LIMITS

A sequence of rational numbers

The limit of a variable
Left-hand and right-hand limits
The definition of the limit of a variable
The limit of a function
The definition of the limit of a function
Section 2:
Theorems on limits
Limits of polynomials
CENTRAL TO CALCULUS is the value of the slope of a line,

, but when
the terms approach
0
0
. Evaluating that rate of change under those
vanishing conditions requires the idea of a limit. And central to the idea
of a limit is the idea of a sequence of rational numbers.
A sequence of rational numbers
We encounter such a sequence in geometry when we determine a formula
for the area of a circle. To do that, we inscribe in the
circle a regular polygon of n sides. The area of the polygon, which we can
actually calculate, will be an approximation to the area of the circle. As we
increase the number of sides -- that is, if we consider a sequenceof
polygons: 60 sides, 61 sides, 62, 63, 64, and so on -- then the sequence of
those areas becomes closer and closer to the area of the circle. Now, the
circle is never equal to a polygon. But by considering a sufficiently large
number of sides, the difference between the circle and that polygon will be
less than any small number we specify. Less, say, than
0.00000000000000000000000000000001.
That is the idea of a sequence approaching a limit, or a boundary,
which in this example is the area of the circle.
Problem 1. The student surely can recognize the number that is the
limit of this sequence of rational numbers.
3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, 3.14159, 3.141592, . . .
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").

We speak of a sequence being infinite, which, in
analogy with the sequence of natural numbers, is a
brief way of saying that there is a rule or a pattern or
a procedure that enables us to name as many terms
as we please.
The limit of a variable
Consider this sequence of values of a variable x:
1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, 1.99999, . . .
Those values are approaching 2 as their limit. 2 is the smallest
number such that no matter which term of the sequence you name, it
will be less than 2.
The difference between the terms of the sequence and 2 --
|1.999999999999 2|
-- ultimately become and remain less than any positive number, however
small. By choosing that small number, the values of the sequence can be
made as close to the limit 2 as we please. (Definition 2.1, below.)
(We write the absolute value because the terms are less than 2, and
so the difference itself will be negative.)
When the values of x approach a number l as a limit, we symbolize
that as x l. Read: "The values of x approach l as a limit," or simply,
"x approaches l." In the example above, x 2. "x approaches 2."
(And how else will x approach a value, other than as a sequence of
rational numbers?)
We also say that a sequence converges to a limit. The sequence
above converges to 2.
By a sequence in what follows, we mean an ordering of rational
numbers according to a rule or an indicated pattern. Here, for example,
is a sequence that approaches 0:
0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, 0.00001, and so on.
Left-hand and right-hand limits
Now the sequence we chose were values less than 2. And so we say
thatx approaches 2 from the left. We write
x 2
But we can easily construct a sequence of values of x that
converges to 2 from the right; that is, a sequence of values that are more
than 2.
For example,
2.2, 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001, . . .
In this case, we write x 2+ .
But again, no matter what small number we specify, if we go far
enough out in that sequence, the value of a difference |x 2| will be
less than that small number. And so will all subsequent differences we
might name.
Again, when we say that the values of x "approach a limit," that
limit is never a value of x. There is always a difference between the
values ofx and their limit. The limit is the boundary beyond which no
member of the sequence will pass.
We summarize this in the following definition. But first, x is not
the only variable. y is a variable. And y will be a function of x -- f(x) --
which is also a variable. And when we come to the definition of the
derivative, x or h will be the variable. In the following, then, we will
use the letter v to represent any variable.

DEFINITION 2.1. The limit of a variable. We say that
a sequence of values of a variable v approaches a limit l (a number
not a term in the sequence) if, beginning with a certain term vn, and
for any subsequent term we might name, the absolute value of
vn l is less than any positive number we specify, however small.
When that condition is satisfied, we write v l.

And so when the values of a variable approach a limit, there is
always a difference between the limit and those values. But that
difference can be made as small as we please. That is the essence of a
variable approaching a limit.
If x is the variable that approaches the limit 0 (as it
does when we determine the derivative), then x is
never equal to 0.
-
The limit of a function
We have defined the limit of a variable, but what we often have is
afunction of a variable -- which is itself a variable. For example,
y = f(x) = x
2
.
Now, a sequence of values of x, the independent variable, will cause
a sequence of values of f(x), the dependent variable. The question is: As
the values of x approach a limit c, will the corresponding values of f(x)
approach a limit L ? If that is the case, then we write

"The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L."
In fact, let us see what happens to f(x) = x
2
as x 2. Suppose
again that x assumes this sequence:
1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, 1.99999, . . .
x
2
will then become this sequence:
1.9
2
, 1.99
2
, 1.999
2
, 1.9999
2
, 1.99999
2
, . . .
It is easy to see that x
2
approaches 2
2
= 4.

That is, if we go far enough out in the sequence of values of x, then
the differences between the x
2
s and 4 --
|1.9
2
4|, |1.99
2
4|, |1.999
2
4|, |1.9999
2
4|, |1.99999
2
4|,
. . .
-- will become less than any positive number we specify, however small.
The definition of the limit of a variable will be satisfied. f(x) = x
2
will
approach 4 as a limit as x approaches 2.
Moreover, if x approaches 2 from the right:
2.2, 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001, . . .
then those values cause x
2
to become this sequence:
2.2
2
, 2.1
2
, 2.01
2
, 2.001
2
, 2.0001
2
, . . .
That sequence also will approach 4. Therefore 4 is the limit
of x
2
whether x approaches 2 from the right or from the left. Therefore
we can drop the + or signs and simply write:

To summarize:

DEFINITION 2.2. The limit of a function. We say that a function
f(x) approaches a limit L as x approaches c if the sequence of values
of x, both from the left and from the right, causes the sequence of
values of f(x) to satisfy the definition of "approaches a limit
L":Definition 2.1.
If that is the case, then we write:

"The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L."

Thus for the limit of a function to exist as the independent variable
approaches c , the left-hand and right-hand limits must be equal.


if and only if


When we say, then, that a function approaches a limit,
we mean that Definition 2.2 has been satisfied.
Thetheorems on limits imply that.
The most important limit -- the limit that differential calculus is
about -- is called the derivative. All the other limits studied in Calculus I
are logical fun and games, never to be heard from again.
Now here is an example of a function that does not approach a
limit:


As x approaches 2 from the left, f(x) approaches
1. As x approaches 2 from the right, f(x) approaches 3. The left- and
right-hand limits are not equal. Therefore, f(x) does not approach any
limit as x approaches 2.Definition 2.2,
Section 2: Theorems on limits












Limits (An Introduction)
Approaching ...
Sometimes we can't work something out directly ... but we can see what it
should be as we get closer and closer!
Example:
(x
2
1)(x 1)
Let's work it out for x=1:
(1
2
1)(1 1) = (1 1)(1 1) = 00
Now 0/0 is a difficulty! We don't really know the value of 0/0 (it is
"indeterminate"), so we need another way of answering this.
So instead of trying to work it out for x=1 let's try approaching it closer and
closer:
Example Continued:
x (x
2
1)(x 1)
0.5 1.50000
0.9 1.90000
0.99 1.99000
0.999 1.99900
0.9999 1.99990
0.99999 1.99999
... ...
Now we see that as x gets close to 1, then (x
2
1)(x1) gets close to 2
We are now faced with an interesting situation:
When x=1 we don't know the answer (it is indeterminate)
But we can see that it is going to be 2
We want to give the answer "2" but can't, so instead mathematicians say
exactly what is going on by using the special word "limit"
The limit of (x
2
1)(x1) as x approaches 1 is 2
And it is written in symbols as:

So it is a special way of saying, "ignoring what happens when we get there, but
as we get closer and closer the answer gets closer and closer to 2"
As a graph it looks like this:
So, in truth, we cannot say what the value at x=1 is.
But we can say that as we approach 1, the limit is 2.


Test Both Sides!
It is like running up a hill and then finding the pathis magically "not there"...
... but if we only check one side, who knows what happens?
So we need to test it from both directions to be sure where it "should be"!
Example Continued
So, let's try from the other side:
x (x
2
1)(x 1)
1.5 2.50000
1.1 2.10000
1.01 2.01000
1.001 2.00100
1.0001 2.00010
1.00001 2.00001
... ...
Also heading for 2, so that's OK
When it is different from different sides

How about a function f(x) with a "break" in it like this:
The limit does not exist at "a"
We can't say what the value at "a" is, because there are two competing
answers:
3.8 from the left, and
1.3 from the right
But we can use the special "" or "+" signs (as shown) to define one sided
limits:
the left-hand limit () is 3.8
the right-hand limit (+) is 1.3
And the ordinary limit "does not exist"
Are limits only for difficult functions?
Limits can be used even when we know the value when we get there!
Nobody said they are only for difficult functions.
Example:

We know perfectly well that 10/2 = 5, but limits can still be used (if we want!)
Approaching Infinity

Infinity is a very special idea. We know we can't reach it, but we can still
try to work out the value of functions that have infinity in them.
Let's start with an interesting example.
Question: What is the value of 1 ?

Answer: We don't know!

Why don't We know?
The simplest reason is that Infinity is not a number, it is an idea.
So 1 is a bit like saying 1beauty or 1tall.
Maybe we could say that 1= 0, ... but that is a problem too, because if we
divide 1 into infinite pieces and they end up 0 each, what happened to the 1?
In fact 1 is known to be undefined.
But We Can Approach It!
So instead of trying to work it out for infinity (because we can't get a sensible
answer), let's try larger and larger values of x:
x 1x
1 1.00000
2 0.50000
4 0.25000
10 0.10000
100 0.01000
1,000 0.00100
10,000 0.00010



Now we can see that as x gets larger, 1x tends towards 0
We are now faced with an interesting situation:
We can't say what happens when x gets to infinity
But we can see that 1x is going towards 0
We want to give the answer "0" but can't, so instead mathematicians say
exactly what is going on by using the special word "limit"
The limit of 1x as x approaches Infinity is 0
And write it like this:

In other words:
As x approaches infinity, then 1x approaches 0

When you see "limit", think "approaching"

It is a mathematical way of saying "we are not talking about when x=, but we
know as x gets bigger, the answer gets closer and closer to 0".
.
















Limits
The topic that we will be examining in this chapter is that of Limits. This is the first of
three major topics that we will be covering in this course. While we will be spending
the least amount of time on limits in comparison to the other two topics limits are
very important in the study of Calculus. We will be seeing limits in a variety of places
once we move out of this chapter. In particular we will see that limits are part of the
formal definition of the other two major topics.

Here is a quick listing of the material that will be covered in this chapter.

Tangent Lines and Rates of Change In this section we will take a look at two
problems that we will see time and again in this course. These problems will be used
to introduce the topic of limits.

The Limit Here we will take a conceptual look at limits and try to get a grasp on
just what they are and what they can tell us.

One-Sided Limits A brief introduction to one-sided limits.

Limit Properties Properties of limits that well need to use in computing
limits. We will also compute some basic limits in this section

Computing Limits Many of the limits well be asked to compute will not be
simple limits. In other words, we wont be able to just apply the properties and be
done. In this section we will look at several types of limits that require some work
before we can use the limit properties to compute them.

Infinite Limits Here we will take a look at limits that have a value of infinity or
negative infinity. Well also take a brief look at vertical asymptotes.

Limits At Infinity, Part I In this section well look at limits at infinity. In other
words, limits in which the variable gets very large in either the positive or negative
sense. Well also take a brief look at horizontal asymptotes in this section. Well be
concentrating on polynomials and rational expression involving polynomials in this
section.

Limits At Infinity, Part II Well continue to look at limits at infinity in this section,
but this time well be looking at exponential, logarithms and inverse tangents.

Continuity In this section we will introduce the concept of continuity and how it
relates to limits. We will also see the Mean Value Theorem in this section.

The Definition of the Limit We will give the exact definition of several of the limits
covered in this section. Well also give the exact definition of continuity.









Limits
Limits are the core tool that we build upon for calculus. Many times, a function can be undefined at a point,
but we can think about what the function "approaches" as it gets closer and closer to that point (this is the
"limit"). Other times, the function may be defined at a point, but it may approach a different limit. There are
many, many times where the function value is the same as the limit at a point. Either way, this is a powerful
tool as we start thinking about slope of a tangent line to a curve. If you have a decent background in algebra
(graphing and functions in particular), you'll hopefully enjoy this tutorial!
Estimating limits from graphs
In this tutorial, we will build our ability to visualize limits by estimating them based on graphs of functions.
We will look at both one-sided and two-sided limits.
Finding limits algebraically
We often attempt to find the limit at a point where the function itself is not defined. In this tutorial, we will use
algebra to "simplify" functions into ones where it is defined. Given that the original function and the simplified
one may be identical except for the limit point in question, this is a useful way of finding limits.
Continuity using limits
A function isn't continuous when there is a "break" in its graph. This tutorial uses limits to define this idea
more formally and gives practice thinking about continuity (and discontinuity) in terms of limits.
Old limits tutorial
This tutorial covers much of the same material as the "Limits" tutorial, but does it with Sal's original "old
school" videos. The sound, resolution or handwriting isn't as good, but some people find them more charming.
Limits and infinity
You have a basic understanding of what a limit is. Now, in this tutorial, we can explore situation where we
take the limit as x approaches negative or positive infinity (and situations where the limit itself could be
unbounded).
Squeeze theorem
If a function is always smaller than one function and always greater than another (i.e. it is always between
them), then if the upper and lower function converge to a limit at a point, then so does the one in between. Not
only is this useful for proving certain tricky limits (we use it to prove lim (x 0) of (sin x)/x, but it is a useful
metaphor to use in life (seriously). :) This tutorial is useful but optional. It is covered in most calculus courses,
but it is not necessary to progress on to the "Introduction to derivatives" tutorial.
Epsilon delta definition of limits
This tutorial introduces a "formal" definition of limits. So put on your ball gown and/or tuxedo to party with
Mr. Epsilon Delta (no, this is not referring to a fraternity). This tends to be covered early in a traditional
calculus class (right after basic limits), but we have mixed feelings about that. It is cool and rigorous, but also
very "mathy" (as most rigorous things are). Don't fret if you have trouble with it the first time. If you have a
basic conceptual understanding of what limits are (from the "Limits" tutorial), you're ready to start thinking
about taking derivatives.


http://www.themathpage.com/acalc/limits.htm
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/limitsIntro.aspx
http://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/limits.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-calculus/limits_topic