Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126

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Safety Science
j o u r n a l o ! e " a # e $ % % % & el s e v i e r & c o ! ' l o c a t e ' s s c i
Safety ris( !ana#e!ent for electrical trans!ission an) )istribution line
construction
*le+ *lbert

, -atte% .& /allo%ell

De"art!ent of Civil, 0nviron!ental an) *rcitectural 0n#ineerin#, 1niversity of Colora)o, 228 1C3, 1111 0n#ineerin# Drive, 3oul)er, C4 80303, 1S*
a r t i c l e i n f o
*rticle istory$
.eceive) 25 Se"te!ber 2011
.eceive) in revise) for! 25 6anuary
2012 *cce"te) 3 6une 2012
7ey%or)s$
4ccu"ational
safety .is(
!ana#e!ent
8njury
"revention
0lectrical trans!ission an) )istribution
a b s t r a c t
9rior researc as establise) tat electrical contractors involve) in te construction an) !aintenance of
electrical trans!ission an) )istribution (:;D) lines are at e+tre!ely i# ris( of electrocution& :e
result of ina)vertent contact %it :;D lines often is )eat or severe injury tat involves )a!a#e to
internal or#ans, !usculos(eletal )isor)ers, neurolo#ical )a!a#es an) severe burns& :e 0lectrical
Safety <oun)a=tion 8nternational as )e!onstrate) tat contact %it overea) "o%er lines as been te
sin#le lar#est cause of electrical fatalities over te last )eca)e& :o re)uce tis )is"ro"ortionate injury
rate, electrical contractors i!"le!ent !any strate#ies suc as te use of rubber insulatin# e>ui"!ent,
an) loc(in# )evices& 1nfortunately, tese strate#ies are often cost="roibitive in certain construction an)
!ainte=nance scenarios& :erefore, electrical contractors are face) %it co!"le+ )ecisions tat involve
co!"ar=in# te cost of injury "revention %it te e+"ecte) safety benefit& :is "a"er "resents researc
tat objectively evaluate) te ris( associate) %it co!!on :;D construction tas(s an) te
effectiveness of s"ecific injury "revention tecni>ues& :e researc tea! ten )evelo"e) a )ecision
su""ort fra!e%or( tat "rovi)es electrical contractors %it objective safety an) cost fee)bac( #iven
s"ecific "roject carac=teristics& :e results in)icate tat !any of te effective strate#ies i!"le!ente) to
re)uce :;D electrical injuries are very costly (e&#&, )e=ener#i?in# lines)& Conse>uently, un)er !ost
con)itions, te costs of injury "revention far out%ei# te cost savin#s associate) %it te re)uction of
injury rates& :e i!"li=cation of tese fin)in#s is tat :;D electrical contractors !ust i#ly value te
non=!onetary benefits of injury "revention in or)er to i!"rove safety in teir sector&
2012 0lsevier @t)& *ll
ri#ts reserve)&
1& 8ntro)uction
*ccor)in# to te 1S 0ner#y 8nfor!ation *)!inistration (2010), !ore tan 2 billion !A of electricity is #enerate) annually in
te 1nite) States to serve !ore tan 300 !illion "eo"le& :is electric=ity is trans!itte) for consu!"tion trou# electrical
trans!ission an) )istribution (:;D) lines& :e no!inal volta#e in bul( trans!is=sion lines can be as i# as B50 (V, %ic can cause
instant )eat %en contact is !a)e ( Sort, 2002)& Aor(ers involve) in te con=struction an) !aintenance of tese electrical :;D
lines are at e+=tre!ely i# ris( of electrocution& 8n fact, accor)in# to te 0lectrical Safety <oun)ation 8nternational (2010), contact
%it overea) "o%er lines accounte) for an avera#e of 23C of all elec=trocutions bet%een 1552 an) 2005& 4ter !ajor causes of
occu"a=tional electrocutions inclu)e) contact %it %irin#, transfor!ers, or oter electrical co!"onents (2BC) an) contact %it te
electrical current of !acines, tools, a""liances, or li#t fi+tures (1BC)&
*!on# all occu"ations, te 0lectrical Safety <oun)ation 8nter- national (2010) foun) tat construction contractors account for
Corres"on)in# autor& :el&$ D1 5B0 22B 3B5BE fa+$ D1 303 252 B31B& 0=!ail a))ress$ ale+&albertFcolora)o&e)u (*& *lbert)&
0525=B535'G = see front !atter 2012 0lsevier @t)& *ll ri#ts reserve)& tt"$'')+&)oi&or#'10&1016'j&ssci&2012&06&011
Division of Safety & fre Engineering,SOEPage 1
te i#est rate of electrocutions& Aitin te construction tra)e, electricians accounte) for about 1BC of te
electrocution fatalitiesE construction laborers accounte) for 5CE an) roofers, "ainters, car="enters, an)
!aintenance %or(ers incurre) a total of BC& 3ein) construction, :;D line %or(ers ave te secon)
i#est electrocu=tion rate& :e 3ureau of @abor Statistics (2010a) esti!ate) tat a!on# te 152 recor)e)
electrocution fatalities in 2008, 53C in=volve) :;D %or(ers %o contacte) overea) "o%er lines an) te
Hational 8nstitute for 4ccu"ational Safety an) /ealt (2005) )ocu!ente) tat 80C of fatalities a!on#
line!en ave occurre) )ue to )irect contact %it :;D "o%er lines& :is injury rate cause) te 3ureau of
@abor Statistics (2010a,b) to classify :;D line con=struction an) !aintenance as one of te !ost )an#erous
jobs in te *!erican econo!y& 1nfortunately, a torou# literature re=veale) no si#nificant researc into
te "ro+i!al causes or !eto)s of "revention for :;D fatalities&
:e i!"acts of :;D electrical injuries are substantial& :e result of ina)vertent contact %it :;D lines
is often )eat or severe in=jury tat involves )a!a#e to internal or#ans, !usculos(eletal )is=or)ers,
neurolo#ical )a!a#e, an) severe burns ( @ee et al&, 2000)& Suc injuries cause lon#=ter! "ysical an)
e!otional )istress to %or(ers an) teir fa!ilies& 8n a))ition, tese injuries an) fatalities
*& *lbert, -&.& /allo%ell ' Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126 115
result in substantial econo!ic e+"enses suc as$ i#er insurance "re!iu!s, !e)ical cost, co!"ensations,
lost "ro)uctivity, a)!in=istrative costs, an) oters ( 0verret an) <ran(, 1556E <erret an) /u#es, 200BE
4+enbur# an) -arlo%, 1556E :an# et al&, 2002)& *ccor)in# to Aaerer et al& (200B), te construction
"rivate sector accounte) for G11&5 billion in fatal an) non=fatal injuries in te year 2002& :e electrical :;D
sector contribute) #reatly to tese statistics& 8n fact, te avera#e cost of eac electrical fatality %as G2
!illion an) te cost of eac lost %or( ti!e injury %as G22,20B& Des"ite te i# injury an) fatality rates an)
teir severe financial an) "ersonal i!"acts, te electrical :;D in)ustry contin=ues to #ro% at an alar!in#
rate&
.esearc in te electrical :;D sector as "re)icte) tat recent tecnolo#ical a)vances %ill force utility
co!"anies to construct ne% lines, !aintain e+istin# lines, an) u"#ra)e teir "erfor!ance ( 3al)ucci et al&,
2002)& 8t as also been esti!ate) tat te )e!an) for electricity %ill increase by !ore tan 1 trillion (A
fro! te years 2003 to 2020 <urter, stu)ies by Cu"(a et al& (2008) ave so%n tat, te electrical utilities
%ill ave to !a(e an invest!ent of G1&5G2&0 trillion by te year 2030 to (ee" u" %it te "ace in )e!an)&
:ese invest!ents to enance te :;D infrastructure %ill li(ely increase te volu!e an) co!"le+ity of
:;D electrical line %or( over te ne+t 20 years (0S<8, 2010)& 0lectrical utilities an) contractin# co!"anies
clearly nee) to consi)er injury "revention strate#ies tat re)uce te fre>uency an) severity of injuries an)
teir associate) !onetary an) non=!onetary costs& Aen a))ress=in# tis issue, electrical contractors an)
utility co!"anies are face) %it co!"le+ )ecisions involvin# %ei#in# te cost of injury "re=vention
a#ainst te e+"ecte) safety benefit&
:e "ur"ose of tis stu)y %as to objectively evaluate te costs an) benefits of safety !ana#e!ent
tecni>ues in te electrical :;D sector of te 1S construction in)ustry for co!!only=encoun=tere) %or(
scenarios& :e associate) objectives of tis researc stu)y %ere to$ (1) i)entify co!!on %or( tas(s
"erfor!e) aroun) :;D lines an) safety strate#ies use) by utility co!"anies to "re=vent injuriesE (2)
>uantify te safety ris( associate) %it eac %or( tas( usin# a co!bination of o"inion=base) an) e!"irical
)ataE (3) >uantify te "ercent ris( re)uce) by te various injury "revention strate#iesE an) (2) a""ly a ris(=
base) contin#ent liability !o)el )evelo"e) by /allo%ell (2011) to analy?e te costbenefit of te injury
"revention strate#ies un)er s"ecific %or( scenarios& :e re=sult is a stable, vali), an) reliable )ecision
su""ort tool tat "ro=vi)es critical safety an) cost fee)bac( tat "ractitioners can use to !a(e infor!e)
)ecisions tat enance bot safety an) financial "erfor!ance&
2& @iterature revie%
:o "rovi)e conte+t for tis stu)y an) better un)erstan) te un=i>ue features of te electrical :;D sector,
te %riters revie%e) lit=erature on te to"ics of electrical :;D o"eration, te effect of i# volta#e
electrical current on te u!an bo)y, safety ris( >uantifi=cation, an) safety ris( !iti#ation& :ou# a
torou# revie% re=veale) no researc tat a) s"ecifically >uantifie) safety ris(s in te :;D sector or te
i!"acts of co!!only i!"le!ente) injury "revention strate#ies, #ui)ance fro! si!ilar stu)ies in oter
in)ustry sectors %ere use) as #ui)ance& :e results of tis litera=ture revie% are su!!ari?e) briefly belo%&
2&1& 0lectricity trans!ission an) )istribution (:;D) o"eration
:ra)itionally, electricity is #enerate) by te conversion of te store) ener#y in #as, oil, nuclear fuel or
%ater "osition ( 7ara)y, 2006)& 0lectricity !ay also be #enerate) by utili?in# ener#y )e=rive) fro! solar,
%in), #eoter!al, ce!ical "rocesses an) even
lan)fills ( Aa#ner, 200B)& :e volta#e at te "oint of #eneration is usually bet%een 15 an) 25 (V, %ic,
unfortunately, is not i)eal for trans!ission )ue to losses tat !ay occur& 8n or)er to re)uce "o%er losses
)urin# trans!ission, a transfor!er is use) to ste" u" te volta#e in te trans!ission line to 230B50 (V&
Subse=>uently, te volta#e is re)uce) at a substation "rece)in# te sub=trans!ission lines bet%een 65 an)
165 (V, %ic lea)s to te "ri=!ary )istribution line %ere te volta#e is !aintaine) bet%een 2 an) 35 (V (
Sort, 2002)& <inally te )istribution transfor!er re=)uces te volta#e to 120 an) 220 V, %ic is su""lie)
to consu!=ers trou# te secon)ary )istribution lines&
2&2& 8!"acts of i# volta#e electrical current on te u!an bo)y
:e effect of contact of electricity %it te u!an bo)y is i#ly ran)o! an) often !anifests itself in a
nu!ber of %ays& 0lectrical injuries are usually in)uce) "ri!arily trou# a?ar)s suc as soc(, arc an)
blast ( Car)ic( et al&, 2005)& 8n te case of an electric soc(, te )e#ree of te injuries is ty"ically a function
of te intensity of current, current flo% "at, te )uration of con=tact %it te source, an) te volta#e
!a#nitu)e ( @ee an) Dou#er- ty, 2003)& :e nervous, !usculos(eletal, car)iovascular an) te "ul!onary
syste! can be a)versely affecte) )ue to te flo% of electricity ( S"ies an) :ro!an, 2006)& Ior)on an)
Cartelli (2005) recently cate#ori?e) electrical injuries as$
8!!e)iate effects on te nervous syste! fro! soc( currents, inclu)in# life treatenin# effects on te
eart, breatin#, an) brainE
3urns to te bo)y fro! ot con)uctors cause) by i# currents flo%in# trou# !etal con)uctors, )oes
not necessarily involve a soc(E
8nternal tissue )a!a#e fro! soc( currents flo%in# trou# te bo)y tat ran#es fro! !il) cellular
)a!a#e to !ajor )a!a#e to or#ans an) li!bsE an)
0+ternal burns an) oter "ysical injury )ue to an arc, creatin# an arc flas (ter!al ener#y) an)'or an
arc blast (inclu)in# acoustic an) (inetic ener#y)&
*s !entione) above, a"art fro! co!"le+ities suc as as"y+ia ( Soe!a(er an) -ac(, 2005),
arryt!ias, asytole, an) !yocar)ial injury ( S"ies an) :ro!an, 2006), fatalities or injuries !ay result
even %en tere is no electrical current flo% trou# te bo)y (e&#&, electrical i#nition fire, blast, fall) (
Car)ic( et al&, 2005)& *ltou# very little can be )one to re)uce te severity of electrical contact ( Soelen,
200B), !uc can be )one to re)uce %or(ers e+"o=sure to electrical current an) to re)uce te fre>uency of
injuries incurre)&
2&3& Safety ris( >uantification
Juantifyin# occu"ational safety ris(s for te "ur"ose of re=source allocation is beco!in# increasin#ly
"o"ular in te aca)e!ic an) "rofessional researc co!!unities& .is( is )efine) as, a !ea=sure of te
"robability of occurrence of an inci)ent an) te severity of te a)verse conse>uence tat results fro! an
e+"osure to a a?=ar) ( *HS8, 2000E @o%rance, 15B6E H<9*1500, 2002E HSC, 2005)& :ese a)verse effects
(suc as an injury) often result in cost over=runs, sce)ule )elays, an) "o
Sti!ulus of te !uscles fro! current flo%in# trou# te bo)y, inclu)in# refle+ action an) bein# KKfro?enLL
to te circuitE or "erfor!ance ( Sun et al&, 2008)& 8n te "ast, researcers ave un)erta(en )iverse
a""roaces to assess safety ris( in construction an) infrastructure "rojects& <or e+a!"le, @ee an) /al"in
(2003) utili?e) fu??y !ate!atical tecni>ues an) e+"ert in"uts to assess factors influencin# acci)ent
"otential in te conte+t of trencin# o"erations, IMrcanli an) -Mn#en (2005)
120 *& *lbert, -&.& /allo%ell ' Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126
"ro"ose) a fu??y rule=base) analysis !eto)olo#y to assess safety ris( %it lin#uistic variables, an) Sun et
al& (2008) usin# e+"ert rat=in#s an) te analytical ierarcy "rocess (*/9) in teir >uantifica=tion of safety
ris(s& 4ter researcers ave use) !ore for!al fra!e%or(s an) in)e"en)ent >uantification of fre>uency,
severity an) e+"osure in teir evaluation of safety ris(s (e&#&, 3ara)an an) 1s!en, 2006E 6anna)i an)
*l!isari, 2003E /allo%ell an) Ia!ba- tese, 2005)& :ese stu)ies i)entify ris( as a function of te fre=
>uency of inci)entsE severity of injuryE an) e+"osure )uration& 0>& (1) so%s te relationsi" bet%een te
co!"onents of unit ris( an) 0>& (2) so%s te relationsi"s a!on# te co!"onents of cu!ulative ris(&
Cu!ulative ris( is also (no%n as e+"ecte) value&
1. N f O s P1Q
%ere 1. is unit ris( !easure) in G "er % E f is fre>uency !ea=sure) in injuries "er % , s is severity
!easure) in G "er injury&
C. N 1. O e N f O s O e P2Q
%ere C. is cu!ulative ris( !easure) in G an) e is e+"osure )ura=tion !easure) in % &
8n te above e>uation, fre>uency is in)icative of te "ros"ect of !a(in# contact %it te a?ar) "er unit
ti!eE severity refers to te "robable outco!es (e&#&, fatalities, injuries, )a!a#es an) lost %or(=ti!e )ue to
acci)ents)E an) e+"osure si#nifies te ti!e "er=io) s"ent in "ro+i!ity to te a?ar) (e&#&, )ays)& :is
e>uation as been use) by Soelen (200B) to )e!onstrate te i# ris( "rofile associate) %it %or( on
"o%er lines& :ou# te fre>uency of con=tact is lo%, e+"osure can be i# an) te severity of contact is
very e+tre!e&
2&2& Safety ris( !ana#e!ent an) !iti#ation
:e 1S 4ccu"ational Safety an) /ealt *)!inistration (4S/*) ol) bot te e!"loyer an) te
e!"loyee res"onsible for safety relate) issues in te %or( "lace& :e e!"loyer is to "rovi)e te %or(force
%it a "lace free fro! any reco#ni?e) a?ar) ( Ailson an) 7oen, 2000), "ersonal "rotective e>ui"!ent,
an) trainin# to enance safety "erfor!ance ( S"ell!an, 1558) an) e!"loyees !ust co!"ly %it te
re#ulations set by te e!"loyer an) relevant re#=ulatory bo)ies&
0!"loyers ave reco#ni?e) tat te first ste" in safety ris( !ana#e!ent is to i)entify )or!ant an)
active a?ar)s %ic !ay e+ist or !ay be invo(e) by %or(er beavior at te %or(site ( -acCollu!, 200B)&
:is is often acco!"lise) trou# revie%in# te sco"e of "rojects, sce)ules an) oter relevant
)ocu!entation to i)entify "ossible a?ar)s& *ccor)in# to 4S/* (2002, "& 11), !ost a?ar)s in te :;D
in)ustry result )ue to KKunsafe e>ui"!ent or installationE unsafe environ!entE an) unsafe %or( "racticesLL&
/av=in# i)entifie) te "otential a?ar)s, ris( !iti#ation tecni>ues are i!"le!ente) in or)er to control te
fre>uency, severity an) e+"o=sure level of injuries& :is is ty"ically acco!"lise) by te use of electrical
safety e>ui"!ent (e&#&, 990, barriers)E an) safety "roce=)ures an) !eto)s (e&#&, #roun)in#, )e=ener#i?in#
"o%er lines) ( Car)ic( et al&, 2005)& 4S/* (2002) su##ests !easures suc as insu=latin# con)uctors by te
use of #lass, !ica, rubber, or "lasticE #uar)in# ener#i?e) "arts to avoi) acci)ental contactE #roun)in# of
con)uctors an) e>ui"!ent to avoi) volta#e sur#esE use of circuit "rotectionE an) oter safety %or( "ractices&
*ltou# "ublications by re#ulatory bo)ies set te stan)ar)s an) encoura#e te use of ris( !iti#atin#
tecni>ues, utility )eci=sion !a(ers often are )ra%n to%ar)s re#ulatory co!"liance, tereby !ini!i?in#
safety invest!ent to tat %ic is only )e=!an)e) by la% ( Soy(a an) <el)!an, 1558)& :eir resistance can
be ascribe) to te assu!"tion tat e+"en)in# resources on safety, co!"ro!ises "rofit "otential by
increasin# te cost of te "roject& Des"ite tis attitu)e, @ancaster et al& (2003) ar#ue) tat invest=
!ents in injury "revention results in econo!ic benefits& Several oter stu)ies so% si!ilar evi)ence for te cost=effectiveness of injury "revention in certain %or(
scenarios (e&#&, /allo%ell, 2010a,bE 6asels(is et al&, 1556E /allo%ell an) Ia!batese, 2005E 6er- vis an) Collins, 2001E S!all!an an) 6on, 2001)& /o%ever,
)es"ite te i# injury rate in te electrical :;D in)ustry, no researc as s"ecifically e+a!ine) te relation bet%een injuries an) benefits of e+"en)in# to%ar)s
enancin# safety& :e "resent stu)y as been con)ucte) %it te ai! a))ressin# tis #a" in (no%le)#e&
3& .esearc !eto)s
:e researc "rocess involve) t%o )istinct "ases, eac )e=si#ne) to acieve in)ivi)ual but relate) objectives& :e "ur"ose of te first "ase %as to obtain
conte+tual infor!ation re#ar)in# te %or( tat contractors ty"ically "erfor! on electrical :;D lines an) te !eto)s tat tey use to "revent injuries& :is
conte+tual infor!ation %as ten use) in te secon) "ase of te researc %ere an e+"ert "anel rate) te relative ris(s of te co!!on tas(s an) te ris( re)uce)
by te various injury "revention strate#ies& :e results %ere finally co!"ile) into a )ecision su""ort syste! usin# a ris(=base) contin#ent liability !o)el& :e
)etails of tese "ases are "rovi)e) belo%&
3&1& 9ase 1$ 0+"loratory intervie%s
:o initiate tis 2=year researc effort, e+"loratory intervie%s %ere con)ucte) %it lea)ers in te electrical :;D sector in or)er to i)entify co!!on :;D
construction activities an) injury "reven=tion strate#ies& :ese )ata %oul) serve as te un)erlyin# fra!e%or( for te subse>uent "ase& Se!i=structure)
intervie%s %ere selecte) for tis initial effort because, in co!"arison to surveys, tey "rovi)e !ore fle+ibility for e+"loration an) )ee"er un)erstan)in# of te
subject ( <o%ler an) -an#ione, 1550)& 8ntervie%s, as o""ose) to >uestionnaires, also allo% for clarification, )etaile) insi#t, an) ave been so%n to ave i#er
res"onse rates ( 3ry!an, 2002)&
8ntervie%ee contacts %ere asse!ble) fro! 0@0C:.8 8nterna=tionalLs 0lectrical :;D Co!!ittee, !e!ber or#ani?ations of te Construction 8n)ustry 8nstitute
(C88), an) oter "ro!inent utility an) contractin# co!"any contacts el) by te researc tea!& 4f te 1B "otential intervie%ees contacte), four electrical
contractors an) si+ utility re"resentatives a#ree) to "artici"ate& :is nu!ber of e+"erts %as a)e>uate to "rovi)e teoretical saturation an) re="eate) evi)ence (
Strauss an) Corbin, 1558)& :o initiate te inter=vie% "rocess, te "artici"ants %ere contacte) via "one an) te "ur"ose of te intervie%s %as )escribe)& 9rior to
te actual inter=vie% )ate, te "artici"ants %ere encoura#e) to revie% "roject sce)ules, job a?ar) analyses, an) oter relevant )ocu!ents tat %oul) ai) te! in
teir res"onses& 8n total, 25 salient %or( tas(s an) si+teen injury "revention strate#ies %ere i)entifie) fro! tese intervie%s& :e tas(s are liste) an) )escribe) in
:able 1 an) te !iti#ation strate#ies are liste) an) )escribe) in :able 2.
3&2& 9ase 2$ Juantification of safety ris(s an) ris( !iti#ation i!"acts
:e objectives of te secon) researc "ase %ere to (1) >uantify te relative ris( of te co!!on %or( tas(s an) (2) >uantify te "ro"ortion of ris( !iti#ate)
by ty"ical injury "revention strate#ies& 3ecause arcival an) e!"irical )ata )o not e+ist for tese tas(s an) safety strate#ies, te researc tea! )eci)e) to a))ress
tese objec=tives usin# a )etaile) survey of in)ustry e+"erts as a "ri!ary )ata collection effort base) on "ast in)ustry e!"irical "erfor!ance )ata& 8n or)er to
obtain vali) an) reliable )ata, it %as of te ut!ost i!"ortance tat te survey "artici"ants a) a si#nificant a!ount of "ractical e+"erience in te electrical :;D
sector&
*& *lbert, -&.& /allo%ell ' Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126 121
:able 1
:rans!ission an) )istribution construction'!aintenance activities&
:as( 3rief )efinition
4"eratin# e>ui"!ent near ener#i?e) lines 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to or#ani?e an) sta#e !aterial use) for electrical facilities
0ner#i?e lines'e>ui"!ent="ut in service 9lacin# electrical lines an) e>ui"!ent in service for )istributin# "o%er to en) users
0+cavation'trencin# an) installin# foun)ation 0+cavatin# an) construction of te foun)ation to "lace electric facilities in "osition to )istribute
electric "o%er to custo!ers
Cli!bs "ole'o"erates on aerial lifts 9ositionin# %or(ers to "ysically %or( on electric circuits
Iroun)in#'re!ovin# #roun)in# 1sin# tools to bon) onto e+istin# circuits creatin# an electrical "at to #roun) (creatin# a KKsort
circuitLL)
<ra!in# of te!"orary an) "er!anent structures 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to asse!ble !aterial to be use) in establisin# an) !aintainin# electric
syste!s
8ns"ect'troublesootin# "o%er lines'e>ui"!ent 4bservin# "resent con)itions of e+istin# electrical facilities
S"lice, re"air, an) install con)uctors an) %irin# 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to effectively a)) onto or re"air !aterial use) to con)uct electricity
Clearin#'tri!!in# trees an) buses 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to re!ove ve#etation fro! areas %ere electrical "o%er facilities e+ist
-ove ener#i?e) con)uctor 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to can#e "osition of ener#i?e) electric e>ui"!ent
*sse!blin#'re"airin# e>ui"!ent an) ar)%are :e "rocess of creatin# an) !aintainin# electrical facilities&
:raffic Control :o ai) in te flo% of "e)estrian an) veicle traffic for te interest of "ublic safety
/an#in# an) installin# transfor!ers an) vaults 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to install transfor!ers an) transfor!er vaults
8nstallation an) connection of busses, s%itces, circuit brea(ers, 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to install o"erational co!"onents suc as busses, s%itces, circuit
an) re#ulators brea(ers, an) re#ulators
8nstallin# con)uit or cable trou# 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to install con)uits or cable trou#
8nstallin# insulators 8nstallin# insulators to su""ort con)uctors an) "rovi)e insulation
*sse!bly an) erection of substation 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to install an) erect substations to transfor! volta#es
.e!ove're"lace e+istin# line .e!oval or re"lace!ent of electrical lines )urin# routine !aintenance
8nstallin# li#tnin# arrestors 8nstallin# )evices on "o%er syste!s to "rotect insulation an) oter )a!a#es tat can be cause) by
li#tnin#
Sa##in# to "rovi)e clearance bet%een %ires :e "rocess of a)justin# te tension in overea) "o%er lines
*ttacin#'re"lace!ent of insulators 9rovi)in# insulation after s"licin# con)uctors or re#ular !aintenance %or(
.e"lacin# siel) %ire .e"lacin# te siel) %ires )urin# routine !aintenance
8nstallin#'re!ovin# )a!"ers 8nstallin# )a!"ers to control vibrations in te cables tat !ay be cause) by %in)s
8nstall're!ove s"acers 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to install s"acers to avoi) contact "o%er lines
-eterin#'testin#'!easurin# 1sin# tools an) e>ui"!ent to !onitor te "erfor!ance of electric facilities
:able 2
8njury "revention !eto)s&
8njury "revention !eto)s Descri"tion
.ubber insulatin# "ersonal 1se of rubber insulatin# e>ui"!ent suc as rubber #loves, sleeves, line ose, blan(ets, covers, an) !ats tat co!"ly %it *S:-
"rotective e>ui"!ent re>uire!ents
1sin# ot stic(s 1se of insulate) ot stic( "oles tat allo% %or(ers to !ani"ulate an) !ove ener#i?e) lines fro! a safe )istance
<ollo% safety "roce)ures <ollo%in# safety "roce)ures as "rovi)e) by re#ulatory bo)ies'electrical stan)ar)s (e&#& H0C, H<9* B00, H0SC, 4S/*) an) #eneral
in)ustry safety "ractices
8ns"ection of e>ui"!ent "rior to Con)uctin# )etaile) ins"ection of all electrical safety e>ui"!ent "rior to %or( to ensure its effectiveness to "revent'!ini!i?e
%or( a?ar)s an) acci)ents
9lace!ent of safety #roun)s Connectin# te circuit to te #roun) to "revent te buil)in#=u" of line'li#tnin# sur#es, static electricity, etc& %en %or( is
bein# carrie) out
6ob a?ar) analysis * tecni>ue in %ic sce)ules an) activities are revie%e) %it te "ur"ose of i)entifyin# a?ar)s before tey occur
8nsulate) ar) ats %it electrical 1se of ar) ats %it electrical insulation %ic co!"lies %it te re>uire!ents of *HS8 Stan)ar) R 85
insulation
1se of 3arriers an) si#ns 1se of barriers an) si#ns to infor! "ersonnel of te e+istence of an active')or!ant a?ar)
Safety ta#s or loc(=out=ta#=out 1se of safety ta#s, loc(s an) loc(in# )evices to secure an) !ar( lines an) )evices to avoi) acci)ental ener#i?ation
1se of volta#e !easurin# 1se of volta#e !easurin# )evises to ascertain te status of electric lines an) e>ui"!ent "rior to be %or(e) on
instru!ents
Safety #roun)in# e>ui"!ent 1sin# of rate) safety #roun) e>ui"!ent to "rotect %or(ers by sort circuitin# an) #roun)in# )e=ener#i?e) con)uctors
<all arrest or oter restraint syste!s 1se of syste!s to "rotect %or(ers fro! te ris( of falls an) co!in# in contact %it ener#i?e) lines in te "ro+i!ity )urin# a fall
3on)in# con)uctors to create -aintainin# %or(er in an e>ui"otential ?one by connectin# all !etallic "arts to for! electrical continuity to avoi) ?ones of
e>ui"otential "otential )ifference %itin is reac
De=ener#i?in# :;D lines :is involves te suttin# )o%n of te flo% of electricity trou# te lines )urin# %or(
Cra)le to cra)le use of rubber #loves 1se of rubber #loves an) sleeves anyti!e te line!an !oves te buc(et'boo! out of te cra)le %en tere is a "ossibility of
an) sleeves a""roacin# ener#i?e) circuits %it te buc(et
1se of "ro"er flas'ter!al rate) 1se of flas'ter!al "rotective e>ui"!ent %en %or(in# %itin te flas boun)ary )istance
clotin#
8n or)er to be >ualifie) as an Ke+"ertL for te secon) "ase, a "artici"ant !ust be )esi#nate) as a safety "rofessional in an or#a=ni?ation involve) in te :;D
in)ustry an) ave a !ini!u! of 10 years of "rofessional e+"erience in occu"ational safety& 9oten=tial "artici"ants %ere i)entifie) fro! te ori#inal "anel in
9ase 1, !e!bers of te 0)ison 0lectric 8nstitute (088), an) te Hational 0lectrical Contractors *ssociation (H0C*)& 8n total, 21 e+"erts >ual=ifie) as Ke+"ertsL
an) a#ree) to "artici"ate in te stu)y& 8n a))ition to te re>uisite >ualifications nee)e) to acieve e+"ert status for
tis stu)y, ei#t of tese in)ivi)uals are Certifie) Safety 9rofes=sionals (CS9), four are certifie) Construction /ealt an) Safety :ecnicians (C/S:), an) t%elve
ol) a)vance) )e#rees in fiel)s re=late) to occu"ational safety& Suc an e+"ert "anel enances re=searc vali)ity %en obtainin# a lar#e nu!ber of sa!"les is
unrealistic ( 9atton, 1550)& <ortunately te "anel %as bot "rofes=sionally an) #eo#ra"ically )is"erse)& :en of te e+"erts re"re=sente) utility co!"anies, eleven
re"resente) electrical :;D contractors, an) every !ajor re#ion of te 1S %as re"resente)&
122 *& *lbert, -&.& /allo%ell ' Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126
:able 3
*ctivity level ris( >uantification&
:as( <irst ai) -e)ical case @ost %or( ti!e <atality C.
< S (G) 1. (G) < S (G) 1. (G) < S (G) 1. (G) < S (G) 1. (G)
4"eratin# e>ui"!ent near 1&00 25&00 25&00 1&00 5,000&00 5,000&00 0&200 20,000&00 2,000&00 0&0003 500,000&00 2B0&00 5,255&00
ener#i?e) lines
0ner#i?e lines'e>ui"!ent= 0&20 22&50 5&00 0&20 5,000&00 1,000&00 0&185 25,000&00 2,B25&00 0&0002 550,000&00 150&00 5,522&00
"ut in service
0+cavation'trencin# an) 0&50 25&00 12&50 0&10 2,000&00 200&00 0&100 20,000&00 2,000&00 0&0002 550,000&00 150&00 2,202&50
8nstallin# foun)ation
Cli!bs "ole'o"erates on 1&00 25&00 25&00 0&10 2,500&00 250&00 0&100 30,000&00 3,000&00 0&0003 500,000&00 2B0&00 3,525&00
aerial lifts
Iroun)in#'re!ovin# 0&05 22&50 2&12 0&05 3,B50&00 18B&50 0&100 22,500&00 2,250&00 0&0001 1,000,000&00 50&00 2,285&62
#roun)in#
<ra!in# of te!"orary an) 0&10 22&50 2&25 0&05 3,000&00 282&00 0&052 20,000&00 1,880&00 0&0002 500,000&00 180&00 2,322&25
"er!anent structures
8ns"ect'troublesootin# 0&10 22&50 2&21 0&10 1,B50&00 1B5&00 0&100 20,000&00 2,000&00 0&0001 500,000&00 50&00 2,26B&21
"o%er lines'e>ui"!ent
S"lice, re"air, an) install 0&50 25&00 12&50 0&12 5,000&00 B10&00 0&122 5,000&00 B10&00 0&0002 500,000&00 180&00 1,612&50
con)uctors an) %irin#
Clearin#'tri!!in# trees an) 0&10 25&00 2&50 0&10 2,000&00 200&00 0&02B 1B,500&00 822&50 0&0003 500,000&00 2B0&00 1,255&00
buses
-ove ener#i?e) con)uctor 0&10 25&00 2&50 0&05 1,B50&00 82&25 0&02B 22,500&00 1,05B&50 0&0001 550,000&00 55&00 1,23B&25
*sse!blin#'re"airin# 0&02 25&00 1&00 0&03 2,250&00 6B&50 0&02B 15,000&00 B05&00 0&0001 500,000&00 50&00 863&50
e>ui"!ent an) ar)%are
:raffic control 0&02 25&00 0&50 0&10 3,B50&00 3B5&00 0&003 20,000&00 60&00 0&0002 550,000&00 150&00 625&50
/an#in# an) installin# 0&10 2B&50 2&B5 0&10 3,500&00 350&00 0&002 20,000&00 20&00 0&0002 550,000&00 150&00 582&B5
transfor!ers an) vaults
8nstallation an) connection of 0&20 22&50 5&00 0&12 2,000&00 282&00 0&005 20,000&00 100&00 0&0001 550,000&00 55&00 288&00
busses, s%itces, circuit
brea(ers, an) re#ulators
8nstallin# con)uit or cable 0&55 3B&50 20&63 0&05 3,500&00 315&00 0&001 20,000&00 20&00 0&0001 550,000&00 2B&50 203&13
trou#
8nstallin# insulators 0&02 25&00 0&50 0&10 2,000&00 200&00 0&001 20,000&00 20&00 0&0002 500,000&00 180&00 200&50
*sse!bly an) erection of 0&10 25&00 2&50 0&10 1,B50&00 1B5&00 0&002 20,000&00 20&00 0&0001 500,000&00 50&00 30B&50
substation
.e!ove're"lace e+istin# line 0&05 25&00 1&18 0&02 2,B50&00 55&00 0&002 20,000&00 20&00 0&0002 500,000&00 180&00 2B6&18
8nstallin# li#tnin# arrestors 0&02 25&00 0&50 0&02 1,B50&00 35&00 0&002 30,000&00 60&00 0&0002 500,000&00 180&00 2B5&50
Sa##in# an) "rovi)in# for 0&01 25&00 0&25 0&01 2,250&00 22&50 0&002 20,000&00 20&00 0&0002 500,000&00 180&00 222&B5
clearance bet%een %ires
*ttacin#'re"lace!ent of 0&02 25&00 0&50 0&01 2,250&00 22&50 0&010 12,500&00 125&00 0&0001 500,000&00 50&00 238&00
insulators
.e"lacin# siel) %ire 0&05 25&00 1&25 0&03 2,500&00 B5&00 0&002 20,000&00 20&00 0&0001 500,000&00 50&00 206&25
8nstallin#'re!ovin# )a!"ers 0&02 25&00 0&50 0&02 2,500&00 50&00 0&002 20,000&00 20&00 0&0001 500,000&00 50&00 180&50
8nstall're!ove S"acers 0&02 25&00 0&50 0&02 2,500&00 50&00 0&002 20,000&00 20&00 0&0001 500,000&00 50&00 180&50
-eterin#'testin#'!easurin# 0&10 3B&50 3&B5 0&01 2,250&00 22&50 0&002 20,000&00 20&00 0&0001 500,000&00 112&50 1B8&B5
:otal 5&21 120&8B 2&B2 10185&B5 1&20 25855&00 0&002 3680&00 35861&62
< S 8njuries "er 200,000 % &
S S Cost "er injury&
1. S Cost "er 200,000 % &
C. S Su! of unit ris(s across all severity levels for a "articular tas(&
*fter i)entifyin# >ualifie) e+"erts, te survey "ac(a#e %as !aile) to eac "otential "artici"ant, %ic inclu)e) te results fro! 9ase 1E an e+"lanation of te
"ur"ose, !eto), an) i!"lica=tions of te stu)yE an) te structure) survey& *s an initial ste", te "artici"ants %ere as(e) to verify te co!"leteness of te results
fro! 9ase 1 to ensure tat all salient tas(s an) ris( !iti#ation strate#ies %ere i)entifie)& :e "artici"ants %ere ten as(e) to co!"lete te survey, %ic inclu)e)
bot ris( ratin#s for te tas(s an) ris( !iti#ation ratin#s for te safety strate#ies&
Aen ratin# te ris( of eac of te 25 tas(s, te "artici"ants %ere instructe) to (1) "rovi)e an esti!ate of te actual fre>uency of injuries tat occur "er
200,000 % for eac of te follo%in# severity levels$ first ai), !e)ical case, lost %or( ti!e, an) fatality an) (2) "rovi)e te ty"ical cost in )ollars for eac tas(
an) severity level& <or e+a!"le, te "anel %as as(e) to "rovi)e bot te fre=>uency (injuries "er 200,000 % ) an) costs (G) of first ai), !e)ical case, lost %or(
ti!e, an) fatal injuries associate) %it o"eratin# e>ui"!ent near ener#i?e) lines& Aen "rovi)in# cost )ata, te e+="erts %ere as(e) to consi)er bot )irect costs
(e&#&, actual !e)ical
e+"enses, !aterial )a!a#e) an) in)irect costs (e&#&, "ro)uctivity losses, overti!e, te!"orary e!"loyee re"lace!ent costs)& * total of 200 ratin#s (25 tas(s O 2
severity levels O 2 ris( co!"onents) %ere solicite) in tis first section of te survey&
8n te secon) section of te survey, te e+"ert "artici"ants %ere as(e) to rate te "ro"ortion of ris( !iti#ate) by eac injury "re=vention strate#y for eac tas(
on a 0100C scale& <or e+a!"le, an e+"ert %as as(e) to rate te "ro"ortion of ris( !iti#ate) by usin# Kot stic(sL for eac of te four severity levels& 0+"erts
%ere also as(e) to "rovi)e te ty"ical costs of i!"le!entin# eac of te 16 injury "revention strate#ies "er %or(er=%ee(& 8n total, 80 ratin#s (16 !iti#ation
strate#ies O 2 severity levels D 16 costs) %ere solic=ite) fro! eac e+"ert in tis secon) section& <or bot sections of tis survey, te e+"ert "artici"ants %ere
as(e) to revie% 4S/* 300 lo#s an) co!"any )ata %en "rovi)in# ratin#s& -ost e+"erts revie%e) 4S/* 300 lo#s "ertainin# to te "ast 5 years, %ic is a
re#ulatory re>uire!ent to be !aintaine)& :%o e+"erts a) access to injury lo#s "ertainin# to te last 20 years& *lso, because of te li!itation an) ina)e>uacy
associate) %it te use of inci)ent
*& *lbert, -&.& /allo%ell ' Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126 123
:able 2
Cost an) ris( !iti#ate) by injury "revention !eto)s&
8njury "revention !eto)s Cost
T
(G) C Decrease in ris( (rrj)
<irst ai) -e)ical case @ost %or( ti!e <atality
.ubber insulatin# "ersonal "rotective e>ui"!ent 100&00 30 50 B0 50
1sin# ot stic(s B5&00 25 68 85 50
<ollo% safety "roce)ures 25&00 80 50 50 58
8ns"ection all e>ui"!ent "rior to %or( 25&00 50 50 50 B3
9lace!ent of safety #roun)s 125&00 23 58 68 85
6ob a?ar) analysis 100&00 20 30 60 B5
8nsulate) ar) ats = "rovi)in# electrical insulation 20&00 10 20 25 35
1se of barriers an) si#ns 60&00 10 20 20 15
Safety ta#s or loc(=out=ta#=out 25&00 23 63 B3 85
1se of volta#e !easurin# instru!ents 30&00 10 50 60 B8
Safety #roun)in# e>ui"!ent 100&00 10 B5 B5 83
<all arrest or oter restraint syste!s 100&00 10 30 60 B5
3on)in# to te con)uctor to create e>ui"otential 100&00 10 50 50 B5
De=ener#i?in# :;D lines 800&00 65 B8 88 55
Cra)le to cra)le use of rubber #loves an) sleeves 20&00 0 50 50 50
1se of "ro"er fire rate) clotin# in ener#i?e) areas 20&00 10 30 50 50
T
Denotes cost "er %or(er "er %ee(&
:able 5
Case e+a!"le so%in# resi)ual ris(&
8njury "revention .is( re)uction .. (resi)ual ris( .es) Cu!ulative C re)uction C0 1<
!eto)s ris( in resi)ual
<irst ai) -e)ical case @ost %or( ti!e <atality :otal
!iti#ate) (G) ris( (C)
3ase=level ris( G0&56 G20&B2 G103&22 G12&B2 0 (G155&25)
<ollo% safety G0&25(G0&11) G36&6B(G2&0B) G53&08(G10&32) G12&23(G0&25) G122&63(G12&82) 122&63 50&B1 0&2852262 3&25B262B
"roce)ures
.ubber insulatin# G0&03(G0&08) G2&02(G2&02) GB&22(G3&10) G0&26(G0&03) G5&58(G5&25) 152&20 62&5B 0&0616B52 16&2128B5
"ersonal
"rotective
e>ui"!ent
9lace!ent of safety G0&03(G0&02) G1&18(G0&86) G2&11(G0&55) G0&03(G0&00) G3&35(G1&50) 15B&55 63&81 0&031505B 31&B36226
#roun)s
C0 S 3enefit to cost ratio&
1< S -easure of invest!ent re>uire) to obtain a return of G1&
!etrics in !o)elin# safety "erfor!ance ( Ca!eron an) Duff, 200B) in te entire in)ustry, as "resente) in te 4S/* 300 lo#s, te e+="erts eavily relie) on teir
"ast e+"erience in te in)ustry&
2& .esults an) )iscussion
:e researc "rocess resulte) in a lar#e volu!e of i# >uality )ata& 8n fact, 280 ratin#s %ere obtaine) fro! eac of te 21 e+"ert "artici"ants for a total of
5,880 ratin#s& *s su##este) by /eat an) :in)ale (1552), <iel) (2005), an) -ann (2003)E te !e)ian ratin#s rater tan !ean ratin#s %ere re"orte) to
!ini!i?e effects of co#=nitive biases suc as recency, "ri!acy, an) contrast an) to re)uce te i!"acts of e+tre!e outliers& :e results of te ris( >uantifica=tion
for te 25 electrical :;D construction tas(s are "rovi)e) in :a- ble 3 an) are sorte) by total ris(& :e table in)icates tat first ai) injuries (5&21 injuries "er
200,000 % ) are te !ost co!!on in :;D %or(sites, follo%e) by !e)ical case injuries (2&B2 "er 200,000 % ), lost %or( ti!e (1&20 "er 200,000 % ) an)
fatalities (0&002'200,000 % )& :is is in a#ree!ent %it literature tat su#=#ests tat lo% severity injuries (first ai) an) !e)ical case) are !ore fre>uent in
co!"arison to i# severity inci)ents (lost %or( ti!e an) fatalities) ( /allo%ell, 2010aE /allo%ell, 2010b)& Consi)er=in# )is"ersion in te ra% )ata obtaine) fro!
te e+"erts (not so%n in :able 3) for injuries attributable to te various tas(s, first ai) injuries ran#e) bet%een 0 an) 6 inj&'200,000 % E !e)ical cases ran#e)
bet%een 0&001 an) 2 inj&'200,000 % E lost %or( ti!e
cases ran#e) bet%een 0 an) 3inj&'200,000 % E an) fatalities ran=#e) bet%een 0 an) 0&005inj&'200,000 % &
:e )is"ersion in te ra% )ataset for severity levels, ran#e) bet%een G15 an) G100 for first ai) casesE G1000
to G20,000 for !e)ical casesE G 1500 to G250,000 for lost %or( ti!eE an) G250,000 to G1,250,000 for fatal=
ities& *ltou# tere is relatively i# )is"ersion %itin te )ata=set, !ost of tese %ere )ue to outliers fro!
a fe% surveys&
4nce te unit ris( of te activities are co!"ute) by !ulti"lyin# te fre>uency by te cost for eac
severity level, one can see tat te activity %it te i#est ris( is o"eratin# e>ui"!ent near ener=#i?e)
"o%er lines (G5,255&00 "er 200,000 % )& :is is not sur"ris=in#, as oter stu)ies ave so%n te
si#nificance of consi)erin# safety %ile %or(in# %it e>ui"!ent in te vicinity of "o%er lines (e&#&, /in?e
an) 3ren, 1556E /o!ce et al&, 2001E Still et al&, 155B)& *ccor)in# to /in?e an) 3ren (1556), about 60C of
acci)ents occur %en e>ui"!ent co!es in contact %it "o%er lines& 4ter i# ris( tas(s inclu)e
ener#i?in# lines an) e>ui"!ent "rior to service (G5,522&00 "er 200,000 % )E e+cavation'trencin# an)
installin# foun)ations (G2,202&50 "er 200,000 % )E an) cli!bin# "oles an) o"eratin# on aerial lifts
(G3,525&00 "er 200,000 % )& 4n te oter an), activities suc as !eterin#, testin# or !easurin# te
volta#e an) current (G1B8&B5 "er 200,000 % ) an) installin# or re!ovin# s"acers an) )a!"ers (G180&50 "er
200,000 % ) are relatively lo% ris(&
:e )ata fro! te secon) "art of te e+"ert survey "rovi)es in=si#t to te !ost effective injury
"revention strate#ies for electri=cal :;D line construction& :able 2 "rovi)es te co!"lete results
122 *& *lbert, -&.& /allo%ell ' Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126
fro! te secon) survey ste" inclu)in# te ris( !iti#ate) for eac severity level for eac tas( an) te cost of
i!"le!entation& Aen te "ercent )ecrease in safety ris( is consi)ere) for a ty"ical "ro=ject involvin# all
te activities (i&e&, a "roject %it total ris( as so%n in :able 3), te !ost effective strate#ies are$ follo%in#
safety "roce)ures an) re#ulations set by re#ulatory bo)ies (H0C, H<9*, H0SC, 4S/*) (51C), De=
ener#i?in# :;D lines (86C) an) te use of ot stic(s (81C)& :e !ost costly strate#ies are )e=ener#i?in#
te lines "rior to %or( (G800 "er %or(er "er %ee() an) "lace!ent of #roun)s (G125 "er %or(er "er %ee()&
:e least e+"ensive strat=e#ies are te cra)le to cra)le use of rubber insulate) !aterial an) fire resistant
clotin# (G20 "er %or(er "er %ee()& :e %riters ave not "rovi)e) a co!"utation for te cost=effectiveness
of tese strate#ies because tese values )e"en) on te tas(s bein# "er=for!e) as %ill be )iscusse) in te
analysis section& Consi)erin# te )is"ersion in te ra% )ataset obtaine) fro! te e+"ert "artic=i"ants (not
so%n in :able 2), tere %as a lar#e )is"ersion in te cost of )e=ener#i?in# :;D lines (r S G566)& :is !ay
lar#ely be )ue to te i# uncertainty in )eter!inin# te effect of an outa#e on custo!ers& 4ter costs %ere
relatively less )is"erse) %it te stan)ar) )eviation fallin# bet%een G203 for safety "roce)ures an) G10 for
te use of insulate) ar) ats& :e stan)ar) )eviation for all strate#iesL "ercent )ecrease in ris( is belo%
25C&
5& Data analysis an) a""lication
:e )ata collecte) in tis stu)y can be incor"orate) into a ris(=base) contin#ent liability !o)el
)evelo"e) by /allo%ell (2011), %ic allo%s a user to$ (1) i)entify te !ost effective injury "re=vention
strate#ies #iven s"ecific %or( scenarios (i&e&, te selection of a""ro"riate tas(s for a "roject)E (2) >uantify
te ori#inal ris( of te %or( environ!entE (3) >uantify te benefit )erive) fro! i!"le!entin# selecte)
injury "revention strate#ies (i&e&, a!ount of ris( re)uce))E (2) >uantify te cost of te selecte) strate#iesE
an) (5) co!"ute te costbenefit of te collective "ro#ra!& Suc analyses are critical to te cost=effective
i!"le!entation of safety strate#ies in te i# ris( electrical :;D line construction environ=!ent& Ait te
)ata "resente) in tis "a"er, te only re>uire) user in"uts are te total nu!ber of %or(er=ours e+"ecte) for
eac tas( base) on te sce)ule an) a selection of a""ro"riate safety strate=#ies base) on te initial
fee)bac( of te !o)el& :e co!"utational !o)el an) te inte#ration of te afore!entione) )ata are )is=
cusse) in )etail belo%&
5&1& Ste" 1$ Calculate base level ris( )e!an)
:e first ste" in te )ecision analysis "roce)ure involves te calculation of te base=level ris( (i&e&, te
con)ition tat %oul) e+=ist %itout a))itional safety strate#ies)& 8n or)er to co!"ute tis value for a "roject,
te e+"ecte) tas(s !ust be i)entifie) an) teir a""ro+i!ate )urations !ust be recor)e)& :ese )urations
re"re=sent te e+"osure )urations in te ris( co!"utations& 4nce te tas( )urations ave been recor)e), te
cu!ulative ris( (i&e&, e+="ecte) value) for eac tas( can be co!"ute) usin# 0>& (2) an) te total ris( for te
"roject can be co!"ute) by te su!!ation of te cu!ulative ris( for eac of te 25 tas(s usin# 0>& (3)& *s
a re!in)er, tese are te values one coul) e+"ect %itout te selec=tion of a))itional safety strate#ies&
25
P3Q :. N
U
C.i
i
%ere :. is total ris( !easure) in G an) C.i re"resents te cu!u=lative ris( for eac of te 25 tas(s
!easure) in G an) co!"ute) usin# 0>& (2).
5&2& Ste" 2$ Select injury "revention !eto)s to be i!"le!ente)
<ollo%in# te entry of tas( )urations, te costbenefit of te available injury "revention strate#ies can
be >uantifie) an) te !ost cost=effective strate#ies can be selecte)& :o co!"ute te cost=effectiveness
values for eac available strate#y, te re)uction in ris( !ust be co!"ute) an) )ivi)e) by te cost of te
strate#y fro! :able 2& :e ris( re)uction can be co!"ute) by si!"ly a))in# te cu!ulative ris( of all te
selecte) activities associate) %it eac severity level (e&#&, first ai)) an) !ulti"lyin# %it te associ=ate)
ris( !iti#ate) fro! :able 2 usin# 0>& (2)&:e cost effectiveness can ten be co!"ute) usin# 0>& (5) %ic
is te ratio bet%een te ris( !iti#ate) an) cost of te strate#y& :e user soul) select te strate#y %it te
i#est cost=effectiveness ratin#, C0j
N U O U P Q
2
O
rrj
O
..j C.! 2
!
%ere ..j is te ris( re)uction for strate#y j !easure) in G, C.! is te cu!ulative ris( for all selecte)
activities co!bine) for severity level ! an) rr is te "ercent ris( re)uction for strate#y j&
C0j N ..jS8j P5Q
%ere C0j is te costbenefit of safety strate#y j !easure) as a unit=less ratio (obtaine) fro! 0>& (2)) an) 8j
is te cost of safety strate#y j&
5&3& Ste" 3$ Calculate te total invest!ent re>uire) to su""ort selecte) safety "ro#ra! an) resi)ual ris(
4nce te safety strate#ies tat %ill co!"rise te safety "ro#ra! ave been selecte), te total cost of te
safety "ro#ra! (:C) can be si!"ly calculate) by su!!in# te costs of te selecte) strate#ies, 8j as so%n in
0>& (6)& :e resi)ual ris( (.es1) on i!"le!entin# a s"ecific strate#y can be co!"ute) by an iterative
"rocess usin# 0>& (B).
:C
U
8j 6
N
16
P Q
j
.es1
.esnO1
16
B
N
U..j
P O Q
j
%ere .e1 is te resi)ual ris( after a""lyin# strate#y j an) .esnO1 is te resi)ual ris( before a""lyin#
strate#y j (.esnO1 S :. at base level ris()&
5&2& 8llustration trou# a case e+a!"le
:o illustrate te a""lication an) te contribution of tis stu)y, a case e+a!"le is consi)ere) an) "rovi)e)
as :able 5& :e follo%in# in"ut assu!"tions are !a)e$ (1) te "roject involves te erection of a ne%
trans!ission an) )istribution line se#!ent, %ic in=clu)es all te tas(s in :able 3E (2) te "roject re>uires
a total of five labors %or(in# for a "erio) of 2 %ee(s, (3) eac %or( %ee( consists of 20 % , (2) te "roject
%ill re>uire a total of 800 % & 3ase) on te initial fee)bac(, follo%in# safety "roce)ures, use of rubber
insulatin# "ersonal "rotective e>ui"!ent, an) safety #roun)s %ere selecte) as te injury "revention
strate#ies&
8n :able 5 te safety strate#ies are i!"le!ente) in teir se=>uence of cost=effectiveness& :at is, te
first injury "revention !eto) to be intro)uce) is Kfollo%in# safety "roce)uresL follo%e) by te oter t%o
strate#ies& :e base level ris( (in tis case, C.!), as in)icate), is obtaine) fro! :able 3 %ic is
nor!ali?e) for te 800 % "erio)& <or e+a!"le, te base level ris( for te first ai) case is obtaine) by
!ulti"lyin# te 1. (G120&8B'200,000 % ) by 800 % to obtain G0&25& <ollo%in# tis, te .is( re)uction
(..j)
*& *lbert, -&.& /allo%ell ' Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126 125
is calculate) usin# 0>& (5) usin# rrj fro! :able 2& <or clarity, te resi)ual ris( (.es1) calculate) usin# 0>&
(B) is also "resente)& Ho%, te "ercent re)uction in resi)ual ris( is co!"ute) as te ratio bet%een te ris(
re)uce) after te strate#y is e!"loye) an) te resi)ual ris( tat %ic e+iste) before te i!"le!entation of
te strate#y& <or e+a!"le, in or)er to co!"ute te "ercent re)uction in resi)ual ris( after te strate#y of
follo%in# safety "roce)ures is i!"le!ente), te ratio bet%een te ris( re)uce) by te strate#y (G122&63)
an) te resi)ual ris( "rior to its use (G155&25) is )eter=!ine) (50&B1C)&
:e table so%s tat te i!"le!entation of follo%in# safety "roce)uresL %oul) re)uce te ris( by
50&B1C& Subse>uently, te intro)uction of te use of rubber insulatin# e>ui"!ent an) te "lacin# of safety
#roun)s %oul) furter )ecrease te safety ris( by 62&5BC an) 63&81C, res"ectively& *ltou# te
intro)uction of strate#ies )ecreases te e+"ecte) value of injuries, te i!"le!en=tation of te safety
"ro#ra! increases te total cost of te "roject because te cost of i!"le!entin# te strate#y is i#er tan
te econo!ic returns obtaine)& :is i!"lies tat te :;D in)ustry va=lue non=!onetary benefits tat are
obtaine) trou# re)uce) in=jury rates& 8n tis case e+a!"le, te intro)uction of safety "roce)ures "rovi)es
a return of G0&25 for eac )ollar investe), %ereas te safety "ro#ra! involvin# te tree strate#ies returns
G0&03 for every )ollar&
6& Conclusion
:e objective of tis stu)y %as to >uantify safety ris( for "ro=jects involvin# te construction an) te
!aintenance of trans!is=sion an) )istribution lines at te activity level an) to evaluate various injury
"revention tecni>ues use) in te in)ustry& 8nter=vie%s an) >uestionnaire surveys %ere con)ucte) to
"o"ulate te )ata an) to vali)ate te stu)y& * )ecision su""ort fra!e%or( %as )evelo"e) tat "rovi)es
electrical contractors an) utility co!="anies %it objective safety an) cost fee)bac( #iven s"ecific "ro=ject
caracteristics& :e rea)er soul) note tat te )ata "resente) in tis "a"er an) te associate) analyses only
a""ly to electrical :;D construction an) !aintenance& :e )ata )o not a"="ly to buil)in# construction
%or(ers %o account for te #reatest rate of electrocutions&
:e analysis co!"ute) te safety ris( associate) %it eac tas( an) su##ests tat o"eratin# e>ui"!ent
near ener#i?e) lines "ose te i#est ris( a!on# te activities )one on or near :;D lines& 4ter tas(s %it
i# ris( "rofiles inclu)e ener#i?in# line an) e>ui"!ent "rior to "lacin# in=serviceE e+cavation'trencin#
an) installin# foun)ationsE an) cli!bin# "oles an) o"eratin# on aerial lifts& *!on# te injury "revention
!eto)s, follo%in# safety "ro=ce)ures an) re#ulations an) )e=ener#i?in# lines an) e>ui"!ent "rior to %or(
%ere i#ly effective, altou# certain strate#ies are cost=inefficient& :e fra!e%or( also allo%s te
evaluation of te cost effectiveness of te strate#ies in controllin# injury rates& <inally, unli(e oter stu)ies
(e&#&, /allo%ell, 2010a,bE 6asels(is et al&, 1556E /allo%ell an) Ia!batese, 2005E @ancaster et al& 6ervis
an) Collins 2001E S!all!an an) 6on 2001) tat so%e) consi)er=able econo!ic returns, te results of tis
stu)y in)icate tat te econo!ic returns obtaine) in te :;D in)ustry by te i!"le!en=tation of injury
"revention strate#ies is lesser in=co!"arison to te #eneral construction in)ustry& :is in)icates tat te
:;D in)ustry as a i#er cost=utility (i&e&, invest!ent into safety interventions e+cee) econo!ic returns),
%ic values non=!onetary benefits (e&#&, re)uce) %or(er turnover) an) ai!s to re)uce social costs (e&#&,
social e>uity) associate) %it injuries&
:e results of tis stu)y %ill allo% electric utilities an) contrac=tors to evaluate ris( levels associate)
%it various "rojects base) on te tas(s involve) an) in )esi#nin# efficient safety "ro#ra!s
base) on injury "revention ca"ability& 0nance) resource alloca=tion to control injuries %ile "erfor!in#
activities %it i# ris( "rofiles %ill be facilitate) base) on te ris( >uantification conce"t& <or instance,
%ile o"eratin# e>ui"!ent in te vicinity of "o%er=lines, te use of barriers an) si#ns !ay serve as an
in)icator of te "resence of an active a?ar) %ic !ay el" "revent inci)ents& :e fra!e%or( create) for
)ecision !a(in#, also incor"orates te cost of te strate#ies, %ic %ill allo% for rational )ecisions base)
on te resources available an) te financial i!"lication of injury "revention !easures&
<inally, several researcers ave "ro"ose) tat tas(s e+ecute) concurrently in a %or(site !ay increase
te base=level ris( ( @ee an) /al"in, 2003E Sac(s et al&, 2005E .o?enfel) et al&, 2010E /allo- %ell et al&,
2011) an) li(e%ise te syner#istic effect of injury "re=vention !eto)s !ay enance safety "erfor!ance (
/allo%ell et al&, 2011)& :us, it is su##este) tat future researc be con)ucte) in establisin# te ris(
interactions bet%een )ifferent activities an) injury "revention !eto)s& *lso, stu)ies tat inclu)e te social
benefits obtaine) trou# injury "revention !ay nee) to be e+="lore) in te )esi#n of safety "ro#ra!s&
.eference
*HS8 311&:.3=2000 .is( assess!ent an) ris( re)uction a #ui)e to esti!ate, evaluate ris( associate) %it !acine tools&
3ureau of @abor Statistics, 2010a& Census of <atal 4ccu"ational 8njuries (C<48), 2008& 8njuries, 8llnesses, an) <atalities& V
tt"$''%%%&bls&#ov'iif'oscfoi1&t!W2005X (accesse) 12&12&10&)&
3@S (3ureau of @abor Statistics), 2010b& 4ccu"ational 4utloo( /an)boo(& 2010 2011 e)&
3al)ucci, 9&6&, .oo", -&6&, Scienbein, @&*&, DeSteese, 6&I&, Aei!ar, -&.&, 2002& 0lectrical 9o%er 8nterru"tion Cost 0sti!ates for
8n)ivi)ual 8n)ustries, Sectors, an) 1S 0cono!y, 9acific Hort%est Hational @aboratory& 9HH@, A*&
3ara)an, S&, 1s!en, -&*&, 2006& Co!"arative injury an) fatality ris( analysis of buil)in# tra)es& 6ournal of Construction
0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent 132, 533535&
3ry!an, *&, 2002& Social .esearc -eto)s, secon) e)& 4+for) 1niversity 9ress, 4+for)&
Ca!eron, 8&, Duff, .&, 200B& 1se of "erfor!ance !easure!ent an) #oal settin# to i!"rove construction !ana#ersL focus on ealt
an) safety& 6ournal of Construction 0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent 25, 865881&
Car)ic(, 6&, Ca"elli=Scell"feffer, -&, Heit?el, D&, 2005& 0lectrical Safety /an)boo(, tir) e)& -cIra%=/ill, HY&
Cu"(a, -&A&, 0arle, .&, <o+=9enner, 9&, /le)i(&, 2008& :ransfor!in# *!ericaLs 9o%er 8n)ustry$ te 8nvest!ent Callen#e 2010
2030& 0)ison <oun)ation, Aasin#ton, D&C&
Controllin# electrical a?ar)s 4S/* 30B5, 2002& 1S De"art!ent of @abor, 4ccu"ational, Safety an) /ealt *)!in (4S/*)&
08* (1S 0ner#y 8nfor!ation *)!inistration), 2010& 8n)e"en)ent Statistics an) *nalysis 0lectric 9o%er *nnual& V
tt"$''%%%&eia&)oe&#ov'cneaf'electricity' e"a'e"aOsu!&t!lX (12&0B&11&)&
0lectrical Safety <oun)ation 8nternational (0S<8), 2010& 0S<8 Aite 9a"er 4ccu"ational 0lectrical *cci)ents in te 1S, 2003
2005& V tt"$''esfi&or#' in)e+&cf!'"i)'102B2'c)i)'11510X (12&0B&11&)&
0verret, 6&I&, <ran(, 3&9&, 1556& Costs of acci)ents an) injuries to te construction in)ustry& 6ournal of Construction 0n#ineerin# an)
-ana#e!ent, ""& 158162&
<erret, 0&D&, /u#es, 9&, 200B& 8ntro)uction to /ealt an) Safety in Construction Secon) e)& 0lsevier @t)&, 17&
<iel), *&, 2005& Discoverin# Statistics$ 1sin# S9SS for Ain)o%s& Sa#e 9ublications @t)&, @on)on&
<o%ler, <&6&, -an#ione, :&A&, 1550& Stan)ar)i?e) Survey 8ntervie%in#$ -ini!i?in# 8ntervie%er=.elate) 0rror, first e)& Sa#e
9ublications, He%bury 9ar(&
Ior)on, @&3&, Cartelli, @&, 2005& Co!"lete /a?ar) Classification syste! an) its *""lication& 0lectrical Safety Aor(so"& 8000, -4&
IMrcanli, I&0&, -Mn#en, 1&, 2005& *n occu"ational safety ris( analysis !eto) at construction sites usin# fu??y sets& 8nternational
6ournal of 8n)ustrial 0r#ono!ics 35, 3B138B&
/allo%ell, -&.&, 2011& .is(=base) econo!ic !o)el for safety invest!ent in construction& 6ournal of Construction 0n#ineerin# an)
-ana#e!ent 13B, 552 555&
/allo%ell, -&.&, 2010a& Safety ris( "erce"tion in construction co!"anies in te 9acific Hort%est of te 1S*& Construction
-ana#e!ent an) 0cono!ics 28, 203213&
/allo%ell, -&.&, 2010b& Cost=effectiveness of construction safety "ro#ra!!e ele!ents& Construction -ana#e!ent an) 0cono!ics
28, 2532&
/allo%ell, -&.&, 0s!aeili, 3&, Cino%s(y, 9&C&, 2011& Safety ris( interactions a!on# i#%ay %or( tas(s& Construction -ana#e!ent
an) 0cono!ics 25, 21B225&
126 *& *lbert, -&.& /allo%ell ' Safety Science 51 (2013) 118126
/allo%ell, -&.&, Ia!batese, 6&*&, 2005& *ctivity=base) safety ris( >uantification for concrete for!%or( construction& 6ournal of
Construction 0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent 135, 550558&
/eat, @&, :in)ale, .&S&, 1552& *""lications of /euristics an) 3iases to Social 8ssues& 9lenu! 9ress, HY&
/in?e, 6&, 3ren, D&, 1556& *nalysis of fatalities an) injuries )ue to "o%erline contacts& 6ournal of Construction 0n#ineerin# an)
-ana#e!ent 122, 1BB182&
/o!ce, I&:&, Ca%ley, 6&C&, Yence(, -&.&, Sac(s, /&7&, 2001& *n *lar! to Aarn of 4verea) 9o%er @ine Contact by -obile 0>ui"!ent
Conference .ecor) of te 2001 8000 8n)ustry *""lications Conference& H84S/, 8llinois&
6anna)i, 4&, *l!isari, S&, 2003& .is( assess!ent in construction& 6ournal of Construction 0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent 125, 252500&
6asels(is, 0&, *n)erson, S&*&, .ussell, 6&, 1556& Strate#ies for acievin# e+cellence in construction safety "erfor!ance& 6ournal of
Construction 0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent 122, 61B0&
6ervis, S&, Collins, :&.&, 2001& -easurin# safetyLs return on invest!ent& 9rofessional Safety Science 26, 1823&
7ara)y, I&I&, 2006& Conce"t of 0ner#y :rans!ission an) Distribution& 0lectric 9o%er Ieneration, :rans!ission, an) Distribution,
secon) e)& C.C 9ress, HY&
@ancaster, .&, Aar), .&, :albot, 9&, 3ra?ier, *&, 2003& Costs of co!"liance %it ealt an) safety re#ulations in S-0Ls& /ealt an) Safety
0+ecutive$ .esearc, .e"ort 12B&
@ee, C&.&, Dou#erty, A&, 2003& 0lectrical injury$ !ecanis!s, !anifestations an) tera"y& 8000 :ransactions on Dielectrics an)
0lectrical 8nsulation 10, 810815&
@ee, .&C&, Ran#, D&, /anni#, 6&, 2000& 3io"ysical injury !ecanis!s in electrical soc( trau!a& *nnual .evie% of 3io!e)ical
0n#ineerin# 2000, 2BB505&
@ee, S&, /al"in, D&, 2003& 9re)ictive tool for esti!atin# acci)ent ris(& 6ournal of Construction 0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent 125, 231
236&
@o%rance, A&A&, 15B6& 4f *cce"table .is($ Science an) te Deter!ination of Safety& Aillia! 7auf!ann, C*&
-acCollu!, D&V&, 200B& Construction Safety 0n#ineerin# 9rinci"les$ Desi#nin# an) -ana#in# Safer 6ob Sites& -cIra%=/ill
9rofessional, HY&
-ann, 9&S&, 2003& 8ntro)uctory Statistic, fourt e)&& 6on Ailley ; Sons 9ublication @t)&, HY&
Hational <ire 9rotection *ssociation, 2002& Stan)ar) on <ire De"art!ent 4ccu"ational Safety an) /ealt 9ro#ra!&
H84S/ (Hational 8nstitute for 4ccu"ational Safety an) /ealt), 2005& Safety an) /ealt for 0lectrical :ra)es& 0lectrical Safety& "& 113&
HSC (Hational Safety Council), 2005& 4ccu"ational Safety ter!s an) conce"ts& V
tt"$''%%%&nsc&or#'resources'issues'safety(no%'safetyOter!s. as"+X (accesse) -ay 2005)&
4+enbur#, -&, -arlo%, 9&, 1556& :e "ro)uctivity assess!ent tool$ co!"uter=base) cost benefit analysis !o)el for te econo!ic
assess!ent of occu"ational ealt an) safety interventions in te %or("lace& 6ournal of Safety .esearc 0con 9roc& 36, 205
212&
9atton, -&J&, 1550& Jualitative 0valuation$ .esearc -eto)s, secon) e)& Sa#e 9ublication, C*&
.o?enfel), 4&, Sac(s, .&, .osenfel), Y&, 3au!, /&, 2010& Construction job safety analysis& Safety Science 28, 251258&
Sac(s, .&, .o?enfel), 4&, .osenfel), Y&, 2005& S"atial an) te!"oral e+"osure to safety a?ar)s in construction& 6ournal of
Construction 0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent 135, B26B36&
Soe!a(er, :&-&, -ac(, 6&0&, 2005& :e @ine!anLs an) Cable!anLs <iel) -anual, secon) e)& -cIra%=/ill, HY&
Sort, :&*&, 2002& 0lectric 9o%er Distribution /an)boo(, first e)& C.C 9ress @@C, C*& S!all!an, C&, 6on, I&, 2001& 3ritis
)irectors "ers"ectives on te i!"act of ealt
an) safety on cor"orate "erfor!ance& Safety Science 38, 22B235&
Soelen, A&V&, 200B& :e <iel) Iui)e to 9o%erline Aor(ers, first e)& :o!son Del!ar @earnin#, HY&
Soy(a, 9&*&, <el)!an, S&6&, 1558& Ca"turin# te business value of 0/;S e+cellence& Cor"orate 0nviron!ental Strate#y 5, 6168&
S"ell!an, <&.&, 1558& Survivin# an 4S/* *u)it$ * -ana#e!ent Iui)e& :ecno!ic 9ublisin# Co!"any, 9*&
S"ies, C&, :ro!an, .&I&, 2006& Harrative revie%$ electrocution an) life=treatenin# electrical injuries& *nnals of 8nternal -e)icine
125, 53153B&
Still, 6&, 4rlet, /&, @a%, 0&, Aeeler, -&, 9ic(ens, /&, 155B& 0lectrocution )ue to contact of in)ustrial e>ui"!ent %it "o%er lines&
3urns, 5B35B5&
Strauss, *&, Corbin, 6&, 1558& 3asics of Jualitative .esearc$ Iroun)e) :eory 9roce)ures an) :ecni>ues, secon) e)& Sa#e
9ublication, C*&
Sun, Y&, <an#, D&, Aan#, S&, Dai, -&, @v, U&, 2008& Safety ris( i)entification an) assess!ent for 3eijin# 4ly!"ic venues
construction& 6ournal of Construction 0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent 22, 202B&
:an#, S&@&, Yin#, 7&C&, Can, A&Y&, Can, Y&@&, 2002& 8!"act of social safety invest!ents on social costs of construction acci)ents&
Construction -ana#e!ent an) 0cono!ics 22, 53B526&
Aaerer, I&-&, Don#, U&S&, -iller, :&, /aile, 0&, -en, Y&, 200B& Costs of occu"ational injuries in construction in te 1nite) States&
*cci)entE *nalysis an) 9revention 35, 12581266&
Aa#ner, @&, 200B& 4vervie% of 9o%er Ieneration :ecni>ues& -ora *ssociates, 17& Ailson, 6&-&, 7oen, 0&0&, 2000& Safety
!ana#e!ent$ "roble!s encountere) an) reco!!en)e) solutions& 6ournal of Construction 0n#ineerin# an) -ana#e!ent
126, BBB5&