Ecological Engineering 52 (2013) 5158

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Ecological Engineering
j our nal home page: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ ecol eng
Review
Performance evaluation and development strategies for green roofs in Taiwan:
A review
Chi-Feng Chen

Department of Natural Resources, Chinese Culture University, 55, Hwa-kang Rd., Yang-Ming-Shan, Taipei, Taiwan
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 11 July 2012
Received in revised form8 December 2012
Accepted 9 December 2012
Available online 20 January 2013
Keywords:
Green roofs
Runoff quality
Runoff volume
Thermal effects
Tropical and subtropical climate
a b s t r a c t
Green roofs have multiple environmental benets and are widely used around the world. In keeping with
this mainstream movement, the use of green roofs has been increasing in Taiwan in recent years. This
paper reviews policies promoting green roof development in Taiwan, and compares the environmental
and economic performance of green roofs in Taiwan to those in East Asian countries and worldwide.
National and regional government policies have stimulated the development of green roofs byestablishing
goals for reducing carbon emissions of cities, promoting green construction, mitigating heat island effects,
and increasing urban ood control. Local studies of green roof performance are few, other than thermal
investigations. These studies have shown that green roofs signicantly contribute to thermal reduction
and moderate temperature variations around buildings. One study sampled stormwater runoff fromgreen
roof sites and found that sediment and nutrient concentration on these roofs are up to ten times higher
than on conventional bare roofs; however, acid rain can be neutralized by green roofs. Hydrographs have
shown that reductions in runoff from green roofs are not as great as expected because retention and
detention are affected by high rainfall intensity, which is the typical precipitation pattern in Taiwanese
cities. Without additional maintenance, green roofs can contribute to nonpoint source pollution in urban
cities in wet and hot weather zones, because of high runoff and associated mass loading. Moreover, the
environmental benets of green roofs in Taiwan may not be as signicant as those in other countries
in which utility costs are higher, where decreasing energy consumption and CO
2
emissions would be of
greater benet.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Green roofs improve urban hydrology, reduce building energy
consumption, improve air and stormwater quality, provide eco-
logical habitat and esthetic appeal, and serve as recreational
spaces. The environmental benets derived from green roofs can
be dividedinto environmental quality improvements (Rowe, 2011)
and ecological conservation. With respect to environmental qual-
ity, vegetative growing spaces replace unused spaces on buildings
to reduce runoff volumes and delay peak ows (Mentens et al.,
2006; Carter and Jackson, 2007; Teemusk and Mander, 2007;
Spolek, 2008). Replacing bare roofs with green vegetation and sub-
strates can signicantly change albedo values and decrease heat
transfer into buildings (Liu and Baskaran, 2003; Tsang and Jim,
2011). Buildingtemperatures are therefore loweredandheat island
effects in urban areas are reduced (Takebayashi and Moriyama,
2007; Rowe, 2011). Plant growth also reduces air pollution and

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adsorbs and sequesters carbon (Currie and Bass, 2008; Getter
et al., 2009). Urban noise may also be somewhat diminished (Van
Renterghem and Botteldooren, 2009). In terms of ecological con-
servation, green roofs create ecological habitat and provide a green
belt in the city that helps compensate for distressed or lost ecosys-
tems (Oberndorfer et al., 2007; Lundholmet al., 2010). In addition,
plant growth outside windows creates a natural environment,
which contributes to mental health and provides a calming inu-
ence (Getter and Rowe, 2006).
Green roofs were rst applied in Europe, particularly in
Germany. Initially, green roofs were used to extend roof life and
improve esthetics (Kohler et al., 2002). Residents planted veg-
etation on roofs and balconies around their homes, but such
natural behavior has rarelybeendocumented(Mentens et al., 2006;
Teemusk and Mander, 2011). As climate change has become glob-
ally recognized, the contribution of green roofs to energy savings
in particular has been widely acknowledged (Takakura et al., 2000;
Wong et al., 2003a). To stimulate the green roof movement further,
governments have encouraged and even legislated development of
green roofs in highly urbanized cities in countries such as Germany
and Belgium (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004), Singapore (Wong
0925-8574/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.12.083
52 C.-F. Chen / Ecological Engineering 52 (2013) 5158
et al., 2003a,b), and Japan (Osmundson, 1999). In Japan, the Tokyo
Prefecture enacted regulations making green roofs mandatory for
newly built and enlarged buildings with land area 1000m
2
. In
Hong Kong, governmental best practices for green and innova-
tive buildings encourage construction of green roofs (Zhang et al.,
2012). Similar policies are also in place in the USA and Canada. For
example, under federal legislation in section 506 of the USA Clean
Energy Stimulus and Investment Assurance Act, residential and
commercial property owners receive a 30% tax credit for installing
a green roof on at least 50% of the total roof surface. NewYork State
lawincludes similar incentives. In Toronto, the Green Roof By-law
(Toronto Municipal Code Chapter 492) requires all new develop-
ment with a gross oor area of 2000m
2
to include a green roof on
2060% of the roof area. Carter and Fowler (2008) discussed policy
instruments in North America and observed that offering nancial
incentives suchas density credits andstormwater utility fee credits
encourages green roof development.
Urban stormwater management is another benet of green
roofs. To decrease ooding and stormwater pollution, low impact
development (LID) practices have been suggested (USEPA, 2000),
one of which is the use of green roofs. UK Sustainable Drainage
Systems (SUDS) endorses green roofs as a SUDS technology and
has also produced guidance specically related to the use of green
roofs and living walls on buildings (CIRIA, 2007a,b). Green roofs
utilize existing space and require no additional land area, which is
attractive in cities.
In Taiwan, the movement toward a low-carbon society and
more sustainable cities, as well as initiatives for greening of build-
ings and campuses, has increased the number of green roofs. For
example, the Ministry of Educationlauncheda national Sustainable
Campus Program in 2002 and invited proposals for reconstruc-
ting campuses in a sustainable way. Use of green roofs was one
of the strategies for developing sustainable campuses. The pro-
gram is similar to the Green School Project in South Korea, which
uses eco-friendly techniques, including green roofs, to repair and
renovate elementary and middle schools (KEDI, 2009; Hong et al.,
2012). The NewTaipei City government is also dedicated to devel-
oping a low-carbon city. One of its strategies is establishing more
green roofs, because they have high energy-saving functionality
and can also beautify the city. To mitigate urban ooding, the
Taipei City government passed an autonomous regulation in 2011
to increase the use of facilities capable of retaining and detaining
water, including green roofs. Additionally, green buildings empha-
size large green areas in and around buildings (Ministry of Interior,
2008).
Many green roofs have been constructed in Taiwan since 2000,
but most do not followa standard design. After promotion of green
roofs by the New Taipei City government, standardized regula-
tions following the German FLL guidelines (The German Landscape
Research, Development and ConstructionSociety) (FFL, 2002) were
implemented. However, fewstudies havebeenundertakentomon-
itor green roof performance in Taiwan. Taiwan is located in a
tropical and subtropical region with an annual average precipi-
tation of 2500mm, most of which falls during the rainy season
(typically called the plumrain season in East Asia) and the typhoon
season. During the plumrain season, when the winter and summer
monsoons meet and create a stationary front, a large amount of
rain falls in May and June with average rainfall of 230 and 300mm,
respectively. From July to September, abundant rainfall is asso-
ciated with typhoons. Fig. 1 shows the monthly average rainfall
in northern, central, and southern Taiwanese cities. Thus, inten-
sive rainfall is the major source of precipitation in Taiwan. This
precipitation pattern is unlike that of Europe and North America.
One obvious difference is that there is no snowmelt in Taiwanese
cities. For example, the lowest temperature in winter in Taipei
Fig. 1. Map of Taiwan and monthly average rainfall in Taipei, Taichung, and
Kaohsiung City, located in northern, central, and southern Taiwan, respectively.
Data for 19812010 were obtained from the Central Weather Bureau database
(http://www.cwb.gov.tw/).
City, which is located in northern Taiwan, is usually 10

C and is
never lower than 0

C. These climatic differences may result in

differences in green roof performance, particularly in stormwater
quality and quantity and thermal improvements. Williams et al.
(2010) addressed similar green roof challenges in Australia. They
found that predicting green roof success relying only on Euro-
pean and North American experiences without local evaluation
is problematic. The applicability of green roofs is highly depend-
ent on local climate conditions, and unfortunately, there have
been few green roof investigations in Taiwan. Studies of thermal
improvements have been the main focus (Hsieh and Ou, 2005;
Liang and Huang, 2011; Lin and Lin, 2011; Sun, 2011), as these
effects are relatively easy to monitor and show signicant results
in areas with high temperatures. Hsiao and Chen (2012) sampled
runoff water from green roofs and bare roofs for comparison. No
other environmental studies of green roofs in Taiwan have been
performed.
This paper reviews the existing literature on the performance
of green roofs in Taiwan and compares the results to those in other
countries, particularly in East Asia. Some selected published stud-
ies related to green roofs in East Asia are summarized in Table 1. In
addition to environmental performance, the economic character-
istics of building and maintaining green roofs are discussed. This
study provides unique observations that facilitate an understand-
ing of green roof performance in tropical and subtropical climatic
zones.
C.-F. Chen / Ecological Engineering 52 (2013) 5158 53
Table 1
Selected published studies related to green roof in East Asia countries.
Country Authors Discussion aspect
Japan Takebayashi and
Moriyama (2007)
Thermal
China Feng et al. (2010) Thermal
China (Hong Kong) Tsang and Jim(2011) Thermal
Jimand Tsang (2011a) Thermal (intensive
green roof)
Jimand Tsang (2011b) Thermal (intensive
green roof)
Jimand Peng (2012) Thermal and water
Jim(2012) Thermal
Zhang et al. (2012) Strategy
South Korea Kimet al. (2010) Plant growth
Hong et al. (2012) Cost and CO
2
Singapore Wong et al. (2003a) Thermal
Wong et al. (2003b) Cost
Wong et al. (2007) Thermal
Taiwan Lin and Lin (2011) Thermal
Liang and Huang
(2011)
Thermal
Sun (2011) Thermal
Liu et al. (2012) Thermal
Hsiao and Chen (2012) Runoff quality
2. Strategies for green roof development
In Taiwan, green roof use began in 2000 and has greatly
increased since 2006. Several policies have enabled its rapid adop-
tion. The rst policy to encourage the use of green roofs was
the Taiwan Sustainable Campus Project launched by the Ministry
of Education in 2002 (http://www.esdtaiwan.edu.tw/index c.asp).
This project is aimed at building sustainable campuses around
Taiwan and is one of several national policies for encouraging
sustainable development in the region. There are two major com-
ponents to this project, (1) to foster new relationships between
schools and local communities and (2) to reform campus envi-
ronments by using energy-saving appliances, water recycling and
reuse systems, permeable pavements, articial wetlands, green
roofs, compost from foliage and kitchen wastes, organic farms, or
eco-ponds, and other low-carbon practices. Green-cover construc-
tion is popular; however, during the rst year, knowledge of green
roofs was insufcient and no intensive or extensive green roofs
were fully established. Most green roof projects used only part of
the roof area and followed a landscape garden design intended for
a recreational space.
Inadditiontothe national project, three local governments have
policies to encourage citizens to create more green roofs. Taipei
City initiated a garden project in 2009. When Taipei City hosted
the 2010 International Flora Exposition, the government launched
this project to improve the citys appearance. Owners of bare land,
building walls, balconies, and roofs could submit greening propo-
sals and apply for full subsidies for these initiatives. New Taipei
City established the Green T.A.I.B.E. project (Green Trafc, Green
Architecture, Green Industry, Green Base, and Green Economics) in
2010 to convert the city into a green city. The project promotes the
development of green buildings and encourages all building roofs
to be converted to green roofs. Citizens can submit green roof pro-
posals andare eligible toreceive subsidies for these as well. In2011,
NewTaipei Citypassedanautonomous regulationrequiringall new
buildings to green half of their roofs. Subsequently, the Kaohsiung
City government announced a similar autonomous regulation to
establish more green roofs.
With respect to urban stormwater management, the Taiwanese
Building Act requires onsite water management and suggests
Table 2
Strategies promoting green roof development in Taiwan.
Strategy objectives Administration Year
To establish sustainable campus Ministry of Education 2002
To beautify city landscape Taipei City 2009
To deal with urban stormwater Taipei City 2011
To build up lowcarbon and
sustainable city
NewTaipei City 2010
To deal with urban stormwater NewTaipei City 2011
To deal with urban stormwater Kaohsiung City 2011
To encourage green buildings Ministry of Interior 1999
constructing permeable pavements, green roofs, and/or detention
ponds to reduce stormwater runoff. Flooding problems frequently
occur in Taiwan and construction of more impervious surfaces will
worsenthis problem. Thus, building owners have the responsibility
to reduce runoff. Discussions are underway to amend the Building
Act to strengthen the regulations on surface runoff reduction. Sim-
ilarly, Taipei City passed an autonomous law in 2011 to increase
stormwater retention capacity. However, implementation of the
detailed regulations has not been enforced to date. LID initiatives
developed in the United States were introduced in Taiwan in 2008,
and the Water Resources Agency is supporting several ongoing
projects studying LIDapplications in watershed management (e.g.,
WRA, 2011). Major LID facilities also have included green roofs.
Table 2 summarizes strategies related to green roof development
in Taiwan.
3. Green roof types, plants, and substrates
Green roofs can be classied into extensive and intensive types,
based on the depth of substrate. Substrate depth of extensive green
roofs is oftenless than20cm; thus, the weight capacity of the green
roof and the selection of vegetation are limited. In contrast, sub-
strate depth of an intensive green roof can be more than 20cm,
which can support woody plants. However, owing to heavy load-
ing and the careful maintenance work required for intensive green
roofs, their use is limited compared to extensive green roofs. In
Taiwan, thereis nostandarddenitionor designfor greenroofs. The
only ofcial recommendation is fromNewTaipei City, where Ger-
man FLL guidelines are recommended. Major concerns in selecting
the type of green roof for use in Taiwan include drainage issues and
possible damage to roof surfaces. Building owners are concerned
that litter may clog drainage pipes and cause ooding on roofs and
plants may root into roof constructionmaterials andresult inwater
leakage inceilings. Thus, most existing greenroofs are of the exten-
sive type and a fewuse potted plants instead of planting vegetation
in beds. The main advantage to using potted plants is that they can
easily be removed and replaced, but the cost is higher per area than
an extensive green roof. Some newly built buildings have roof gar-
dens for recreational purposes, with trees planted on a small part
of the roof area. Strictly speaking, this type might not be identi-
ed as a green roof because of the small surface area covered by
vegetation. For example, a green roof is required to cover 2060%
of the roof surface in Toronto according to the Green Roof Bylaw
and 50% is indicated by the Clean Energy Stimulus and Investment
Assurance Act in the USA.
Taiwans tropical and subtropical climate promotes extensive
biological diversity, and a great variety of plant species can be used
on green roofs. Table 3 shows the vegetation types commonly used
in green roofs in Taiwan. Plant selection and preservation has a
substantial inuence on green roof performance (Rowe, 2011). For
example, vegetation with greater plant depth and root density can
store more water (Dunnett et al., 2008). Runoff water quality also
varies with the type of vegetation (Monterusso et al., 2004). The
54 C.-F. Chen / Ecological Engineering 52 (2013) 5158
Table 3
Vegetation commonly used in Taiwanese green roofs.
Family Genus Functional group
Agavaceae Sansevieria Succulent
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera spp. Herbaceous
Amaryllidaceae Zephyranthes candida, Zephyranthes
rosea
Succulent
Bromeliaceae Cryptanthus bivittatus Herbaceous
Commelinaceae Callisia repens, Zebrina purpusii,
Setcreasea purpurea, Rhoeo
spathaceo cv. Compacta, Rhoeo
spathaceo
Herbaceous
Convolvulaceae Dichondra micrantha Herbaceous
Crassulaceae Sedumpallidum, Sedum
sarmentosum, Sedummakinoi,
Sedummexicanum, Sedumlineare
var. variegatum, Sedumspp.,
Graptopetalumparaguayense
Succulent
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia milii Shrub
Iridaceae Belamcanda chinensis Herbaceous
Labiatae Plectranthus amboinicus cv. Herbaceous
Liliaceae Ophiopogon japonicus cv. Nanus,
Asparagus densiorus,
Chlorophytumcomosumcv.
Picturatum
Herbaceous
Melastomataceae Schizocentron elegans Herbaceous
Moraceae Ficus vaccinioides Shrub
Nephrolepidaceae Nephrolepis auriculata Herbaceous
Portulacaceae Portulaca gilliesii, Portulaca
oleracea, Portulaca grandiora cv.
Herbaceous
Poaceae Zoysia matrella, Eremochloa
ophiuroides
Herbaceous
Urticaceae Pilea nummulariifolia Herbaceous
Source: HsiLiu Environmental Greening Foundation, http://www.hsiliu.org.tw/
index.html. The Foundation has established many green roofs in Taipei City and
the listed vegetation was summarized fromtheir actual designs.
most commonly used plant worldwide for extensive green roofs
is Sedum, which has attributes of succulent plants such as a low
growth rate and drought resistance that lead to low maintenance
requirements. A recent study conducted by Liu et al. (2012) inves-
tigated 31 types of plants suitable for extensive green roofs in
Taiwan. The results suggested that plants with succulent foliage,
surface cuticles, mucilaginous substances, hairs or spines, andCras-
sulacean acid metabolismare resistant to drought conditions, and
the families Crassulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Portulacaceae were
recommended. In a study by Lin and Lin (2011), Sansevieria trifasci-
ata cv. Laurentii Compacta and Rhoeo spathaceo cv. Compacta were
suggestedbecause they offeredthe best coverage ratio anddrought
endurance. However, in the authors ongoing experiment, S. tri-
fasciata did not survive beyond three months, compared to Zoysia
matrella and Sedummexicanumunder the same maintenance con-
ditions. It hypothesized that sustained lowtemperature during the
winter months of <10

C caused the failure. Therefore, both humid-

ity and temperature variations may need to be considered when
choosing plants for greenroofs. Inaddition, using a variety of plants
and creating diverse ecosystems is generally more successful than
planting single varieties of vegetation (Emilsson, 2008; Lundholm
et al., 2010).
Substrates for green roofs are typically a mix of inorganic sand,
organic soil, and fertilizers. The mix differs depending on the veg-
etation used. However, the type of substrate also affects runoff
quality and quantity (Moran et al., 2005; Teemusk and Mander,
2007; Alsup et al., 2010). Lin and Lin (2011) examined the effects
of substrate material on thermal reduction of green roofs. Sand,
white charcoal debris mixed with sand, organic matter mixed with
soil, and burned reservoir sludge mixed with rice hulls were tested
as substrate materials, and the burned sludge was found to have
the best performance. In addition, the use of recycled materials in
green roofs was studied (Li, 2011).
4. Environmental performance
4.1. Thermal benets
Thermal benets may be the most attractive function provided
bygreenroofs (Feng et al., 2010). Roofs withplantedvegetationand
substrate are able to dissipate more heat than bare roofs. Not only
do the surface and indoor temperatures of buildings with green
roofs uctuate less but the outside environment has smaller uc-
tuations as well, leading to energy savings and carbon emission
reductions. Cities with compact buildings and impervious pave-
ment have decreased albedo values, and the heat stored in these
cities is not exchanged with surrounding rural regions, termed the
urban heat island (UHI) effect. Green roofs are regarded as one way
of reducing UHI effects. Wong et al. (2007) examined the thermal
performance of green roofs in Singapore and found that the max-
imum heat reduction by extensive green roof systems was >60%.
Similar investigations were undertaken in Hong Kong, and Tsang
and Jim (2011) found that bare roofs had 75% higher heat storage
than green roofs. Even in temperate climates, green roofs perform
well in terms of thermal impact. Parizotto and Lamberts (2011)
studied green roofs in Florianopolis (SC, Brazil) and observed that
green roofs reduced heat gain by 9297% compared with ceramic
and metallic roofs. The dominant cause of the thermal benets pro-
vided by green roofs is evapotranspiration (Wong et al., 2003a;
Sailor, 2008). Feng et al. (2010) further claries the mechanisms
by which green roofs dissipate heat, including via evapotranspira-
tionintheplant-substratesystemandthroughlong-waveradiation
from leaves, plant photosynthesis, and heat storage by plants and
the substrate.
In Taiwan, research on green roofs has been conducted actively
during the past ve years. Sun (2011) collected temperature and
humidity data from two building roofs in Taipei City in northern
Taiwan and suggested that green roofs could decrease the ambient
air temperature by 0.3

C in the winter, 0.5

C in the spring, and

1.2

C in the summer. When atmospheric temperatures increase,

green roofs yield more signicant thermal improvements. Liang
and Huang (2011) conducted a eld experiment in Chiayi City in
the subtropical central region of Taiwan. They observed that the
maximum daily variation in bare roof surface temperatures was
35.4

C, but was much lower on green roof surfacesonly 3.5

C.
Lin and Lin (2011) conducted an investigation in Kaohsiung City in
southern Taiwan. They found temperatures on the surface of bare
roofs to be 32.7

C, whereas the temperatures on green roofs were

7.27.9

C. In Taiwan, the hot climatic zone makes green roofs even

more valuable for mitigating external and internal building tem-
peratures. Recent studies of green roofs in Taiwan have identied
the benets of green roofs for conserving energy and improv-
ing thermal environmental quality. Substrate properties and plant
selection are the two main components that affect rooftop heat
ux. For example, Nardini et al. (2012) examined the effect of
substrate depth on reducing thermal load. Wolf and Lundholm
(2008) studied the effects of plant species and water uptake in
Canada. Ouldboukhitine et al. (2012) tested substrate effects on
thermal and hydrological properties in France. Voyde et al. (2010)
tested the effects of substrate types and substrate depths in New
Zealand. Compared to studies on the macro-properties of substrate
and vegetation, few studies have noted that water content is a
key factor (Feng et al., 2010; Berndtsson, 2010). In hot, tropical
climatic zones, evaporation and transpiration rates are rapid. To
successfully maintain thermal performance, appropriate irrigation
C.-F. Chen / Ecological Engineering 52 (2013) 5158 55
Table 4
Mean water quality of rainwater, bare roof runoff, and green roof runoff fromthree extensive green roofs during nine stormevents in Taipei City (Hsiao and Chen, 2012).
Sites pH DO (mg/L) NO
3
-N (mg/L) NH
3
-N (mg/L) TP (mg/L) COD (mg/L) SS (mg/L)
Rainwater 6.34 6.44 1.24 0.28 0.02 25.71 2.21
Bare roof 6.56 5.65 1.26 0.22 0.01 25.00 14.31
Green roof 8.45 4.83 9.01 0.48 0.15 159.17 149.36
is necessary. According to Lin and Lin (2011), watering twice a
weekis thebest irrigationregimenfor achievingmaximumthermal
reduction. The frequency of irrigation may be increased when tem-
peratures are high. This schedule therefore conicts with the low
maintenance requirements of extensive green roofs. To maintain
their environmental advantage, improving the design of rooftop
gardens to more effectively store water using appropriate sub-
strate and plant combinations is an important issue in tropical and
subtropical areas.
4.2. Runoff water quality
Studies of runoff water quality in Taiwan are very limited.
Hsiao and Chen (2012) sampled runoff fromthree extensive green
roofs during nine rainfall events in Taipei City. To minimize site
disturbance, the three green roofs were located in the same
district and the rainfall pattern was assumed to be the same.
Three-year-old green roofs were used for the study because new
extensivegreenroofs havehighnutrient levels that affect stormwa-
ter quality (Berndtsson, 2010; Rowe, 2011). The three green roofs
were designed and constructed by the same company, HsiLiu
Environmental Greening Foundation, and had the same initial con-
ditions of vegetation and growth substrate. The composition of the
substrate was sandy loam/expanded clay/vermiculite/waste cot-
ton/peat soil at 2:3:3:1:1. The vegetation included herbaceous and
Sedum species (see Table 3). Although the initial conditions were
almost the same, the subsequent maintenance was different. The
greenroof built ona government building was managedby the staff
withirregular weeding andfertilization. The other two were placed
on public schools. One was built on a junior high school that coop-
erated with a local community college to take care of the plants
irregularly. The frequency and type of fertilization were unclear in
these two roof sites. The third did not receive good attention and
some vegetation was replaced by Bidens pilosa var. radiata, which
was not part of the initial design.
Hsiao and Chen (2012) demonstrated realistic green roof runoff
conditions, unlike experimental-scale studies in which all inuen-
tial factors can be controlled to clarify the relationships between
these factors and runoff results. The results of this study reected
the reality of green roof runoff in Taiwan. With lack of regular and
substantial maintenance, the concentrations of pollutants in the
runoff may be much higher from green roofs than from conven-
tional roofs. To date, the impacts of the substrate, plants, and even
rainfall patterns on green roof runoff in Taiwan have not been well
analyzed. The results of Hsiao and Chen (2012) are summarized in
Table 4. The water quality of bare roof runoff was similar to that
of rainwater, other than for suspended solids (SS). Rainfall owing
across roofs carries out deposited solids, resulting in higher SS in
the runoff. Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations were highest in
rainwaterup to 6.0mg/Lbecause of strong aeration, whereas it
was lower in runoff fromgreen roofs at 4.0mg/L. The pHof the rain
and bare roof runoff was below7.0, but the pHof green roof runoff
increased to 8.0. This implies that green roofs are capable of miti-
gating acid rainproblems. However, interms of other water quality
parameters, the runoff quality from green roofs was signicantly
worse because sediments were ushed out with the rainwater.
The mean nitrate concentration in green roof runoff was 9.0mg/L,
whereas in rainfall and bare roof runoff it was only 1.2mg/L. Total
phosphorus (TP) and SS levels were also 10 times higher for green
roofs. The water samples for green roofs showed obvious turbidity,
indicating that the ltration layers may have failed. Lack of clean-
ing and weeding causes turbid runoff water as well. Lack of green
roof maintenance is a commonprobleminTaiwanbecause budgets
for regular operation and maintenance are low. Although regu-
lar weeding promotes vegetation growth, fertilization may result
in high nutrient levels in substrate and potentially high nonpoint
source pollution levels.
These ndings are not surprising; poor runoff quality has been
seen in many such roofs (Berntsson et al., 2006; Teemusk and
Mander, 2007; Hathaway et al., 2008; Bliss et al., 2009). However,
erosion, lter layer leakage, and clogged drainage layers may make
green roofs a potential pollution source in Taipei City. Fortunately,
the ability of green roofs to neutralize acid rain is obvious. Many
studies have emphasized that although the water pollutant con-
centrations are high, total pollutant loadings may be lowbecause of
reducedrunoff volume (USEPA, 2009; Carpenter andKaluvakolanu,
2011; Gregoire and Clausen, 2011). However, this assumption is
limitedto lowrainfall or snowmelt events. Slowprecipitationrates
also help trap pollutants in substrates and prevent resuspension
and transport. When strong, intensive rainfall occurs, the ability of
green roofs to retain and detain runoff decreases and the total pol-
lution loadings are alarming. In Taiwan, heavy rainfall events are
frequent, especially during the typhoon season. Thus, green roof
designs in high-precipitation cities must consider the high erosion
problem, andinsuchcities, more maintenance is requiredfor green
roofs than in drier cities.
4.3. Runoff water quantity
There has been no runoff monitoring of actual green roofs in
Taiwan, and hence, no site observation data has been collected.
Runoff water quantity has been investigated only in experimen-
tal studies, i.e., Li (2010) and Liao (2012). Many studies have
shown that green roofs can be useful for reducing rainfall runoff.
Experiences in European countries and the USA have shown that
an average retention of 56% is seen in green roofs (Gregoire
and Clausen, 2011). However, Carter and Rasmussen (2006) and
Villarreal and Bengtsson (2005) found an inverse relationship
betweenrainfall intensity andwater retentionrates for greenroofs.
Mentens et al. (2006) observed similar results of increasing runoff
with increasing precipitation depth. These results indicate that the
ability of green roofs to reduce runoff has limitations.
In general, green roofs can retain and detain runoff. Results of
previous studies indicate that runoff is delayed and peak ow is
reduced (Stovin et al., 2012) (Fig. 2A). Before reaching peak ow,
runoff fromgreenroofs is lower thanthat frombareroofs, andgreen
roofs may have no runoff during low-intensity rainfall because the
substrate and plants impede the ow. The difference in peak ow
of conventional roofs and green roofs, Q
p
and Q

p
, is the retention
function. For low-intensity and short-duration rainfall events, the
time to reach peak ow(t
p
) is signicantly different and the differ-
ence is related to the detention function. The total runoff volume
is also lower for green roofs than for conventional roofs. How-
ever, during high-intensity storm events, retention and detention
56 C.-F. Chen / Ecological Engineering 52 (2013) 5158
Fig. 2. Comparisonof rainfall runoff response for conventional roofs andgreenroofs
(regardless of antecedent conditions). Qp and tp are the peak ow and the time
when the peak owoccurs for conventional roof runoff, respectively. Q

p
and t

p
are
the same indicators for green roof runoff. (A) Low intensity and a small amount of
rainfall and (B) high intensity and a large amount of rainfall.
provided by green roofs is limited and the runoff responses for the
different types of roofs are similar (Fig. 2B). Differences in peak
ow, peak ow time, and total runoff volume are not as great
as in Fig. 2A. Before reaching peak ow, water may be retained
by the substrate and intercepted by vegetation, resulting in a dif-
ference in peak ow rate and time. However, after peak ow is
reached, there is almost no difference between the two runoff ow
rates, because the substrate on the green roof is saturated and
inltration does not occur. Therefore, in wet and high-intensity
rainfall regions, expectations that green roofs can solve urban
stormwater problems should not be high. On the contrary, chal-
lenges relatedtoerosionneedtobe consideredtoprevent pollutant
runoff.
5. Costs and benets
The initial cost of green roofs is signicantly higher than that for
bare roofs because of the need for extra construction, maintenance,
and operation. However, the cost of a green roof over its lifetime
is less than for an exposed bare roof (Wong et al., 2003b; Clark
et al., 2008; Niu et al., 2010). Considering the environmental bene-
ts provided by green roofs, the net present value may be 3040%
less than that of conventional bare roofs (Niu et al., 2010). The
environmental benets are generally considered to be stormwa-
ter runoff reduction, energy savings, air pollution mitigation, and
carbon sequestration. Energy use reduction plays a signicant role
in green roof benets (Kosareo and Ries, 2007). However, previous
studies did not consider green roof maintenance costs; unfortu-
nately, the increase in maintenance costs has been one of the
largest barriers to the implementation of green roofs (Zhang et al.,
2012).
There has been no costbenet analysis for the green roof life
cycle in Taiwan. A review of construction costs of green roofs for
eight projects in New Taipei City indicates that the initial cost of
extensive and intensive green roofs is approximately US$75/m
2
and $100/m
2
, respectively. The initial cost increases to $200/m
2
if potted plants are used. The initial cost of green roof construc-
tion in Taiwan is less than in other countries; for example, the
cost in the USA is around $150200/m
2
for green roof construc-
tion (Livingroofs, 2004). However, the environmental benets in
Taiwan may not be as signicant as those in other regions. For
example, cheap electricity tariffs result in lower energy savings.
The average electricity tariff in Taiwan is 8.55/kWh, which is
less than the 9.88/kWh tariff in the USA and the 15.36/kWh
tariff in the UK (Taiwan Power Company, 2012). Moreover, there
is no stormwater fee in Taiwan. In the absence of a stormwater
fee, the benets of reducing stormwater runoff are only obtained
from stormwater infrastructure savings. In Taiwan, stationary air
pollution sources must pay an air pollution control fee; the fee
for SO
x
is US$161274/Mg and that for NO
x
is US$194323/Mg.
For a mean uptake of 0.27kgNO
2
m
2
year
1
(Morikawa et al.,
1998), the benet provided by the NO
2
reduction of green roofs
is US$0.050.09m
2
year
1
. Although the utility fee is low, the net
present value of a green roof may still be less than a traditional
roof over the entire lifetime of the roof (the lifetime of a green roof
is typically 40 years). Further research is needed to fully compare
the costs and benets of green versus more traditional roofs, and
more environmental benets such as noise reduction, ecosystem
conservation, and even mental health benets could be included
to increase the total value of green roofs.
6. Conclusions
Green roofs have multiple environmental benets and interest
in these roofs is greatly increasing. Most studies have concentrated
onhigh-latitude countries; however, the performance andtechnol-
ogy of green roofs appear to be signicantly different in warm or
low-latitude regions. This study reviews green roof performance
in Taiwan, a wet and hot subtropical and tropical country, and
strategies for promotinggreenroof development inthis region. One
uniquedifferenceingreenroof performancearises fromdifferences
in precipitation. Without snowmelt, all precipitation falls during
the wet season. This intensive rainfall decreases the retention
and detention abilities of green roofs; therefore, their contribution
to urban stormwater control is low. Moreover, intensive rainfall
causes high erosion, and the runoff fromgreen roofs contains more
organic compounds and sediments than the runoff frombare roofs.
Without proper maintenance, water pollutant concentrations and
pollutant mass loadings of green roofs become a concern; they
may produce polluted runoff rather than improving water quality.
Although the thermal reduction provided by green roofs is sig-
nicant in hot climatic regions, additional irrigation is required
to maintain water availability in these systems to avert the high
potential for evaporation and transpiration. Therefore, to preserve
the environmental benets of green roofs, the maintenance effort
required in tropical and subtropical climate zones will be higher
than that required in temperate climate zones.
C.-F. Chen / Ecological Engineering 52 (2013) 5158 57
Tosustaingreenroof functions inintensiverainfall regions, rain-
water harvesting systems can be considered that can store excess
runoff and be used as an alternative water source. In such a com-
binedsystem, the runoff enteringcollectionpipes shouldbe treated
to acceptable water quality levels. The lter layers of green roofs
would require advanced design and additional water treatment
methods may be required depending on the uses of the harvested
rainwater. For future costbenet analysis of green roofs in trop-
ical and subtropical areas, it is suggested that noise reduction,
ecosystemconservation, and mental health benets be included as
benets of green roofs, in addition to energy savings, stormwater
runoff reduction, and air pollution reduction.
Although the performance of green roofs in Taiwan is not as
advantageous as in temperate climate zones, there are oppor-
tunities for improving their use in Taiwan. Storing water more
efciently is key to realizing these improvements. Substrate mate-
rials, depths, and plant species, as well as their interactions, play an
important role in green roof success. Williams et al. (2010) noted
the same points with regard to green roofs in Australia. However,
in Australia, intensive green roof use is prevalent and the weather
is hot and dry, unlike the hot and wet weather of Taiwan. Owing
to limits on roof loadings, extensive green roofs are widely used in
Taiwan. At this point, thegreatest greenroof challenges tobesolved
in Taiwan are to decrease erosion and increase water content in a
<200-mm-deep substrate.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the National Science Council under
grant NSC 100-2221-E-034-016. The author thanks the two anony-
mous reviewers for their valuable comments.
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