Rig Pump

(1) RIG PUMPS
7/13/2007 M A-Mohsen
RIG PUMPS
High-pressure mud pumps are positive displacement pumps. They convert mechanical power into hydraulic
power. Their mechanical components (power ends) are usually maintained by mechanics. The hydraulic part
(fluid end) of the pump, however, is maintained by the drilling crew. Since they are a critical part of the rig
equipment it is essential that the drilling engineer should have a thorough knowledge of their mechanical and
hydraulic aspects.
The pump nomenclature, as given in Figure 3.3.01 showing a cross-section of a duplex pump, should be studied
carefully to obtain a knowledge of the basic terminology.
This Topic will deal with:
Working principles
General construction
Pulsation dampeners
Relief valves
Capacity, efficiency and
required power

Figure 3.3.01 High-pressure mud pump
3.2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLES
SINGLE ACTING PUMP
The power end of the pump serves to convert
the rotary motion of the prime mover into a
reciprocating motion. This reciprocating
motion is, in turn, converted to fluid flow by a
piston or plunger type fluid end.
The part where rotary motion changes into
reciprocating motion is normally called a
"crosshead". The connecting rod provides the
linkage between crank and crosshead. The
piston or plunger is connected to the
crosshead by the extension rod and the piston
rod. Figure 3.3.02 Single-acting pump
In a single-acting mud pump the piston produces the fluid volume during half the crank cycle only.
The main parts of the pump's fluid end are: the housing itself, the liners with packing rings, covers plus packing,
piston(s) with piston rods, and the suction and discharge valves with seats.
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The discharge is normally provided with a pressure relief valve.
The plunger delivers during half the crank cycle only, which is why it is called a single-acting pump. If losses
are ignored the delivery of a single piston during one cycle of such a pump can be calculated as follows:
.
DOUBLE ACTING PUMP
Figure 3.3.03a is a diagram of a double-acting piston pump. In this pump there are only two pistons and the
suction stroke on one side occurs at the same time as the discharge stroke on the other side. A double-acting
pump delivers liquid both during the inward stroke and the outward stroke of the piston. Comparing a single
acting pump with a double-acting pump having the same piston diameter and stroke, it is evident that the
double-acting pump delivers almost twice as much liquid. The output is obviously somewhat less due to the
piston rod.

Figure 3.3.03a : A double-acting pump
The main components of the fluid end of a duplex pump are the same as those for the single-acting pump with
the exception of the gland and stuffing box packing on the piston rod side, plus the additional set of valves per
piston.
APPLICATION IN DRILLING
Both types of high-pressure mud pumps are being used on rigs for circulating the drilling uid around.
Each type, however, has its own operating limits, which are:
Duplex pumps: the cranks are at 90 and the pump can be run at a maximum of 70 spm.
Triplex pumps: the cranks are at 120 and can be run at a maximum of 150 - 170 spm.
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In practice triplex pumps have the following advantages:
The triplex pump provides a more even delivery so that discharge variations are about half those of a
duplex pump. This provides longer life of pump parts, hoses etc.
The total weight of a triplex pump is approximately 70 % of that of a duplex pump with the same
capacity and it also requires less space.
Triplex pumps are more accessible than duplex pumps and consequently maintenance is faster and
cheaper.
Downtime incurred due to pump repair is expensive and should be prevented. Frequent pump overhauls are
demanding in terms of labour. Therefore the purchase of a generously sized pump is often preferred as this
reduces the wear on parts, and the amount of maintenance required.
Common operational requirements may vary between 5.4 - 6.7 m
3
/min at 7,000 kPa (1,200 - 1,500 gpm at 1,000
psi) and 1.35 - 2.25 m
3
/min at 31,500 kPa (300 - 500 gpm at 4,500 psi). However, from experience it has been
found that mud pump part wear sharply increases when operating the pump at pressures exceeding 21,000 kPa
(3,000 psi).
Liner changes can be necessary when the flow rate ranges required during the course of the well cannot be
covered by one and the same liner size, even when several pumps are run simultaneously.
3.2.2 CONSTRUCTION
The power and fluid ends are shown below in more detail.
POWER END
Figure 3.3.05 gives a cut-away view of a
complete power end. The rotating
motion of a one piece pinion and shaft is
converted into a reciprocating motion by
an eccentric shaft. All the shafts are
supported by roller bearings.
The crosshead, which slides inside a
crosshead guide to sustain the true linear
movement of the extension rod is clearly
visible as well as the stuffng box
assembly which is also shown in detail
in Figure 3.3.06.
The connection between the extension
rod and piston rod is a fine tapered tread
with jam nut (in a double-acting pump)
or butted with a clamp (in a single acting pump) as shown in the figure below.
Figure 3.3.05 : Power end of a mud pump
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Figure 3.3.06 Stuffing box assembly (oil-seal type) Figure 3.3.09 : Cross-section oil-flood stuffing box

Figure 3.3.07 : Extension-piston rod connection
FLUID END
Special attention should be paid to the oil flood
stuffing box (Figure 3.3.09) which has to
withstand the full pump pressure. The stuffing
box is cooled and lubricated by an independent
lubricating system.
A closed cooling system is used to protect the Figure 3.3.11 : Piston cooling system
pistons of the single-acting pump from overheating (see Figure 3.3.11). The cooling liquid is usually a mixture
of oil and potable water and is circulated by a small pump. If the pistons were not cooled the sleeves would
become hot and overheat within a few minutes. The cylinder surface must also be lubricated.
The splash baffle on the extension rod prevents the cooling water being carried to the pump crank-case by the
extension rod.
PISTON AND LINER
Liners of high-pressure mud pumps are always locked in place by a metal-to-metal contact.
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A special liner lock nut is used in triplex pumps (see number 13 in Figure 3.3.10); duplex pumps are provided
with a dual cage metal-to-metal liner retention system (Figure 3.3.12).
The latter arrangement holds the liner metal-to-metal against a
shoulder in the housing by means of set screws (the large bolts in
Figure 3.3.18), which are tightened against a liner cage. The liner
packing is adjusted separately with set screws on a liner packing cage
(the small bolts in Figure 3.3.12). Some types of pumps have special
tell-tale holes (a small hole connecting the liner packing spacer ring
area to atmosphere) to check the proper functioning of the packing. If
fluid drips out of these holes the liner packing has to be tightened.
These holes should never be plugged off to stop the "leaking"! Figure 3.3.12 : Retention system in duplex pumps
Liner wear is worst in the middle of the stroke as a result of the piston
velocity being highest at that point.
The maximum allowable liner wear depends on the pressure the pump has to
overcome (see Table 3.3.1). Figure 3.3.13 : Liner wear
Figure 3.3.14 : Pistons of mud pumps
Figure 3.3.14 shows the pistons of a double-
acting and a single-acting pump. Note that
the piston bodies have been provided with a
special tell-tale wear groove to provide a
means for judging the piston wear.
The piston rubbers are made of
polyurethane. The clearance between
piston and liner determines the life of the
rubbers (see Figure 3.3.15). If the play is
too great it is possible that the rubber will
be extruded into the gap and become torn.

VALVES AND SEATS
The volumetric efficiency is strongly inuenced by the condition of the valves. This means that regular
inspection is a necessity if the efficiency is to be kept optimal.
After inspection the valves should always be returned to the seat from which they came. Valves and seats tend
to wear together with matching wear patterns. They will give longer service if they are kept together.
After renewing a seat the valve should always be replaced. The valve is equipped with fins (Figure 3.3.08) or a
guide pin (Figure 3.3.10) to ensure good alignment in the seat. A valve spring helps to close the valve.
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Most of the valve seats are tapered on the outside to fit tightly into the pump body. It is essential that the matin
faces are thoroughly cleaned, as improper seating could lead to a washout in the body which could spoil the
entire fluid end.
As the fit of the valve seats must be
very tight this means that the valves
have to be driven into position with a
copper bar and removed with a
special (hydraulic) pulling tool.

Figure 3.3.15 :Graph showing piston seal
endurance

3.2.3 CAPACITY, EFFICIENCY AND REQUIRED POWER
CAPACITY
As shown under 3.2.1 (Working principles) the theoretical output per stroke is given by:
for a single acting triplex pump :
for a double acting duplex pump: All in consistent units
Multiplying the theoretical output per stroke by the recorded strokes per minute and adjusting for the volumetric
efficiency ( ) will give the effective output, Q
e
.
Thus, for a single acting triplex pump :
Q
e

in litres/min
in bbls/min
where, in the two equations where units are given, L, D and d are expressed in inches, which is the unit
normally used for this purpose.
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Similarly, for a double acting duplex pump :
Q
e

in litres/min
in bbls/min
where in the above equations
Mud pumps are normally equipped with pump stroke counters. There are two types of stroke counters, one to
indicate the pump rate (spm) and one to record the cumulative number of strokes. The latter type of counter is
used to monitor jobs such as chasing cement and spotting slugs, and during well control. In general such
counters are needed to follow the volumes pumped when volumetric control is essential. However, it is also
necessary to know the pump efficiency to be able to determine the actual volume delivered. Given that this
efficiency is pressure related it should always be checked when pumping with a reasonable pressure.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY ( )
As stated in the previous paragraphs, the volumetric efficiency is the
relationship between the theoretical and effective output of a pump.
Loss of volumetric efficiency is mainly caused by the delay in valve shutdown. When the plunger motion
reverses the valves are not yet completely closed, due to the mass-inertia of the valves, and some of the liquid
has the opportunity to flow back.
The following losses are recognized:
Leakage losses of the discharge valve:
As long as the discharge valve does not close completely during the suction stroke a small amount of
liquid will flow back from the discharge line into the cylinder.
Leakage losses of the suction valve:
As long as the suction valve does not close completely during the discharge stroke a small amount of
liquid will flow back from the cylinder into the suction line.
Other causes of loss in efficiency are:
Losses due to a leaking stuffing box:
During the suction stroke air is sucked in through the stuffing box. This air obviously reduces the overall
suction volume of the pump. During the discharge stroke liquid will leak through the stuffing box so that
the quantity discharged is also reduced.
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Leakage losses between piston and liner:
The seal between the piston and liner may not be perfect, consequently during the discharge stroke some
liquid may leak past the piston. It is also possible that during the suction stroke of a single-acting pump
some air is drawn in past the piston.
Leakage losses in suction lines:
Leaks in the suction line may result in air being pulled into the drilling fluid flow during the suction
stroke.
Air or gas absorbed in liquids:
The liquid itself may contain gas or air either dissolved or transported as small bubbles. One of the most
common causes of suction aeration is the mixing of drilling f luid or the adding of chemicals through the
hopper.
The highest practical efficiency should be maintained by regularly checking and servicing the pump.
Determination of the pump efficiency
The volumetric efficiency of a pump can be determined by pumping a known volume of uid from one tank to
another and comparing it with the theoretical volume calculated from the number of strokes made. This should
be done whilst pumping over the well at a reasonable rate to ensure the pump is delivering against pressure (a
good time to do this is when circulating prior to running casing and cementing). The volumetric efficiency of a
duplex pump will usually be 90 % or more. A triplex pump will usually have a volumetric efficiency greater
than 95%.
POWER REQUIREMENTS
The hydraulic power ( ) can be calculated using the equation
In SI units( ) is in kW, is in kPa and is in m
3
/min,
thus kW
In field units( ) is in HHP, i is in psi and is in bbls/min,
thus HHP
In practice the input power supplied must be greater than the hydraulic horsepower because of
the work required by the mechanism of the pump itself.
the work absorbed by the hydraulic inefficiencies
The ratio of the hydraulic power to the input power is the mechanical efficiency, . Thus .
is usually of the order of 0.85
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OPERATING LIMITS
Operating limits are set in the first place by the fluid end dimensions but ultimately by the power end. The
maximum discharge pressure is determined by the size of liner installed, and the available torque from the
power end. The output volume for a given liner depends on the attainable pump speed, i.e. the available power
from the power end.
3.2.4 RELIEF VALVES
Mud pumps must be equipped with pressure relief valves. These valves prevent too
high a pressure being built up in the circulating system. The relief valves most
commonly used in Shell operations are the Cameron type "B" reset relief valve
and the Cameron shear relief valve. A discharge line should be connected between
this valve and the drilling fluid tank. For safety reasons this relief valve discharge
line must be tied down securely with its end facing down into the tank.
CAMERON SHEAR RELIEF VALVE Figure 3.3.16 : Cameron shear relief valve
The Cameron shear relief valve pops open when pressure setting is exceeded. The tripping pressure of the valve
is determined by the strength of the shear pin. In this design the valve snaps fully open and there is no erosion
of the piston or bore. A chart is printed on the manufacturer's name plate from which it is possible to see which
size of shear pin is needed for the required pressure limitation.
CAMERON TYPE "B" RESET RELIEF VALVE Figure 3.3.17 : Cameron type "B" reset relief valve
The Cameron type "B" reset relief valve provides the following features:
It opens fully when pressure is exceeded.
The pressure setting is indicated by a pointer.
The pressure setting can be changed with pressure on the valve, by
turning an adjusting nut.
The valve design prevents leakage or erosion.
All parts are enclosed.
The valve is set by a reset lever.
The valve can be opened at any time by pressing a release button.
Figure 3.3.18 : Operating diagram of the Cameron type "B" reset relief valve
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3.2.5 PULSATION DAMPENERS
The speed of the piston is not constant during the suction and
discharge strokes. During each stroke the speed increases
from zero to maximum at approximately the halfway position
and then decreases to zero during the rest of the stroke (see
Figure 3.3.19).
Figure 3.3.19 : Piston velocity during a stroke
The change in piston speed, and therefore also the fluid
velocity, causes the oscillating action shown in Figure 3.3.20.
The effect is less severe for a single-acting pump than for a
double-acting pump.
Figure 3.3.20 : Mud pump delivery curves
The suction dampener
During the suction stroke when the pump requires more
liquid it draws this from the dampener. Once the suction
stroke has been completed the air chamber absorbs the flow
from the tank and in this way dampens the shock in the suction line.
The discharge dampener
The discharge chamber or pulsation dampener, contrary to the suction
dampener, is partly pressurised with nitrogen gas. During the discharge
stroke the gas in the pulsation dampener is compressed. At the end of
the discharge stroke the compressed gas expands sustaining a reasonable
steady flow in the discharge line and dampening the peaks in discharge
pressure.
Figure 3.3.22 shows a commonly used pulsation dampener. It consists of
a steel spherical body in which a diaphragm is fitted. The diaphragm
separates the gas (nitrogen) from the drilling fluid.
A charging valve and a pressure gauge are installed on top of the
pulsation dampener cover to allow regular inspection and
recharging. To achieve a satisfactory dampening effect the pre-
charge pressure should be 75 % of the minimum anticipated
pump operating pressure. The maximum pressure should not
exceed 5250 kPa (750 psi).

Figure 3.3.22 : Pulsation dampener
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WARNING: It is of the utmost importance that nitrogen only is used to charge the pulsation dampener. Serious
accidents have been the result of using oxygen instead of nitrogen.
Dampener location
The best dampening effect is achieved when the dampeners
are installed close to the pump's suction and discharge, as
shown in Figure 3.3.23. A hose to absorb vibration should be
included in the connection between the pump and the
delivery line.
Figure 3.3.23 : Location of dampeners
3.2.6 BOOSTER PUMPS
When the pumps are running at the high end of their speed range even thesuction dampeners may not be able to
cope with the peak intake rates. This results in cavitation with the cylinders not being completely filled and
shock loads in the pumps. To eliminate such problems booster or charge pumps are hooked up to the pump
suction lines in order to maintain a positive pressure at all times.
Attention must be paid to the following points to ensure that the pump cylinders are filled correctly to prevent
piston hammering or pressure surges:
The pump suction has to be as low as possible in relation to the suction tank so that a positive fluid head
can be maintained.
The pump has to be as near to the tank as possible so that the suction resistance is minimum. A booster
pump in the suction line may be required (see Figure 3.3.24) if friction losses are excessive.
The suction line must have an internal diameter as large as possible, and the line must be well sealed and
secured to prevent air being sucked into it.
The tank has to be kept full to the normal operating level so that the maximum head is maintained on the
suction.

Figure 3.3.24 : Correct connection of a mud
pump
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Low pressure centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pumps have many rig applications e.g.:
For wash-down water.
For brake and engine cooling.
For mixing (hopper).
For drilling fluid agitation (mud gun).
For desanding, desilting and degassing the drilling fluid returns
from the well.
For supercharging slush pump suctions (booster pump).
For circulating trip tank contents over well head during trips.
Figure 3.3.25 :Single-stage centrifugal pump with semi-open impeller
A single-stage centrifugal pump with semi-open impeller is the
type usually employed in drilling rig service (Figure 3.3.25). They
are manufactured in a wide range of:
sizes and capacities.
impeller diameter and shaft diameter.
materials which withstand the various chemicals to be
handled.
Figure 3.3.26 : Cross section through centrifugal pump
3.3.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE
A centrifugal pump transfers energy to a liquid through the action of a rotating impeller. The liquid, taken in
through the suction line of the pump is directed towards an impeller which is rotated by a drive shaft. The shaft
is normally driven by an electric motor. As the impeller spins inside the housing (casing), its guide vanes hurl
the liquid outward from the axis of rotation. Because the impeller is enclosed in the casing the liquid is forced
out through the discharge line with a pressure and velocity higher than that when entering the pump.
A cross section through a centrifugal pump is shown in Figure 3.3.26. The housing is shaped like a snail shell.
Close observation shows that the first amount of liquid will leave the impeller at point "a", called the tongue. At
point "b", 90 further, an additional amount of liquid has joined, making a total of one quarter of the liquid
eventually produced. At point "c" half the volume has passed, at point "d" three quarters and finally at point "e"
the total volume passes.
PUMP NOMENCLATURE
A number of manufacturers make centrifugal pumps for the drilling fluid system, referred to as the 17/8" shaft
type. This type has been used in oilfleld service since the early '50s. A new type on the market now is designed
for higher horsepower and easier maintenance. Its designation is different from the older designation. The
designation of the old type 17/8" pump is written as d
1
x d
2
whereas the designation of the new types of higher
rated pump is written as d
2
x d
1
. (where in both cases d
1
is the discharge diameter in inches and d
2
is the suction
diameter in inches). Comparing the designations:
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For 17/8" pumps old type:
5 x 6 R
Discharge size Suction size Rotation clockwise
For heavy-duty pumps new type:
5 x 6 14
Discharge size Suction size Maximum size impeller for case
All new heavy-duty pumps are made for clockwise rotation. The 17/8" pumps are available for both clockwise
and counter clockwise rotation, as viewed from the coupling end of the pump.
3.3.2 COMPARISON WITH RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Centrifugal pumps function in a different way from positive-displacement pumps. Although either type can be
run at variable speed, the fluid slippage characteristic of a centrifugal pump makes it suitable for constant
speed/variable-delivery operation.
Figure 3.3.27 :Comparison of reciprocating and
centrifugal pumps
The explanation of the calculations and
development of the characteristics of
centrifugal pumps is not within the scope
of this course. However, extra study
material has been given in the Appendix
to this Part.
When a positive-displacement pump is
run at constant speed on two systems
with different pressure losses, the volume
will remain the same in both systems,
only the pressure and required power will differ. When a centrifugal pump is used in the same two systems, the
pressure in both systems will remain almost the same, but the volume will be higher in the lower pressure loss
system (Figure 3.3.27). For example as shown in the graph, a positive-displacement pump produces 30 l/s (475
gpm) at a head of 14 m (46 ft) to put it through system 1. When it is used on system 2 and the volume remains
30 l/s (475 gpm) the head required is only 5 m (16 ft). Putting a centrifugal pump on the same systems at
constant speed the results are for system 1, 48 l/s (780 gpm), at a head of 27 m (88 ft); for system 2, 68 l/s (1080
gpm), at a head of 24 m (79 ft).
For all pumps the power requirements are proportional to the volume times the pressure increase (
A reciprocating pump producing a constant volume will therefore require power in proportion to the output
pressure. Since a centrifugal pump will maintain an almost constant pressure, the power requirement is
proportional to the throughput. It is important to be aware of this difference because system overload may
occur. In system overloading with a positive displacement pump, a bypass valve should open to reduce the
pressure and thus reduce the power required, whereas with a centrifugal pump the throughput must be lowered
to lower the power requirements, e.g. by partially closing the discharge valve.
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A SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
When a centrifugal pump is compared to a piston or plunger pump of the same capacity, the following
advantages of the centrifugal pump are immediately apparent:
Light weight.
Takes up a small amount of space.
Constant flow of liquid.
Quiet running, so that only a light foundation is needed.
High reliability.
Simple drive; direct by electric motor.
The liquid to be pumped may be somewhat contaminated.
Easily adjustable.
Limited maximum pressure, which cannot cause damage to the pump casing or discharge line.
No valves needed.
It must be mentioned however that many centrifugal pumps are provided with a check valve in the
suction line, a foot valve. In process technology the check valve is usually fitted in the discharge line.
There are two reasons for this:
o To keep the liquid in the pump from flowing back, which ensures that the pump remains filled
with liquid.
o With a high lift it is possible that if the drive falls out the direction of rotation of the impeller will
be reversed which can cause the impeller and shaft to come loose causing damage to the pump.
This is particularly the case when a mechanical seal is used (slip ring sealing).
On the other hand, centrifugal pumps also have some disadvantages:
The pump is not self-priming, and therefore has to be filled with liquid when starting up.
Considerable chance of milling, when air or gas is drawn in.
Less suitable for volatile or hot liquids under atmospheric pressure.
Lower efficiency than plunger pumps.
Low discharge pressure.
3.3.3 PUMP SIZE AND SELECTION
WORKING CONDITIONS
The design point of a centrifugal pump is that point at
which the internal pump losses are minimum and the pump
efficiency optimal (about 75 - 80%).
As has already been shown in Figure 3.3.27 a centrifugal
pump can work at various flow rates and pressure heads -
this is called the working range and is illustrated in the
figure below.
Figure 3.3.28 : Example of pump characteristic
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Lower limit
(the left-hand side of the graph)
At low flow rates the liquid velocity becomes so low that solids can settle in suction or discharge lines, or the
minimum fluid volume for the equipment it supplies has been reached. This can be because the distance from
the pump to the delivery point is too great or because the size of the line is too small.
For example: if a rig is using a pump mounted on drilling fluid tank #4 to draw fluid from there and discharge it
into tank #1 the friction losses may be considerable. That will reduce the transfer rate.
Upper limit
(on the right-hand side of the graph)
The upper limit of the working range is determined by the development of cavitation in the pump. This will
occur when a pump is acting with a very low pressure head resulting in too high a liquid velocity in the suction
line, e.g. pumping water at zero discharge pressure. Cavitation is explained later.
Output pressure
A centrifugal pump produces pressure by increasing the speed of the liquid to the tip of the impeller and then
converting the velocity into usable output pressure. Pressure is here expressed in not normally used units. Since
m/s (or ft/s) velocity is being converted into pressure, the resulting pressure is stated in m (or ft) of flowing
fluid. Since a centrifugal pump produces the same velocity with any liquid, it produces the same m (or ft) of
head of that liquid, regardless of its specific gravity. But when m (or ft) of head are converted to kPa (or psi),
the density of the liquid must be included. The higher the density, the higher the pressure in a column would be
for a given head. Therefore, the output pressure in kPa (or psi) of a centrifugal pump varies in direct proportion
to the density of the liquid. Calculating centrifugal pump requirements should first be done in m (or ft) so that
the density variable will be eliminated. Friction loss, elevation rise, and other losses should also be calculated in
m (ft) of flowing fluid; the pump curve consulted is already rated in m. Only the power required by the pump
needs to be corrected for density. The "water" power obtained from the pump curve is multiplied by the
maximum density of the fluid to be handled to determine the necessary capacity of the electric motor.
A pressure gauge should always be fitted to the discharge line to allow performance monitoring.
Delivery rate
Fluid delivery output of a centrifugal pump can be regulated by:
changing the speed of rotation, or:
throttling the discharge valve.
If the driving unit permits changing speed, this is the better method to use. It is preferred because throttling the
discharge valve always involves waste of power and ultimately damages the throttling valve by fluid erosion.
Although centrifugal pumps can be set for zero delivery by closing a valve on the discharge line, excessive
throttling can shorten the life of the pump impeller and housing.
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A better method is to provide a small return line to recirculate a small amount of fluid (Figure 3.3.29). This
prevents overheating the fluid in the pump with resulting damage if the unit must continue to run with the
discharge shut off.
Figure 3.3.29 : Suction and discharge piping for a centrifugal pump
Varying the impeller diameter
Because the pressure head is governed by the peripheral velocity of the
impeller, it is inuenced not only by the speed of the pump, but also by
the outside diameter of the impeller blades. Reducing the impeller
diameter is therefore a means whereby the pressure head, at constant
speed, of an existing pump can be lowered, enabling the installation to be matched to changing circumstances,
e.g. diminished delivery distance. If more pressure is required within the limits of the pump a larger diameter
impeller can be installed.
The nature of the changes in the pump characteristics which result from reducing the impeller diameter is
shown in the figure.
The pressure is approximately proportional to the square of the impeller diameter, and the power approximately
proportional to the third power of the impeller
diameter.
Figure 3.3.30 : Pressure head and power with varying impeller
diameter
Example
Assume that for optimal action of a hydrocyclone a
flow rate of 800 gpm and a total head of 80 ft is
required.
How can the following equipment be deployed?
a 5 x 6 centrifugal pump operating at 1,150 rpm with spare impellers of 9", 10", 11" and 12".
a 6 x 8 centrifugal pump operating at 1,150 rpm with spare impellers of 10", 11", 12", 13" and 131/2".
an electromotor 30 kW (40 hp) - 1,750 rpm.
Reference to Figure 3.3.31a shows that selecting the maximum impeller size of 12" will give a total head of
only 70 ft.
This pump cannot be used at the current speed

Figure 3.3.31a Performance curves for a 5 x 6 centrifugal pump
operating at 1150 rpm
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Figure 3.3.31b: Performance curves for a 6 x 8 centrifugal pump operating at
1150 rpm
Reference to Figure 3.3.31b shows that if the 13" impeller is
mounted in the 6 x 8 centrifugal pump (1,150 rpm) the
performance will be satisfactory.

Figure 3.3.31c: Performance curves for a 5 x 6 centrifugal pump
operating at 1750 rpm
Reference to Figure 3.3.31c shows that if the 5 x 6
centrifugal pump is used in combination with the electric
motor which runs at 1,750 rpm the required performance
will be achieved using a 9" impeller.
Table 3.3.2 shows the most commonly used impellers for
various applications.
Required input power
The power required for a centrifugal pump
used in drilling fluid handling is the water
power at that volume and pressure multiplied
by the maximum density of the drilling
drilling fluid to be used.
Example Table 3.3.2 : Impeller sizes
An electric motor with a capacity of 50 l/s (800 gpm) and a pressure head of
25 m (80 ft) is needed for a desander pump.
What is the input power if the pump efficiency is 75% and the density of the
drilling fluid is 1400 kg/m
3
(gradient = 1.4 x 9.81 kPa/m or 0.608 psi/ft)?
Solution
Power =
= = 22.89 kW
= =30.27 HP Figure 3.3.32 Cavitation
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CAVITATION
The phenomenon of cavitation can be described as follows (see The Figure).
If the vacuum on the suction side of the pump rises to the point at which the pressure of the liquid equals the
vapour pressure, the water will vaporise. The vapour bubbles in the flow are carried to the impeller where the
pressure is increased, causing the bubbles to implode.
When mixing drilling fluid there may be air present sucked in by the hopper. These bubbles will undergo the
same process.
This process may be accompanied by hissing and rattling, severe vibration, fairly heavy shocks and other
irregularities. Furthermore, cavitation causes wear and damage to the pump parts, especially the impeller.
If cavitation occurs the Flow rate should be reduced by increasing the back pressure, e.g. throttling a discharge
valve.
DESANDER PUMP
The most critical pressure requirement in the drilling fluid treatment system is that for the desander and the
desilter. Insufficient pressure will produce poor solids separation, and too much pressure will cause early
erosion of the desander and desilter cones. Most desander and desilter cones require 23 m (76 ft) of head at the
inlet of the manifold. Adding differences in elevation and friction loss makes a total of 27 - 30 m (85 - 90 ft)
that the pump must produce.
3.3.4 EFFICIENT OPERATION
FLUID LEVEL FOR SUCTION
A uid level that will provide enough submergence of the pump suction line is necessary to prevent air from
entering the suction end of the pump. If the pump must operate with low suction submergence, the suction line
should be oversized. On systems already in operation, a vortex breaker may be needed at the suction inlet of the
tank piping. This may be as simple as a board arranged to float above the suction line to seal the air off from the
pump suction.
SUCTION PIPING
Suction piping should slope upward from the liquid source to the
pump to avoid traps that will accumulate air. Air trapped in the suction
reduces the cross-sectional area of the line and can cause the pump to
cavitate, that is, fail to get enough uid in the casing for complete
filling. Air drawn in through the suction piping can also cause the
pump to lose prime on start-up. Figure 3.3.33 : Arrangement for avoiding entrained air in a centrifugal pump suction
Many suction and discharge piping installations are arranged so that uid is returned to the tank just above the
pump suction (Figure 3.3.33). Practices such as this, which permit air or gas to be mixed into the fluid (also
running mud guns or agitators close to the centrifugal pump), can cause the fluid to become air-cut.
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ALIGNMENT
Serious damage to pump and motor bearings, loss of power, and excessive wear to the pump-motor coupling
can result from misalignment. Both vertical and horizontal alignment must be carefully maintained.
LUBRICATION
Centrifugal bearings may be lubricated with either oil or grease. They must not be over lubricated. Excessive
greasing may destroy the grease seals; too much oil will make the bearings run hot. Grease does not become as
contaminated as oil and can last as long as a year. Oil should be kept clean and changed on schedule. With
either type of lubrication, feeling the outside of the bearing housing periodically may prevent serious damage.
Pump bearings can operate at temperatures up to 160F (70C). Any temperature above this and the pump is too
hot to be touched by hand for longer than a few seconds. A sudden temperature rise may indicate that a bearing
is beginning to fail. If the bearing is replaced before it fails completely, damage to the impeller, shaft and casing
may be prevented.
STUFFING BOX
When the packing and shaft are cooled the stuffing box should drip a little.
DRILLING FLUID PROCESSING
In this Topic the ways in which drilling fluid can be treated), and details of basic methods of removing solids
from it, are considered
3.4.1 DRILLING FLUID TREATMENT
There are two basic ways of treating liquid drilling fluids.
adding or removing solids or their equivalent
adding chemicals
ADDING SOLIDS OR THEIR EQUIVALENT
This can occur in several ways, including:
the addition of commercial colloidal and soluble solids for specific controls, i.e. to increase yield point
and gel strength. They may also be added to decrease filtration rate with minimum density increase
the addition of oil to a water base drilling fluid. The oil emulsifies and the effect of the oil droplets is
much like that of a colloid. The same is true of the water fraction of a continuous oil-phase drilling fluid
the addition of weighting materials
ADDING CHEMICALS
This is known as 'drilling fluid treating'. Specific chemicals are added to counteract the undesirable effects of
drilled solids in the drilling fiuid. They are also added to optimise its physical properties. The chemicals act on
the colloidal particles, including hydratable shales, and not on the larger inert particles.
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3.4.2 SOLIDS REMOVAL TECHNIQUES
There are two basic solids removal techniques.
settling, where size and density are both important factors
screening, where size of the particle is the important factor
SETTLING
Settling is a process by which the denser particles are separated from a mixture by gravity or the application of
some other force. It is an essential part of separation processes in centrifuges and hydrocyclones as described in
the following Topic. Settling due to gravity can occur in the hole or in drilling fluid tanks.
Stoke's Law
The settling or terminal velocity of solid spheres in liquid can be calculated from Stoke's Law according to the
following expression:

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SCREENING
The term "screening" refers to the separation of particles by passing the drilling fluid over a wire mesh. The
holes in the mesh allow part of the mixture to pass through but particles larger than the holes are kept back.
Screens vary in size and examples are given in the following table

Table 3.3.4 : Examples of Shaker and test screen sizes
The drilling fluid system
The maintenance of the required drillingfluid properties is one of the most important factors contributing to
trouble free drilling and effective well control. The functions of the drilling fluid treatment equipment on a
drilling rig are;
to prepare drilling fluid, or make additional fluid, as required
to treat the circulating drilling fluid and maintain properties as required
to enable the drillingfluid density to be increased quickly during kick control
to separate solids from the fluid returns
to separate gas from the liquid returns
This Topic covers, in turn;
the general arrangement of the drilling fluid system
the mixing equipment
the solids removal equipment
the unitised solids control equipment
the barytes recovery equipment
the gas removal equipment
3.5.1 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
Figure 3.3.34 gives a general layout of a drilling fluid treating system; the diagrams in Figures 3.3.36 and 3.3.37
depict the flow pattern of the drilling fluid through the different components of the treating equipment and
through the well.
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To ensure an uninterrupted operation it is essential that the tank capacity is sufficient. The active drilling fluid
tanks on a standard rig should have a capacity of approximately 160 m
3
(1,000 bbls) and a similar volume for
reserve fluid should be available in storage tanks. Some tanks are divided into compartments.
A trip tank (Figure 3.3.35) is usually installed and connected to the flow line. It is used for volumetric
measurement during tripping, to monitor the quantity of fluid used to replace the steel removed from the well
and vice versa.
The accuracy of the measurements depends on the correct calibration of the level indicator and on the free
movement of the float and transmitting wire.
3.5.2 DRILLING FLUID MIXING EQUIPMENT
Low-pressure high-volume mixing systems are preferred for mixing drilling fluid. It is necessary to be able to
mix/treat large volumes in the shortest possible time. A low pressure system is selected for this purpose.
Large diameter piping (150 - 200 mm or 6" - 8") is used in combination with fluid velocities of 3 m/s or 10 ft/s
to keep pressure losses to a minimum.
HOPPERS
Hoppers are used to mix the additives from bulk storage or sacks into the liquid system. They consist of a
funnel, butterfly valve, vacuum chamber, jet nozzle and a venturi as shown below.
A 6 x 8" centrifugal pump with output of 5.3 - 6 m
3
/min (1,400 - 1,600 gpm) at 280 - 420 kPa (40 - 60 psi)
circulates the drilling fluid through the hopper. Its velocity is increased by using jet nozzles. This velocity will
create an under pressure in the vacuum chamber so that the chemicals in the funnel are sucked in via the control
valve. The turbulent jet flow will mix these additives with the liquid to form one homogeneous flow.
The velocity of the drilling fluid is reduced in the expanding tube or venturi and the pressure rises again (kinetic
energy is converted to potential energy) when the liquid is moved, at a lower speed, to a tank. The butterfly
valve controls the quantity of additive - otherwise the chemicals would fall, unchecked into the vacuum
chamber. This would result in a plugged hopper, overtreatment or incomplete dispersion resulting in a waste of
product.
Critical points for correct operation are
that:
the hopper nozzle is the correct
size and not washed out.
the size of the venturi tube is
correct.
the butterfly valve operation is
smooth.
the lifting head is not
excessive.
Figure 3.3.38 : Hopper
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BULK STORAGE TANKS
Bulk storage tanks or bins can be vertical or horizontal pressure vessels and are used to store cement, bentonite
or barytes. The vessel is charged with compressed air and is controlled by an assembly of valves.
The powdered product is fed into the vessel, through a special fill valve or line. The vessel is then closed off
from the atmosphere and dry air is introduced through an aeration system resulting in an air-solids mixture. As
the vessel reaches operating pressure (usually 250 - 280 kPa or 35 - 40 psi), the aerated powder is forced into
the conveyor line which brings it to the hopper. Some bulk storage systems have load cells in the tank supports
to measure the quantity of material in them.
Pressure vessels are usually skid mounted and can be part of the drilling unit or can be supplied as individual
items as required.
Air from the compressors must pass through dryers; moisture in the system is disastrous because the bulk
material may clog and plug the lines at restrictions. Condensation on tank walls or wet piping may result in a
layer of hard material being formed. For this reason tanks are often supplied with heaters and hose and piping
have to be blown dry before use..
The operation of a pressure bulk storage vessel is shown in Figure 3.3.39.
AGITATORS
Mixing systems are needed to keep the drilling fluid
in the tanks moving to ensure uniform quality and
prevent solids from settling.
Paddle stirrers (paddle mixers), mud guns and
bottom jets are used for this purpose. The
equipment should be checked for proper
functioning during operations and inspected for wear and/or erosion during rig moves
3.5.3 SOLIDS REMOVAL EQUIPMENT
An adequate solids removal system should be designed to process drilling uid at the highest probable drilling
rates to ensure the correct density and quality under all conditions. This contributes to the best drilling rate,
good hole conditions, and safe well control. Several treatment techniques are available to control (reduce) the
volume and/or the size distribution of the solids:
Dilution will reduce the percentage of all types and sizes of solids per unit of volume. But since only a
certain fraction of the solids have to be removed, it is usually cheaper to remove them mechanically.
Mechanical removal can be subdivided into screening and gravity separation.
Equipment used is: shale shaker. clay ball trap.
sand trap. hydrocyclones.
mud cleaners. centrifuge.
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THE CORRECT DESIGN OF THE SOLIDS REMOVAL SYSTEM
In order to be fully effective the various pieces of equipment must be properly integrated into the solids removal
system, taking the following points into account:
To totally process the drilling fluid from the hole, any processing unit must discharge into a
compartment downstream from its own suction compartment. This point is dealt with further under
"desanders & desilters".
If two different type units are operated in parallel (taking suction from a common pit and discharging to
a common pit), neither unit can process the total drilling fluid, regardless of the capacity of either unit.
If a drilling fluid system is designed with unnecessary options and complexities (so that the first pit and
last pit are completely interchangeable, for instance), the processing equipment will seldom be operated
properly.
If a drilling fluid system does not have enough compartments to prevent paralleling of processing units
that must be run simultaneously, the equipment will never function properly.
Apart from the first three items listed above, solids removal equipment requires a gas-free liquid feed
SUMMARY OF SOLIDS CONTROL EQUIPMENT
The shale shaker and sand trap remove coarse particles in the range of 1,540 - 200 microns and in the
sand trap particles down to 74 microns.
The desander removes abrasive drilled solids down to 150 microns.
The desilter removes drilled solids and barytes. It separates mainly in the range of -44 - 1,000 microns
for drilled solids and greater than 30m microns for barytes. Desilters are mainly used continuously in
unweighted drilling fluid. In weighted fluid the desilter is not used, because too much barytes is
expelled, making the addition of new barytes necessary (unless the underflow is run through the
centrifuge and the recovered barytes returned to the system).
The centrifuge separates out particles with a cut-off of 3 microns.
SHALE SHAKER Figure 3.3.41 : Principle of the shale shaker
A shale shaker or vibration screen is a spring
mounted screen which is vibrated by the rotation of
an eccentric shaft mounted on top of the screen frame
(Figure 3.3.41).
Screens
The shale shaker is the first mechanical treatment of
the returning drilling fluid for solids control. None of
the other mechanical devices can cope with solids
control without the pre-treatment of the fluid in the
shale shaker.
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The volume of fluid that can be processed over the screen depends on :
the size of the openings in the wire screen(s).
the percentage of open area.
the speed and amplitude of the vibrations.
the type of motion (vibrator position).
its fluid flow properties.
the type, size and amount of solids.
The rate of solids discharge depends on :
the type of motion.
the speed and amplitude of vibration.
the mesh design.
the screen strength.
The main function of the screen, to filter out the cutting particles above a certain size, is achieved by the screen
openings which must have a specific size. These openings, referred to as the mesh of the screen, can be square
or rectangular. A screen is defined by the number of holes per inch, measured along the wire cross.
The API RP 13E designation for screen cloth gives both the mesh count and the percentage of open area, i.e.:
Mesh x mesh (micron size x micron size, percent open area)
e.g. 30 x 30 (516 x 516, 37.1)
70 x 30 (178 x 660, 40.3).
The rectangular mesh is called "oblong" mesh screen. Its removal size is somewhere between the two mesh
sizes. A 70 x 30 mesh performs like a 50 mesh screen. Because of the use of different sizes of wire (length-wise
and cross-wise) in an oblong screen the advantages of the oblong screen are that it is stronger than an equivalent
square screen and that it will have a higher open area percentage than a square screen and therefore a higher
capacity.
Modern shale shakers have double-deck screen arrangement. The coarse screen should be run above the fine
screen. Selection of the screen should normally be so that during operation 2/3 of the screen area is wet, 1/3 is
dry, though this can vary dependent on the mud and shaker types. Note that each deck should have the same
size screen over its whole area.
Shale shakers are the primary solids control units for removing drilled solids. When drilling with unweighted
drilling fluid there is no theoretical lower limitation to screen size. With weighted fluids a screen of 200 mesh
will remove some of the coarse barytes.
All the fluid returned from the hole has to be screened, so the required capacity should be set at greater than the
maximum pump capacity in order to allow for all the returns to pass over the shakers. Usually 150% of the
maximum pump capacity is considered adequate.
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Correct design of the flow distribution to the shakers is very important so that each shaker installed can screen
its fair proportion of the mud returns. Be aware that whole mud losses may occur when initially circulating cold
muds over fine screens. Either bring up circulation gradually or fine down shaker screens gradually.
Early removal of solids
There are both advantages and disadvantages in the early removal of the majority of solids.
The advantages include:
minimisation of recirculation of cuttings down hole
prevention of overloading of the cyclones
prevention of generation of fines which can not be removed by cyclones
elimination of bit bottom fill
The disadvantages include the loss of fluid if the screen mesh is too fine. This is particularly important when
drilling in the top part of the hole where large volumes of fluid are circulated
Types of shale shakers
Three major types of shale shakers are used.
single deck shakers
differential single deck shakers
double and multiple screen shakers.
Single deck shakers
A single deck shaker is shown in section in Figure 3.3.42. In the past the majority of shakers in use were of this
type. They had
fairly coarse screens. This meant that only the coarser formation particles (cuttings and cavings and coarse
sand) could be removed, whereas the finer sand and silt remained in the drilling fluid. The other problem with
this type of screen was its low efficiency.

Fig 3.3.42 : Schematic diagram of a single-deck shaker Fig 3.3.43 : Schematic form of a differential single-deck shaker
Differential single deck shakers
The construction of the differential single-deck shaker is shown in Figure 3.3.43. The screens are said to be in
"parallel" and the angle of the screen slope varies.
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Double and multiple screen shakers
Most modern drilling units now have double deck shakers fitted. These have a second, finer screen in "series"
which removes the majority of the finer particles (see Figure 3.3.44). The size of the second screen can be up to
150 mesh (104 m).
Multiple screen shakers have a single-deck construction with three or four screens placed at different levels in a
"series" arrangement. This type of arrangement is illustrated in Figure 3.3.44.
Characteristics of shale shakers Figure 3.3.44 : Double and three-screen multiple-screen shakers
Shale shakers are characterised in three ways.
amplitude and speed
motion types
slope
Amplitude and speed
The amplitude, or one half of a stroke, of a shaker is determined by the vibrator eccentric weight. Normally,
shakers use low amplitudes and high vibrator speeds. Fine screen shakers have high amplitudes at lower speeds
to prevent plugging of the screens. Speed of vibration is important to ensure efcient removal of cuttings from
the screen. Shale shakers are now available with variable speed control.
Motion types
Unbalanced motion occurs when the vibrator is mounted in the centre above the screen. Motion is created in the
form of an ellipse at the feed and discharge, and is circular underneath the vibrator. In this mode of operation,
the cuttings build up at the discharge end and to dispose of them the screen must slope towards the solids
discharge end. However, sloping the deck may increase the risk of expensive loss of uid.
A balanced screen, in contrast, (e.g.
The Thule VSM 120) has the vibrator
mounted at the centre of gravity. This
gives a circular motion at all positions
of the screen. An even discharge of the
cuttings is obtained with this motion.
The effects of unbalanced and
balanced motion are shown in Figures
3.3.45 and 3.3.46.

Figure 3.3.45 : Use of Slope with unbalanced
motion to overcome the solids pile-up
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The direction of motion should be in the direction of flow, otherwise the screening action will be very
inefficient. Reversed rotation is often caused by hooking up the electric motors incorrectly.
Most modem shakers use linear motion. Linear motion shakers (e.g. Thule VSM 100) have the vibrator
mounted at the front of the basket through the centre of gravity. Linear motion is achieved by using two counter
rotating vibrators/shafts which, because of
their positioning and vibration dynamics, will
naturally operate in phase. They are located so
that a line drawn from the shakers centre of
gravity bisects at 90 a line drawn between the
two axes of rotation. This gives a saw tooth
type motion allowing longer residence time on
the screen and increased throughput compared
to unbalanced and balanced motion type
shakers. Figure 3.3.46 : Balanced motion yields even solids flow irrespective of deck angle
CLAY BALL TRAP
Agglomerations of clay cuttings often appear in the form of clay balls when drilling in "gumbo" shale areas.
These can cause problems by plugging the fluid return line between the well and the shale shaker, and if they
reach the shaker they can interfere with its operation.
When clay balls are likely, home-made clay ball traps are sometimes used. Current methods include the
following:
welding a device around the top of the stove pipe where the clay balls can be removed by hand before
entering and plugging the flow line.
equipping the shale shakers with perforated plates where the fluid enters the screening area; the clay
balls caught in this way can be removed manually or by water spray.
SAND TRAP
A sand trap is a tank compartment underneath the shale
shaker. This tank is not agitated, thus allowing the larger
solid particles to settle. The shape of the tank (see Figure
3.3.47) is such that settled solids can easily be dumped into
the waste pit because the tank is tapered towards a large
door.
This type of separation is called gravity separation and the
particle settling is governed by Stokes' law.
The sand trap receives the fluid passing through the shale
shaker. It should also receive all fluid by-passing the shale
shaker and going to the active tanks. Figure 3.3.47 : Sand trap
Sand traps are also known as "shale traps" or "settling tanks". They are necessary only as a back up to shale
shakers. Back up is required because:
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shaker screens are not always adequate.
shaker screens sometimes develop tears through which oversize solids pass.
shakers sometimes have to be bypassed during drilling (for instance after lost circulation material has
been added).
Certain points should be noted about the operation of sand traps.
the sand trap is a gravity settling compartment and must not be stirred or used as a suction compartment.
whole drilling fluid losses must be minimised by having a discharge control easily and quickly opened
and closed.
the sand trap should only be dumped, not "washed out". If the bottom is not sloped to the solids pile
angle, the settled solids should be left to form their own sloped sides; "cleaning the bottom", other than
possibly at moving time, serves no purpose but increases the loss of drilling fluid and hence its cost.
since Stoke's Law applies in a sand trap, large quantities of barytes (as well as sand) may be settled from
weighted drilling fluids; provision for bypassing the undersize screen discharge slurry from the carrying
pan direct to the next processing compartment is also advisable. As all compartments except the sand
trap are stirred in well-designed active systems, this will prevent settling out of barytes. The sand trap
must not be by-passed if there is a problem with any other solids removal apparatus.
the fluid exit from the sand trap should be over a retaining weir to a stirred compartment.
The sand trap must be dumped frequently to ensure that the fluid velocity will remain adequately low.
Sand traps can not however be dumped when using oil- based or pseudo oil based drilling fluids
. Exercise extreme care if considering by-passing the shakers. Drilling a rubber cement plug with the shakers by-passed
can result in the backloading/dumping of the whole active drilling fluid system. Do not leave the shakers by-passed when
drilling as this can quickly lead to a disastrous build up of drilled solids in the circulating system.
If settling of barytes is a problem, the drilling fluid should be treated to suspend the barytes more efficiently,
either by increasing the gel strength or by circulating and conditioning the mud to maintain the barytes in the
appropriate wetted state. If settling of barytes has been caused by contamination circulate and condition the mud
by the appropriate treament to re-wet
the barytes..
Gravity separation also takes place in
hydrocyclones and centrifuges but in a
different fashion.
DECANTING CENTRIFUGES
Operating principles
Figure 3.3.54 shows a sectional view
of a decanting centrifuge equipped
with a conical bowl rotating typically
at 1600 rpm.
Figure 3.3.54 : Operation of a decanting centrifuge
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The operating principles are as follows:
the drilling fluid/liquid is fed through a pipe in the hollow shaft into the centre of the bowl.
water is simultaneously pumped through a small pipe inside the drilling fluid feed pipe and sprayed into
the next segment of the bowl for dilution and better ultimate separation.
the separated solids (barytes, etc.) are scraped towards the discharge openings at the small diameter end
of the bowl by a screen-type conveyor which rotates at a slightly slower speed than the bowl, this
concentrated material can then be returned to the drilling fluid.
the low-density fluid containing clay and chemicals is discarded, to waste, at the other end.
General
The decanting centrifuge, as illustrated in the cross-sectional view shown in Figure 3.3.55, can have two uses:
To save fines in weighted drilling fluid.
To save fluid phase in unweighted drilling fluid.
The creation of high gravity forces of 800 to 1000 times g, laminar flow, and long retention time in the machine
help to make this type of unit very efficient. It is capable of making a sharp cut at about 2 - 5 microns,
depending on the specific gravity of the fluid solids, that is, particles larger than 2 - 5 microns are separated into
one stream and those smaller than 2 - 5 microns into another.
The particle size cut is lower than for cyclones and the "underflow" solids can be highly concentrated because
of the scraping conveyor. Separation takes place inside the bowl that is rotated at speeds ranging from 1000 to
1500 rpm. Inside the bowl there is a conveyor that rotates in the same direction but at slightly lower speed (10
50 rpm less).
The larger, heavier solids will settle on the wall and be scraped to the tapered end of the bowl where they are
ejected. The solids contain adsorbed liquid only. The liquid overflow contains dissolved and colloidal particles
(up to 3 micron).
Full-flow centrifuging would be very costly. The capacity used in drilling applications ranges from 5 - 10 % of
full flow
Figure 3.3.55 : Typical solids decanter centrifuge
Oil based drilling fluids
With weighted oil based fluids the removal
of sand and silt is not efficient. The aid of a
centrifuge may be useful to treat the
desander/desilter/mud cleaner underflow.
With this, part of the drilled solids are
removed which will help to prevent oily
wastes and, consequently, pollution.
With low density oil based fluids drilled solids can be removed quite efficiently, and the fluid can be
reconditioned in a central plant.
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Note that for water base drilling fluids the centrifuge feed is normally diluted with water. In oil based fluids this
dilution can be replaced by heating the feed.
UNWEIGHTED DRILLING FLUIDS
With unweighted fluids using the centrifuge can be very cost-effective. It reduces substantially the volume of
liquid drilling fluid discarded with the drilled solids, which are removed in almost dry form, particularly when
the desander underflow is also passed via the mud cleaner screen. Consequently the chemical consumption is
reduced, and it is also easier to maintain the drilling fluid properties. This setup is ideal for low solids fluid
drilling.
The following flow chart shows how the equipment is set up, terminating in the decanting centrifuge.
Double deck shaker: The screen size of this unit is varied to suit the hole size and depth.
then
Desander: Cones vary from 2 x 254 mm (10") to 4 x 508 mm (20").
then
Silt separator set (Mud
cleaner):
This consists of 3 units, each using 8 x 101.6 mm (4") cyclones over a
150, 200 or 325 mesh screen.
then
Centrifuge: The remainder of the unwanted solids are removed here
WEIGHTED DRILLING FLUIDS
With weighted fluids a barytes recovery efficiency of 90-95% is normal. The capacity of most commercial
centrifuges is of the order of 0.1-0.4 m
3
/min (30-100 gpm). These limits should be more than sufficient for the
needs in normal drilling.
The centrifuge is able to separate clay from the main fluid stream by dumping liquid. However, this liquid also
contains some silt, chemicals, lubricants, etc. Since the particle size distributions of barytes and silt are very
similar the separation efficiency will be very low. Most of the silt will be following the path of the barytes.
Despite this problem, the centrifuges have proved to be capable of recovering so much barytes while keeping
the flow properties of the drilling fluid under control that it is an economical proposition to use them.
Centrifuges can also be used for recovering barytes from waste drilling fluids returned from drilling locations to
a central plant. The barytes recovered with the centrifuge is mixed into a fresh bentonite suspension to produce
a fresh weighted drilling fluid which is comparatively free of sand and silt.
DESANDERS & DESILTERS
Operating principles
Desanders and desilters are special cases of hydrocyclones.
Hydrocyclones operate according to the principle of the centrifuge. They are cylindrical/conically shaped,
relatively small vessels in which centrifugal forces are created by injecting the fluid tangentially at high speed
(32) RIG PUMPS
as shown in Figure 3.3.48a. These forces result in a high (radial) speed of settling of the denser material (solids
or heavy liquids) and exaggerates the differences in settling speed of different size particles of the same density.
This allows the different size particles to be separated from each other. In particular sand, silt and clay can be
separated. The denser/larger material is driven preferentially outward towards the conical wall and downward
into an accelerating spiral (conservation of angular momentum) along the wall to the discharge point at the apex
of the cone. The lighter-phase material moves inwardly and upwardly as a spiralling vortex to the light-phase
discharge connection of the cyclone.
Vessel geometry, the design and positioning of various connections, and their relative dimensions are critical
for efficient cyclone operation and determine the cut-off point (equivalent spherical diameter - see Topic 3.4)
between the solids ejected from the apex and those remaining in the liquid discharge.
Figure 3.3.48b shows the construction of a typical hydrocyclone. A number of equations have been developed
for their design but the optimum is invariably
reached by empirical work.
The size of the particles that can be separated
depends on:
size of the cyclone.
split ratio underflow/overflow.
inlet header pressure
The efficiency of the cyclones depends on the
following factors:
the cyclone design
the rheological properties of the fluid
the range of sizes of the solids to be
removed
operating pressure
Figure 3.3.48 : Principle and construction of a hydrocyclone
Application
Hydrocyclones are used to remove sand and silt particles from the drilling fluid that has already passed the shale
shaker. Their advantages are that they:
remove fine drill solids
are relatively simple in design
have no moving parts
are easy to operate
have a large capacity
Figure 3.3.49 A desander
When treating the drilling fluid to remove a specific size range 100% of the fluid stream must be processed,
because particles not removed the first time are circulated back down the hole again. Not only do they then
(33) RIG PUMPS
increase the erosion of the pipe and open hole, they themselves are subject to abrasion and regrinding under the
bit. The particles may then become too fine to be easily removed on their return to the surface. A build up of
solids in the drilling fluid results.
Given that the complete fluid stream must be processed the hydrocyclone capacity for each treatment should be
in excess of the maximum pump volume of the rig pumps. And since the size, and thus capacity, of the
hydrocyclone is in practice fixed by the size of particle it is designed to remove, the only way to achieve the
required processing capacity is to increase the number units working in parallel. A 6" cone can process
approximately 2.5 bbls/min (380 l/min) and a 4" cone 11.25 bbls/min (190 l/min).
A battery of 6" to 12" hydrocyclones working in parallel as shown in Figure 3.3.49, is thus used to remove sand
and is known as a desander. A desilter is a similar battery of 2" to 4" units. In each case the number of units in
the battery depends on the maximum expected circulating rate in the well.
Performance
The performance characteristics of hydrocyclone cones are
shown in Table 3.3.5.
Table 3.3.5 : Hydrocyclone performance
Experience shows that the best desanders (150 mm or 6") will remove almost 100% of particles greater than 74
m and the best desilters 100% of particles greater than 50 m. The median cut of these units would be > 30
m for desanders and > 15 m for desilters .
Barytes particles, because of the higher s.g. (4.2) and hence higher equivalent spherical diameter ratio (1.5) will
always be removed more effectively than sand and silt. For this reason hydrocyclones can only be used for the
desanding and desilting of unweighted drilling fluids. If the fluid is weighted with barytes there will be
excessive loss of valuable densifying material. Figure 3.3.50 Pressure drop nomogram for different hydrocyclone sizes
Pressure operating range
The smaller the diameter of the
cyclone, the higher is the operating
pressure and the smaller the particles
that can be removed.
The practical pressure operating range
for hydrocyclones is 200-350 kPa (30-
50 psi) with the smaller desilters
running at a higher pressure than the
desanders. The normal pressure drop
for each diameter size is shown in
Figure 3.3.50.
Too low a pressure results in
inefficient separation; too high a
pressure will give a better separation but the bladders will wear too rapidly.
(34) RIG PUMPS
The underflow
When in use the underflow of the cyclones should be discharged as a spray. This indicates that the cones are
operating at maximum efficiency. If discharge from the cone forms a solid stream of liquid heavily laden with
solids it is said that the cone is "roping" and the aperture in the apex must be adjusted by opening it further. A
rope-type discharge indicates the cyclone is overloaded; separation will be inefficient and rig pump wear will be
excessive. Figure 3.3.51 : Types of discharge
Once the correct "spray" discharge is obtained the amount of
underflow can also be regulated by opening/closing the apex. An
underflow rate of some 3 % of throughput is required to avoid
bottom plugging. Another reason for a minimum of 3 % underflow
is that, at lower rates, the size of particles that will be removed is
unfavourably affected, as too much solid will remain in the fluid.
The installation of desanders/desilters Table 3.3.6 : Operating problems
The desanders and desilters must be installed
correctly, following the guidelines enumerated
earlier in this Topic. To repeat the critical point,
each solids removal unit must process at least
100% of the flow from the well. There is only
one correct way to install the equipment,
depending on what is available; all other
installations will clean less effectively.
Figure 3.3.52 shows the right and wrong ways
of installing a single desander or desilter unit,
the same unit combined with a degasser or a mixing hopper, and a desander plus a desilter. The efficiency of
each arrangement is calculated, i.e. the fraction of the fluid flow that is treated.
Problems with hydrocyclones
The following problems may be encountered when using hydrocyclones;
the centrifugal pump and cyclone operate with entrapped air; this is sometimes caused by air being
sucked in via vortexes in the suction tank if its level is low; the suction tank requires at least a 1.5 m (5
ft) fluid column above the suction of the pump.
the apexes become plugged with solids, chemicals, etc.; this can usually be avoided with screens on the
centrifugal pump suction.
uneven feed distribution in multi-cone sets.
irregular operation due to faulty manifolding; each cyclone unit should have its own pump and, for
example, not be part of the hopper system; each pump should be dedicated to only one task.
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The following symbols are used in these examples:
Case 1:
Single stage, desilting or desanding;
R = 400; D = 500; a minimum of two
compartments are required.
Percentage of mud from hole desilted
or desanded
1a. Correct =
=125%
1b. Incorrect =
= = 55.6%
1c. Incorrect = = 55.6% Figure 3.3.52 : Correct installing of desanders/desilters
Case 2:
Single stage, desilting or desanding
combined with another process
(degassing, drilling fluid hopper
operation, etc); R = 400; D = 500;
DGM = 500; a minimum of three
compartments are required.
or desanded
2a. Correct = =
125%
2b. Incorrect
50%
2c. Incorrect = = 55.6%
(36) RIG PUMPS
Percentage of mud from hole degassed
2a. Correct = = 125%
2b. Incorrect = 50%
2c. Incorrect = 55.6%
Case 3:
Two-stage desanding and desilting; R = 400; DA = 500; DI = 500; a minimum of three compartments are
required (except in 3c).
Percentage of mud from hole desanded
3a. Correct = 125%
3b. Incorrect = 55.6%
3c. Incorrect = 250%

3a. Correct = 125%
3b. Incorrect = 125%
3c. Incorrect = 50%
MUD CLEANERS
The mud cleaner consists of a battery of 101.6 mm (4") desilters, mounted
over a fine screen shaker. The original reason for its introduction was to
separate and save barytes in weighted muds. However, they are now also
used for low solids muds and oil muds.
With weighted muds, the drilled solids can be removed by selecting the
correct screen (200 mesh). However, this screen can never remove the silt,
which has the same particle size range as the barytes. Figure 3.3.53 : Mud cleaner
(37) RIG PUMPS
With low solids drilling fluids, especially in areas where fluid and cutting disposal present a problem, the mud
cleaner is useful in combination with a centrifuge for reducing the volume of liquid waste.
With oil based fluids, desanders and desilters alone are generally inefficient. The liquid lost via the underflow
has often resulted in pollution and disposal problems. Under these circumstances a mud cleaner can help to
remove drilled solids. The liquid can either be returned to the main stream or passed through a centrifuge if
necessary. The oil is then saved and the material to be disposed of is in dry form.
Mud cleaners are very inefficient and the need for their use has been replaced by the advent of linear motion
shakers combined with the use of centrifuges.
3.5.4 UNITISED SOLIDS CONTROL EQUIPMENT
It is common, particularly in offshore operations, to have all drilling fluid solids control equipment, piping,
pumps and tanks mounted as an
integrated unit. This system is referred
to as "unitised solids control". The
complete assembled weight of such a
unit is of the order of 25 tonnes.
The unitised solids control unit is
usually hooked up before drilling
commences and picked up and moved
ashore for complete overhaul after
completion of drilling operations. Figure 3.3.56 : Schematic diagram of a solids control package for drilling fluid
A schematic diagram of a typical solids control package is shown in Figure 3.3.56.
In Figures 3.3.57 and 3.3.58 examples are given of actual arrangements, using unitised solids control, for an
unweighted drilling fluid and a weighted one. The pressures shown on Figure 3.3.57 are the operating pressures
of the cyclones, see Figure 3.3.50. Table 3.3.7 : Required capacities per 3800 litres/min (1000 gpm) pump rate
The main difference between the two
systems is that for the weighted
drilling fluid a mud cleaner (i.e. a
desilter over a fine screen shaker) and
a second centrifuge are in use for
separating out the barytes. With the
unweighted fluid two systems of
desanders are in use. If the desanders
were used with the weighted fluid
there would be excessive loss of
barytes.
Experience has shown that the
capacity of various components in the package has tended to be too low, especially when drilling in top hole.
Table 3.3.7 indicates the order of magnitude of the capacities required.
(38) RIG PUMPS
CENTRIFUGES
Centrifuges were originally introduced for the recovery of barytes. When drilling with weighted drilling fluids
through thick shale layers, where the shales have a tendency to disintegrate and disperse in the fluid, the
viscosity will increase sharply. Up to a certain point thinning chemicals can control this viscosity, but when too
much clay has been absorbed, this system ceases to work. The two alternative solutions are then watering back
and mechanical control.
Watering back: Water and barytes are added to the drilling fluid simultaneously in order to lower the
clay content while maintaining the density. However, this causes a large increase in fluid volume and
large quantities have to be dumped. Clearly this is costly, especially as the dumped fluid contains
barytes at its operating concentration.
Mechanical control: Here either a centrifuge, or so-called clay-jector, is used to recover barytes and
dispose of unwanted drilled solids.
The centrifuge will recover the barytes and return it to the fluid stream. At some time water has to be supplied
to maintain the original fluid density. The drilled solids (clay with a small proportion of silt) are dumped in the
waste pit by the centrifuge. The centrifuge does not operate continuously and can only handle a small part of the
total fluid stream. Otherwise the properties of the fluid become too disturbed
If two centrifuges are available they can be hooked up to operate in either series or parallel mode. The modern
approach is to use two or three centrifuges capable of being operated in either mode. In unweighted muds the
centrifuges are operated in parallel mode to remove fine drilled solids. It may also be economic to operate in
this mode with weighted fluids beIow 135 SG to control LGS build up. At densities above 135 SG the
centrifuges are operated in series to recover barytes (first centrifuge) and remove fine drilled solids (2nd
centrifuge).
BARYTES RECOVERY CYCLONES
These provide an alternative approach to the use of special cyclones for the separation of clay/barytes. For
example, they were used very successfully in deep-well drilling in Trinidad, where the unit was invariably used
for periods that equalled circulation times, and quite often one cyclone of the four available was sufficient to
maintain good fluid properties.
The cyclones used in the barytes recovery units are of the 50.8 mm or 76.2 mm (2" or 3") type; that is, of the
"desilter" type. A unit may contain up to 4 hydrocyclones. The fluid is fed to the cyclones by a pump, while
diluting water is supplied by another pump via a mixing valve. The volume of water is controlled by a "flow
rater". The capacity of a typical unit is in the range of 70 litres/min undiluted fluid.
The operating limits of barytes recovery cyclones are as follows.
the separating efficiency depends on the amount of dilution and for normal operation rather large
volumes of water are required (about 5 times the quantity required for a centrifuge); this means that an
ample water supply is an absolute necessity.
excess treatment time/volume will result in low viscosities, followed by barytes settling; part of the clays
and chemicals is also disposed of. It is therefore good practice to add these products in the course of
treatment.
sand and silt are returned with the barytes to the fluid; this will lead to a high drilled solids content.
(39) RIG PUMPS
the efficiency of barytes recovery cyclones is lower than that of a centrifuge
A great advantage of the apparatus is its simplicity. It is less complicated than a centrifuge. This can be
particularly advantageous in remote areas. In general the instruments are very sturdy; maintenance does not
require a qualified mechanic and can be carried out by the rig crew.
3.5.6 GAS REMOVAL EQUIPMENT
Gas may appear in the drilling fluid returns from the well in the form of very small bubbles, causing a
measurable reduction in the fluid density at surface, but no noticeable change in surface volume: this is "gas
cut" drilling fluid.
It should not be confused with larger volumes of gas which will expand rapidly as they reach the surface and
emerge as large bubbles or slugs of dry gas. These are dangerous for their explosive potential, and because they
displace drilling fluid from the well, which is noticed as an increase in surface volume and reduces the
hydrostatic head of the fluid column substantially. If such an increase in surface volume is noticed the well
should be closed in.
Shale shakers remove a good portion of the gas from a badly gas-cut drilling fluid. This is especially true if the
Yield Point is as low as 0.5 kg/m
2
(10 lbs per 100 sq. ft). It is current practice not to use special degassing
equipment if the Yield Point of the drilling fluid is as low as 0.3 kg/m
2
(6 lb per 100 sq. ft). However, in recent
times much higher yield points tend to be experienced.
MUD/GAS SEPARATOR
Once the well is closed in, the slugs of dry gas must be circulated out through the back pressure manifold to the
mud/gas separator (commonly called "poor boy" separator). In this vessel, free gas is diverted to a flare-line,
and the drilling fluid (gas cut) routed to the vacuum degasser (see Figure 3.3.59; the poor boy separator is on the
righthand side).
VACUUM DEGASSER
Virtually all the gas which is entrained in the drilling fluid can be removed by circulating it through the
degasser which is held at a partial vacuum. In this equipment gas-cut drilling fluid is picked up from a small
tank, usually the small tank below the poor boy separator, and pulled through the degasser vessel by a jet pump.
The small vacuum pump mounted on top of the vessel removes the freed gas from the degasser vessel. The fluid
should then be suitable for weighting up if necessary and recirculation.
Figure 3.3.59 shows a SWACO mud/gas separator and vacuum degasser unit and Figure 3.3.60 shows a cross
section through it.
In general, separation of gas out of a liquid is promoted by:
low pressure.
high temperature.
movement of gas cut liquids.
large surface area.
(40) RIG PUMPS
Most of these conditions are met in the degasser:
Low pressure: A vacuum pump keeps a vacuum of at least 2" (50 mm) of mercury with a maximum of
25" (640 mm). The vacuum pump is protected against liquid entry by an automatic regulating valve
which will shut off the liquid.
High temperature: This factor is not controlled and the temperature will be that of the fluid as it enters
the unit.
Movement of the liquid: A jet pump (jet nozzle and vacuum chamber) in the discharge will cause the
fluid to flow through the degasser.
Large contact area: the large contact area between liquid and vacuum is created as the fluid has to flow
over a corrugated baffle inside the vessel (see Figure 3.3.60)
Two points to note are that:
the fluid flow to the jet nozzle should be adjusted to pull at least as much fluid through the degasser as is
being circulated. This is to prevent overflow from the mud/gas separator tank into the active system.
the capacity of the degasser is directly related to the jet pump pressure and jet pump flow rate. The
higher the density of the drilling fluid the higher the supply pressure and the flow rate of the jet pump
will have to be.
The following Table indicates some of the problems that can occur with a vacuum degasser, along with the
causes/solutions.
Symptom Cause/Remedy
Output too low
Increase pressure on jet pump
Partially or fully plugged jet nozzle
Suction inlet covered by sand or plugged
Mud after degasser is
air/gas cut
Leaks in jet pump/vacuum chamber
Output too high
Reduce mud flow to jet nozzle
Throttle butterfly valve

Check vacuum pump by closing valve 5 (vacuum
should be above 28" Hg)
Check all valves and pipe connections. for leakage
Drain automatic liquid shut-off
Check condition of the jet nozzle
Check whether the degasser is clogged with dry
mud

(41) RIG PUMPS
3.3.5 TROUBLE SHOOTING
Table 3.3.3 is a troubleshooting guide and a start-up checklist for use with centrifugal pumps.

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