NEVER BEFORE HAS THE EARTH BEEN SO THREATENED THAN IT IS TODAY .

THE
EARTH HAS SURVIVED COUNTLESS NATURAL DISASTERS SUCH AS VOLCANIC

ERUPTIONS AND VIOLENT EARTHQUAKES , BUT EVEN THEN, NONE OF THESE

CATASTROPHES HAS HAD SUCH A GREAT IMPACT ON THE EARTH AS THE

ACTIVITIES OUT BY HUMAN THEMSELVES. IN THEIR ATTEMPT TO FULFIL THE

GROWING NEEDS OF AN EVER- INCREASING POPULATION , MANKIND DESTROYS

NATURAL HABITATS THAT HOUSE MILLIONS OF FLORA AND FAUNA SPECIES AND

AT THE SAME TIME POLLUTES THE ENVIRONMENT. HUMAN ACTIVITIES OFTEN

HAVE A WIDESPREAD IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEMS. WITH GREATER ADVANCES IN

MEDICINE , MODERN FARMING TECHNIQUES AND BETTER INFRASTRUCTURE, THE

WORLD’ S POPULATION HAS GROWN TO OVER SIX BILLION TODAY. CONFLICTS

THEREFORE ARISE BETWEEN FULFILLING IMMEDIATE HUMAN NEEDS AND THE

NECESSITY TO PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT FROM LONG- TERM DAMAGE. MANY

OF THE PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE ENVIRONMENT ARE THE RESULTS OF HUMAN

ACTIVITIES AND HUMAN INTERFERENCE IN THE WAY ECOSYSTEMS FUNCTION .

EVERY YEAR, VAST AREAS OF FORESTS ARE CLEARED TO PROVIDE SPACE AND

CULTIVATION .

1
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matters, or biological materials

that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms,or damages the natural

environment, into the atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has

long been recognized to treat human health as well as to the Earth’s ecosystems. About four

percent of deaths in the United States attributed to air pollution, according to the

Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health

Health.

2
Carbon dioxide is one the main pollutants that causes air pollution. This is because,
although living beings do exhale carbon dioxide, this gas is harmful when emitted
from other sources, which are caused due to human activity. An additional release
of carbon dioxide happens due to various such activities. Carbon dioxide gas is used
in various industries such as the oil industry and the chemical industry. The
manufacturing process of most products would require the use of this gas. There
are various human activities that add to the increased proportions of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere. The combustion of fossil fuels and the harmful effects of
deforestation have all contributed towards the same. show that amongst the
various gasses emitted during a volcanic eruption, carbon dioxide remains to be at
least 40% of the emission. Scientists have now therefore identified carbon dioxide
as one of those elements that have contributed to global warming.

Causes of air pollution are not limited to this. The combustion of fuels in
automobiles, jet planes etc all cause the release of several primary pollutants into
the air. The burning of fossil fuels in big cities which is seen at most factories,
offices and even a large number of homes, it is no wonder that air pollution is
increasing at an alarming rate. The release of other harmful gases all adds to the
state that we see today. Although carbon dioxide plays an important role in various
other processes like photosynthesis, breathing an excess of the same also causes
harmful effects towards one’s health.

The various causes of air pollution that releases harmful gases into the atmosphere
are caused due to the increasing number of power plants and manufacturing units
or industries that mostly have activities related to the burning of fuels. Besides, as
mentioned earlier, most automobiles, marine vessels, activities that involve the
burning of wood, fumes that are released from aerosol sprays, military activities
that involve the use of nuclear weapons, all are the numerous causes of air
pollution.

Carbon monoxide is another such gas which, although was present in the
atmosphere earlier, is now considered to be a major pollutant. An excess of the
same has a harmful effect on our system. There are many reasons why carbon
monoxide can be released into the atmosphere as a result of human activities. This

3
is also produced due to any fuel burning appliance and appliances such as gas
water heaters, fireplaces, woodstoves, gas stoves, gas dryers, yard equipments as
well as automobiles, which add to the increased proportion of this gas into the
atmosphere.

Sulfur dioxide is yet another harmful pollutant that causes air pollution. Sulfur
dioxide is emitted largely to the excessive burning of fossil fuels, petroleum
refineries, chemical and coal burning power plants etc. Nitrogen dioxide when
combined with sulfur dioxide can even cause a harmful reaction in the atmosphere
that can cause acid rain.

Nitrogen dioxide is one more gas that is emitted into the atmosphere as a result of
various human activities. An excess of nitrogen dioxide mainly happens due to most
power plants seen in major cities, the burning of fuels due to various motor vehicles
and other such sources, whether industrial or commercial that cause the increase in
the levels of nitrogen dioxide.

The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from
causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths
attributable to indoor air pollution. "Epidemiological studies suggest that more than
500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing
fine particle air pollution. . ." A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a
strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor
vehicles. Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to
automobile accidents. Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from
air pollution annually. Direct causes of air pollution related deaths include
aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and
respiratory allergies.The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel
engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities,
15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with
asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital admissions each year in the
United States.

The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.
Leaked industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union
Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 2,000 people outright and injured anywhere
from 150,000 to 600,000 others, some 6,000 of whom would later die from their
injuries. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the
December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000
died, and 8,000 more died within the following months. An accidental leak of
anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near
Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths. The
worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of America

4
occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and
over 7,000 were injured.

The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and
physiological changes to difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and
aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result
in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more
hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air
quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the
cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of
pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health
status and genetics.]

A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in
the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that
more than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than
normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The
number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities
related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year
.

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter

air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well validated
exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and
increased thrombus formation. This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between
the previously described association between particulate matter air pollution and
increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been suggested that
it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for
the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.In addition to the acute problems of
water pollution in developing countries, industrialized countries continue to struggle
with pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality
in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed
lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were
classified as polluted.Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by
anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, like serving
as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its
constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes,
algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality
and the ecological status of water. Water pollution has many causes and
characteristics.Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and
managed as separate resources, although they are interelated. Sources of surface
water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.Point
source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete

5
conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include
discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S.
Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement
purposes.Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does
not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often a cumulative
effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. Nutrient runoff
in stormwater from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest are sometimes
cited as examples of NPS pollution.Contaminated stormwater washed off of parking
lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the
category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm
drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point
source. The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include
municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as from
construction sites.Interactions between groundwater and surface water are
complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as
groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. By
its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources
that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs.
nonpoint source may be irrelevant. A spill of a chemical contaminant on soil, located
away from a surface water body, may not necessarily create point source or non-
point source pollution, but nonetheless may contaminate the aquifer below.
Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on soil characteristics and
hydrology, as well as the nature of the contaminant itself.

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of

chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated
temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that
are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.)
the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of

6
water, and what is a contaminant.Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural
materials, such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made
chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity
(cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of
some fish species.Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can
produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. Alteration of water's
physical chemistry include acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity,
temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is the fertilization of surface water
by nutrients that were previously scarce.A manhole cover blown off by a sanitary
sewer overflow.Coliform bacteria are a commonly-used bacterial indicator of water
pollution, although not an actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms
sometimes found in surface waters which have caused human health problems
include:

Cryptosporidium parvum

Giardia lamblia

Salmonella

Novovirus and other viruses

Parasitic worms (helminths).[8][9]

High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges.
[10]
This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary
treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older
cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes,
pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have
combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain
storms.Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly-managed livestock
operations.Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

Organic water pollutants include:

Detergents

Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as

chloroform

7
Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and
grease

Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical

compounds

Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil)
and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater
runoff[12]

Tree and brush debris from logging operations

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper

storage. Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids
(DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water
and are denser.

Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products

Inorganic water pollutants include:

Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)

Ammonia from food processing waste

Chemical waste as industrial by-products

Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found in

stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[12]

Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[12] [13]
and acid
mine drainage

Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or
land clearing sites

Macroscopic pollution--large visible items polluting the water--may be termed

"floatables" in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the
open seas, and can include such items as:

Trash (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, and
that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface
waters

Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets

8
Shipwrecks, large derelict ships

9
There are various effects of water pollution.

Spread of disease: Drinking polluted water can cause

cholera or typhoid infections, along with diarrhea.

Affects body organs: The consumption of highly

contaminated water can cause injury to the heart and
kidneys.

Harms the food chain: Toxins within water can harm

aquatic organisms, thus breaking a link in the food chain.

Causes algae in water: Urea, animal manure and vegetable

peelings are food for algae. Algae grow according to how
much waste is in a water source. Bacteria feed off the
algae, decreasing the amount of oxygen in the water. The
decreased oxygen causes harm to other organisms living
in the water.

Flooding: The erosion of soil into waterways causes

flooding, especially with heavy rainfall.

Harms animals: Birds that get into oil-contaminated water

die from exposure to cold water and air due to feather
damage. Other animals are affected when they eat dead
fish in contaminated streams.

10
The effects of water pollution are not always immediate.
They are not always seen at the point of contamination.
They are sometimes never known by the person
responsible for the pollution. However, water pollution
has a huge impact on our lives. With knowledge,
consideration and preparation, water pollution can be
decreased. It doesn't take much effort -- just a little
thought.

The broadest definition of thermal pollution is the

degradation of water quality by any process that changes
ambient water temperature. Thermal pollution is usually
associated with increases of water temperatures in a
stream, lake, or ocean due to the discharge of heated
water from industrial processes, such as the generation of
electricity. Increases in ambient water temperature also
occur in streams where shading vegetation along the
banks is removed or where sediments have made the
water more turbid. Both of these effects allow more
energy from the sun to be absorbed by the water and
thereby increase its temperature. There are also
situations in which the effects of colder-than-normal water
temperatures may be observed. For example, the
discharge of cold bottom water from deep-water
reservoirs behind large dams has changed the
downstream biological communities in systems such as
the Colorado River.

11
The production of energy from a fuel source can be direct, such as the burning of
wood in a fireplace to create heat, or by the conversion of heat energy into
mechanical energy by the use of a heat engine. Examples of heat engines include
steam engines, turbines, and internal combustion engines. Heat engines work on
the principal of heating and pressuring a fluid, the performance of mechanical work,
and the rejection of unused or waste heat to a sink. Heat engines can only convert
30 to 40 percent of the available input energy in the fuel source into mechanical
energy, and the highest efficiencies are obtained when the input temperature is as
high as possible and the sink temperature is as low as possible. Water is a very
efficient and economical sink for heat engines and it is commonly used in electrical
generating stations.

The waste heat from electrical generating stations is transferred to cooling water
obtained from local water bodies such as a river, lake, or ocean. Large amounts of
water are used to keep the sink temperature as low as possible to maintain a high
thermal efficiency. The San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station between Los Angeles
and San Diego, California, for example, has two main reactors that have a total
operating capacity of 2,200 megawatts (MW). These reactors circulate a total of
2,400 million gallons per day (MGD) of ocean water at a flow rate of 830,000 gallons
per minute for each unit. The cooling water enters the station from two intake
structures located 3,000 feet offshore in water 32 feet deep. The water is heated to
approximately 19°F above ambient as it flows through the condensers and is
discharged back into the ocean through a series of diffuser-type discharges that
have a series of sixty-three exit pipes spread over a distance of 2,450 feet. The
discharge water is rapidly mixed with ambient seawater by the diffusers and the
average rise in temperature after mixing is less than 2°F.

12
The primary effects of thermal pollution are direct thermal shock, changes in
dissolved oxygen, and the redistribution of organisms in the local community.
Because water can absorb thermal energy with only small changes in temperature,
most aquatic organisms have developed enzyme systems that operate in only
narrow ranges of temperature. These stenothermic organisms can be killed by
sudden temperature changes that are beyond the tolerance limits of their metabolic
systems. The cooling water discharges of power plants are designed to minimize
heat effects on local fish communities. However, periodic heat treatments used to
keep the cooling system clear of fouling organisms that clog the intake pipes can
cause fish mortality. A heat treatment reverses the flow and increases the
temperature of the discharge to kill the mussels and other fouling organisms in the
intake pipes. Southern California Edison had developed a "fish-chase" procedure in
which the water temperature of the heat treatment is increased gradually, instead
of rapidly, to drive fish away from the intake pipes before the temperature reaches
lethal levels. The fish chase procedure has significantly reduced fish kills related to
heat treatments.

Small chronic changes in temperature can also adversely affect the reproductive
systems of these organisms and also make them more susceptible to disease. Cold
water contains more oxygen than hot water so increases in temperature also
decrease the oxygen-carrying capacity of water. In addition, raising the water
temperature increases the decomposition rate of organic matter in water, which

13
also depletes dissolved oxygen. These decreases in the oxygen content of the water
occur at the same time that the metabolic rates of the aquatic organisms, which are
dependent on a sufficient oxygen supply, are rising because of the increasing
temperature.

The composition and diversity of communities in the vicinity of cooling water

discharges from power plants can be adversely affected by the direct mortality of
organisms or movement of organisms away from unfavorable temperature or
oxygen environments. A nuclear power-generating station on Nanwan Bay in
Taiwan caused bleaching of corals in the vicinity of the discharge channel when the
plant first began operation in 1988. Studies of the coral Acropora grandis in 1988
showed that the coral was bleached within two days of exposure to temperatures of
91.4°F. In 1990 samples of coral taken from the same area did not start bleaching
until six days after exposure to the same temperature. It appears that the
thermotolerance of these corals was enhanced by the production of heat-shock
proteins that help to protect many organisms from potentially damaging changes
in temperature. The populations of some species can also be enhanced by the
presence of cooling water discharges. The only large population of sea turtles in
California, for example, is found in the southern portion of San Diego Bay near the
discharge of an electrical generating station.

Noise Pollution or Sound Pollution, exposure of people or animals to levels of sound

that are annoying, stressful, or damaging to the ears. Although loud and frightening
sounds are part of nature, only in recent centuries has much of the world become
urban, industrial, and chronically noisy.

Sound intensity is measured in units called decibels. The decibel scale is logarithmic
and climbs steeply: An increase of about three decibels is a doubling of sound
volume. In the wilderness, a typical sound level would be 35 decibels. Speech runs
65 to 70 decibels; heavy traffic generates 90 decibels. By 140 decibels, sound
becomes painful to the human ear, but ill effects, including hearing loss, set in at
much lower levels.

Most noise pollution comes from machines, especially automobiles, trucks, and
aircraft. Construction equipment, farm machines, and the din of machinery inside
factories can be dangerously loud. Some home appliances, shop tools, lawnmowers,
and leaf blowers can also be noisy, as are guns, firecrackers, and some toys. Even

14
music, when played at very high volume, particularly through personal headphones,
is as damaging to the ears as a roaring chain saw.

Hearing loss can also occur in the workplace, where individuals may be unable to
avoid loud sounds and where exposure may continue for years. Factory workers,
construction workers, farmers, military personnel, police officers, firefighters, and
musicians all have reason to be concerned about their occupational exposure to
noise.

While there are many different sources of noise pollution, there are some main
culprits that have been researched and found to have a negative impact on health.
They include the following:

Airplanes—It’s been well-documented that noise pollution from airplanes has a

significant negative impact on the health and wellbeing of those who live close to
airports. This can include heart disease, high blood pressure and chronic stress.

Cars--One of the complaints of those who live in big cities or on busy streets is the
disruption from the sounds of traffic. Interestingly, though, even low levels of traffic
noise can be damaging to people, and traffic noise is one of the most commonly
experienced contributors to noise pollution.

15
Workplace Noise—Most of us may think of loud assembly lines or construction sites
when we think of noise pollution in the workplace, and while these examples
definitely apply, regular offices are not immune. With more people packed into busy
office spaces, office noise is a common complaint. Co-workers who talk, drum their
fingers on the desk, or offer other distracting noises can decrease the productivity
of those around them without realizing it.

Home Sound--Many people don’t think of their homes as ‘noisy’, but if there’s a lot
of activity in the home, including a constantly running television, this overall noise
level can actually be a threat to concentration and a cause of stress. In fact,
children from more noisy homes do suffer ill effects from this type of sound
pollution that include less cognitive growth, delayed language skills, increased
anxiety, and impaired resilience, according to a Purdue University professor in a
related press release.

16
Many studies have been conducted to study the effects of noise pollution on health
and wellness, and the results have shown that noise pollution can negatively impact
you in the following ways:

Productivity: We all know that noise can be distracting, and research proves this.
One study examined children exposed to airport noise and found that their reading
ability and long-term memory was impaired. Those working in noisy office
environments have also been found to be less cognitively motivated, and to have
higher stress levels, according to a Cornell University study.

Health: Perhaps the most serious problem created by sound pollution is the impact
it has on our health. Because sound pollution can trigger the body’s stress
response, one of its major health effects is chronic stress and the high levels of
stress hormones that go with it. As a result, noise pollution has also been linked
with health problems such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and stroke. It’s
also been linked with musculoskeletal problems, as a Cornell University study on
office noise found that those working in noisy office environments can also be less
likely to ergonomically adjust their workstations for comfort, which can contribute to
physical problems. Noise pollution can also impact sleep quality by preventing sleep
and disrupting sleep cycles. And, perhaps most significantly, because chronic stress
can lower your immunity to all disease, noise pollution is a general threat to health
and wellness.

Greenhouse Effect, the capacity of certain gases in the atmosphere to trap heat
emitted from Earth’s surface, thereby insulating and warming the planet. Without
the thermal blanketing of the natural greenhouse effect, Earth’s climate would be
about 33°C (about 59°F) cooler—too cold for most living organisms to survive.

The greenhouse effect has warmed Earth for over 4 billion years. Now scientists are
growing increasingly concerned that human activities may be modifying this natural
process, with potentially dangerous consequences. Since the advent of the
Industrial Revolution in the 1700s, humans have devised many inventions that burn
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Burning these fossil fuels, as well as

17
other activities such as clearing land for agriculture or urban settlements, releases
some of the same gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide. These atmospheric gases have risen to levels higher
than at any time in at least the last 650,000 years. As these gases build up in the
atmosphere, they trap more heat near Earth’s surface, causing Earth’s climate to
become warmer than it would naturally.

Scientists call this unnatural heating effect global warming and blame it for an
increase in Earth’s surface temperature of about 0.6°C (about 1°F) over the last 100
years. Scientists project global temperatures to continue rising during the 21st
century. Warmer temperatures could melt parts of polar ice caps and most
mountain glaciers, causing a rise in sea level that would flood coastal regions.
Global warming could also affect weather patterns causing, among other problems,
prolonged drought or increased flooding in some of the world’s leading agricultural
regions.

Life on earth depends on energy from the sun. About 30

percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is deflected
by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The
rest reaches the planet’s surface and is reflected upward again
as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation.

As it rises, infrared radiation is absorbed by “greenhouse

gases” such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone and
methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere.

Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of

the Earth’s atmosphere, they regulate our climate by trapping
heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that
surrounds the planet.

This phenomenon is what scientists call the "greenhouse

effect." Without it, scientists estimate that the average
temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30
degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit), far too cold to
sustain our current ecosystem.

18
19
Heatwaves associated with land temperature increase and
thousands of people will die through future heatwaves. (In the
2003 heatwaves in France over 20,000 people died).

Droughts will become more prolonged and be even more

devastating than anything we have experienced. This is
because higher temperatures evaporate water from the land,
which will also give rise to more wildfires. Agriculture and food
crops will be devastated in some regions and diseases like
malaria and dengue fever will increase as conditions
favourable to these diseases spread.

Higher ocean temperatures increase the power in cyclones and

hurricanes, (stimulating more tornadoes ) and we will see a
higher frequency of severe storms (like Hurricane Katrina)and
associated flooding that will do extraordinary damage to
infrastructure, and destroy houses, towns and villages. This is
already driving up insurance costs.

Rising sea levels will displace millions of people, (already on

some Islands people are being moved off due to rising seas)
and the geography of the land will change dramatically, with
millions needing to be relocated along with loss of buildings.

20
Ozone Layer, a region of the atmosphere from 19 to 48 km
(12 to 30 mi) above Earth's surface. Ozone concentrations
of up to 10 parts per million occur in the ozone layer. The
ozone forms there by the action of sunlight on oxygen.
This action has been taking place for many millions of
years, but naturally occurring nitrogen compounds in the
atmosphere apparently have kept the ozone concentration
at a fairly stable level.

The ozone layer of the atmosphere protects life on Earth

by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. If
all the ultraviolet radiation given off by the Sun were
allowed to reach the surface of Earth, most of the life on
Earth’s surface would probably be destroyed. Short
wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation, such as UV-A, B, and
C, are damaging to the cell structure of living organisms.
Fortunately, the ozone layer absorbs almost all of the
short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation and much of the
long-wavelength ultraviolet radiation given off by the Sun.

21
The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent
ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33% of their pre-1975 values. The ozone
hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as
strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an
atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50% of the lower stratospheric
ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.[15]

As explained above, the overall cause of ozone depletion is the presence of

chlorine-containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the
presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then
go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take
place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs).[16]

These polar stratospheric clouds form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar
winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). Not only
lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature but also the polar vortex
traps and chills air. Temperatures hover around or below -80 °C. These low
temperatures form cloud particles and are composed of either nitric acid (Type I
PSC) or ice (Type II PSC). Both types provide surfaces for chemical reactions that
lead to ozone destruction.

The photochemical processes involved are complex but well understood. The key
observation is that, ordinarily, most of the chlorine in the stratosphere resides in
stable "reservoir" compounds, primarily hydrochloric acid (HCl) and chlorine nitrate
(ClONO2). During the Antarctic winter and spring, however, reactions on the surface
of the polar stratospheric cloud particles convert these "reservoir" compounds into
reactive free radicals (Cl and ClO). The clouds can also remove NO2 from the
atmosphere by converting it to nitric acid, which prevents the newly formed ClO
from being converted back into ClONO2.

The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone
depletion is greatest during spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their
most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive the chemical reactions.
During the spring, however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive
photochemical reactions, and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing the
trapped compounds.

22
Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere, in contrast to the
much smaller ozone depletion through homogeneous gas phase reactions, which
occurs primarily in the upper stratosphere.

Warming temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-
December. As warm, ozone-rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs are
destroyed, the ozone depletion process shuts down, and the ozone hole closes.

Effects of ozone layer depletion on humans

UVB (the higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone) is generally accepted to be

a contributory factor to skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to
increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.The increased
surface UV also represents an increase in the vitamin D synthetic capacity of the
sunlight.

The cancer preventive effects of vitamin D represent a possible beneficial effect of

ozone depletion. In terms of health costs, the possible benefits of increased UV
irradiance may outweigh the burden.

1. Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinomas -- The most common forms of skin
cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly linked
to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well
understood — absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA
molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates.
These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of
squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By
combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists have
estimated that a one percent decrease in stratospheric ozone would increase the
incidence of these cancers by 2%.

2. Malignant Melanoma -- Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is

much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15% - 20% of the
cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet
exposure is not yet well understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are
involved. Experiments on fish suggest that 90 to 95% of malignant melanomas may
be due to UVA and visible radiation whereas experiments on opossums suggest a
larger role for UVB.Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the impact
of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed that a 10% increase
in UVB radiation was associated with a 19% increase in melanomas for men and
16% for women. A study of people in Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile,
showed a 56% increase in melanoma and a 46% increase in nonmelanoma skin

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cancer over a period of seven years, along with decreased ozone and increased UVB
levels.

3. Cortical Cataracts -- Studies are suggestive of an association between ocular

cortical cataracts and UV-B exposure, using crude approximations of exposure and
various cataract assessment techniques. A detailed assessment of ocular exposure
to UV-B was carried out in a study on Chesapeake Bay Watermen, where increases
in average annual ocular exposure were associated with increasing risk of cortical
opacity In this highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the evidence
linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to date. However,
subsequent data from a population-based study in Beaver Dam, WI suggested the
risk may be confined to men. In the Beaver Dam study, the exposures among
women were lower than exposures among men, and no association was
seen.Moreover, there were no data linking sunlight exposure to risk of cataract in
African Americans, although other eye diseases have different prevalences among
the different racial groups, and cortical opacity appears to be higher in African
Americans compared with whites.

4. Increased Tropospheric Ozone -- Increased surface UV leads to increased

tropospheric ozone. Ground-level ozone is generally recognized to be a health risk,
as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties. At this time, ozone at ground
level is produced mainly by the action of UV radiation on combustion gases from
vehicle exhausts.

Effects on crops

An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of

economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria
residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to
UV light and they would be affected by its increase.

Effects on plankton

Research has shown a widespread extinction of plankton 2 million years ago that
coincided with a nearby supernova. There is a difference in the orientation and
motility of planktons when excess of UV rays reach earth. Researchers speculate
that the extinction was caused by a significant weakening of the ozone layer at that
time when the radiation from the supernova produced nitrogen oxides that
catalyzed the destruction of ozone (plankton are particularly susceptible to effects
of UV light, and are vitally important to marine food webs).

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25
A SMALL EFFORT ON OUR PART WILL GO A

LONG WAY TO CREATE A CLEANER AND

HEALTHIER LIVING ENVIRONMENT. WE CAN

MAKE RESOLUTIONS IN OUR DAILY LIVES TO

STOP POLLUTING THE ECOSYSTEM. FOR

EXAMPLE, WE CAN CONSTANTLY REMIND

OURSELVES OF THE THREE ‘RS’ WHICH

MEAN REDUCE, REUSE AND RECYCLE OF

RESOURCES. MALAYSIAN GENERATE MORE

THAN 15000 TONNES OF WASTE A DAY.
HALF OF THE GARBAGE IS DOMESTIC

WASTE. AT THE RATE WE ARE GOING, ALL

THE LANDFILLS WILL OVERFLOW UNLESS WE

RECYCLE.

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