridec kai to {teleutao jerhma} tou

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

(1.8.1) 4u2 = 4vw,

(v, w) = 1 (v, w) | v + w = z, (v, w) | v w = y (z, y) = 1.

Pujagreiec tridec kai to {teleutao jerhma} tou

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

1.8.3 m, s N m > s, x = 2ms,

m > s > 0, (m, s) = 1 m, s .

a > b > 0, (a, b) = 1 a, b .

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

32. (a, b) = (a + b, [a, b]) a, b N. p | [a, b]

Diairetthta kai prtoi arijmo

() 33x + 14y = 115

() 14x + 35y = 93.

51. 24x + 138y = 18.

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