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A Generalized Description of The Elastic Properties of Nanowires
A Generalized Description of The Elastic Properties of Nanowires
Properties of Nanowires
Andreas Heidelberg,
Lien T. Ngo,
Bin Wu,
Mick A. Phillips,
Shashank Sharma,
Theodore I. Kamins,
John E. Sader,
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Nano Lett., Vol. 6, No. 6, 2006 1103
to an ultimate cubic-like dependence on the deflection (see
Figure 3d). However, it is important to emphasize that the
gradual change in the slope of the F-d curve makes it
difficult to exclusively identify linear and nonlinear regions
and necessitates the use of the generalized eqs 5, 6, and 10,
which are valid for all displacements in the elastic region.
Whenever the linear or nonlinear term is used by itself, as
is presently the case in the literature, it provides a very poor
description of the mechanical properties. For example, an
exclusively linear treatment fails to recognize that the F-d
data beyond the linear region is still the result of elastic
deformation, except that the dominant stresses are now tensile
and associated with bending the wire beyond one radius.
This model can be directly compared with the force curves
recorded using Si and Au nanowires.
22
Figure 4a shows a
fit (using the generalized eqs 5, 6, and 10) for the F-d curve
for the Si wire shown in Figure 2a, and which gives an
E-modulus of 190 GPa. The only adjustable parameter in
the fit was the E-modulus. It is important to note that the
excellent fit in Figure 4a covers the entire displacement
range, from the first contact point between tip and nanowire
to the sharp force-drop point, which indicates failure without
plastic deformation, hence demonstrating that Si nanowires
are brittle materials. In Figure 5 the E-moduli determined
for nanowires with radii between 50 and 100 nm are shown.
The average modulus E )158 GPa is essentially independent
of the radius over the range investigated and close to the
value reported for bulk Si(111) (169 GPa).
23
The scatter in
the data presented here can be explained by the fact that the
measured E-modulus is dominated by estimates of the
physical dimensions of the wire and AFM cantilever/tip
11
and is not a reflection of the model itself. Indeed the accuracy
of the model is significantly better than that of present
experimental methods, which are limited by physical dimen-
sion measurements, but is expected to become more impor-
tant as better nanomechancial techniques are developed.
The real importance of this method is the ability to
unambiguously identify the elastic deformation regime for
a particular material. For example, in the case of the Au
nanowire system, we previously demonstrated that the force
response is essentially linear and suggested that the change
in slope after this initial linear region was due to yielding.
11
This analysis is borne out by the application of the present
model to this system. The lower curve in Figure 2 shows
the F-d curve for an Au nanowire (r ) 113 nm) that is
essentially linear up to an obvious break point, which occurs
at a wire displacement of about 110 nm. Figure 4b shows
that these data can be fit using eqs 5, 6, and 10 up to the
break point, thus demonstrating the break point is indeed
the yield point of the material.
Given the data for a particular Au NW, and assuming the
modulus is a materials constant for the system under study,
this model can be used to predict the generalized elastic
behavior for any Au nanowire. The fact that the Au NW in
Figure 4b yielded at a wire displacement of 110 nm reflects
the detailed microstructure of the wire. Hardening of the wire,
whether by grain boundary or impurity hardening, will
increase the yield point but the F-d data must still follow
the model (red curve) in Figure 4b, except that the point
where the force data deviates from the model occurs at larger
displacements (shown as open circles in Figure 4b). Using
this approach, it is possible to accurately study the evolution
Figure 3. (A) Plot of the rigidity enhancement function f(R) as a function of . (B) Calculated F-d curve for a circular cylinder showing
the nonlinearity for a maximum deflection of one radius. The force values have been normalized so that a slope of unity corresponds to the
standard linear theory. (C) Simulated and normalized F-d curve for a maximum displacement of two radii. (D) F-d curve for large
deflections showing a growing nonlinearity leading to the ultimate cubic dependence on the deflection.
1104 Nano Lett., Vol. 6, No. 6, 2006
of the mechanical properties of a family of NWs through a
series of work-hardening or annealing treatments.
25
In conclusion we have introduced a model which ac-
curately accounts for the mechanical properties of nanowires
in a clamped-clamped beam configuration over the entire
elastic range and provides a comprehensive methodology for
the analysis of a broad range of nanowire systems. A
nonlinear response is expected for small wires such as single
carbon nanotubes for all significant displacements whereas
an initial linear response followed by an approximate cubic
dependence is expected for larger diameter wires. In general,
however, a detailed description of such F-d curves requires
a solution of the generalized equations developed here.
Whether this nonlinear behavior is observed depends on the
intrinsic mechanical properties of the wire, and for systems
such as metals that are susceptible to mechanical yielding
the nonlinear response is suppressed. Even in this case,
however, for an accurate measurement of elastic properties
it is necessary to account for nonlinear effects that result
from build-up of tensile stresses in the wire. Finally, this
model allows the yield point to be identified in NW systems
and hence facilitates studies of the evolution of NW
mechanical properties during work hardening and annealing.
Acknowledgment. The work at the Department of
Chemistry and the Center for Research on Adaptive Nano-
structures and Nanodevices at Trinity College Dublin is
supported by Science Foundation Ireland under Grant 00/
PI.1/C077A.2. The research by J.E.S. is supported by a
Science Foundation Ireland Walton Fellowship and was
performed while on leave at Trinity College Dublin. The
work at Hewlett-Packard is partially supported by the U.S.
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).
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24
Nano Lett., Vol. 6, No. 6, 2006 1105
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