Restoring Identity and Bringing Balance Through Navajo Healing Rituals

Music and Arts in Action | Volume 3 | Issue 2
Restoring Identity and Bringing Balance

through Navajo Healing Rituals
PAUL F. MOULON
Music Department | The College of Idaho | USA
*
ABSTRACT
he !ri"ary #ocus o# the cere"onies o# the Native A"erican Navajo tri$e is to
$ring $alance $y re%esta$lishing har"ony or h&'h&. his article !ro!oses that
signi#icant !sychological and e"otional $ene#its result #ro" the identity
a##ir"ation that occurs in these cere"onies. he cere"onies recali$rate !atients
regarding social and su!ernatural relationshi!s( and their attach"ent to !lace and
ti"e( in )hat the author calls cos"ogra!hic orientation. he *ne"y)ay cere"ony
is the !ri"ary #ocus o# the article.
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Music and Arts in Action7Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page :;
http://musicandartsinaction.net/index.php/maia/article/view/navajohealingrituals
INTRODUCTION
According to a Navajo legend the deit! Changing "oman told her t#in sons $Do
not forget the songs I have taught !ou% The da! !ou forget them #ill &e the last' there
#ill &e no other da!s( )*aile +,-. p% +/0% 1ngulfed &! American culture and
penetrated &! glo&ali2ation mem&ers of the Native American Navajo tri&e have
struggled to remem&er their songs and maintain that identit!% In particular
traditional ceremonies provide the cultural &edroc3 that helps tri&al mem&ers retain
their identit!% As I #ill demonstrate this identit! affirmation is an important
function al&eit an unarticulated one resulting from the primar! purpose of these
ceremonies namel! producing healing for a variet! of ailments 4 ph!sical
ps!chological emotional and spiritual%
In the search for healing the Navajo people are pragmatic often simultaneousl!
turning to "estern &io5medical solutions and traditional ceremonies%
+
Traditionall!
&io5medicine has not valued ritual activities such as chanting dancing and acting as
these activities lie outside its mechanistic and empirical paradigm%
/
*o#ever it is m!
argument that Navajo healing ceremonies can provide an emotional or ps!chological
healing that is often a&sent in &io5medicine% The Navajo concept of health and
healing is much more fle6i&le and does not oppose &io5medical practices &ut rather
provides a complementar! application of healing% "hile participating in ceremonies
that invo3e healing Navajos &ecome re5grounded in their cultural identit!% Indeed
the t#o are intrinsicall! lin3ed as identit! affirmation promotes healing particularl!
in a traditional Navajo sense%
The ideas presented here are not intended to encourage non5Navajos to replicate
these native traditions% Indeed the ceremonies herein are descri&ed in much greater
detail in the #or3s of others )cf% *aile +,-.' McAllester +,780% More importantl!
the health &enefits I propose #ould simpl! not #or3 for foreigners% The conte6t
methods and identif! affirmation functions of these rituals inherentl! re9uire that the
patient )and practitioner0 &e Navajo%
M! attempt to formulate a particular understanding of native healing is intended to
&enefit &oth the Navajo and those peering into their #orld% Indeed I &elieve that
although these ceremonies should not and cannot &e replicated &! others the! reveal
interesting even practical insights into the #a! music can function in informing
identities in other communities% M! #ell5meaning purpose here is driven in part &!
a recent movement among some anthropologists and ethnomusicologists to produce
&eneficial scholarship%
-
-
Because o# the !ro$le"atic nature o# the ter" <estern( es!ecially )hen dealing )ith Native A"ericans( I lean "ore
heavily on the ter" $io%"edical to denote the conventional *uro%A"erican syste" o# healing.
,
Although so"e doctors or thera!ists "ay ac=no)ledge so"e $ene#its in the ritual !ractice o# "edicine( it hardly
see"s co""on. he U.6. /e!art"ent o# Health and Hu"an 6ervices !rovides li"ited guidance #or "edical sta## )ho
)or= in clinics and hos!itals run $y the Indian Health 6ervice. heir )e$site !rovides hel!#ul in#or"ation( although
slightly "isin#or"ed( regarding traditional healing( $ut its !ri"ary #ocus is reco""ending )ays in )hich "edical sta##
can $e "ore sensitive to !atients needs and $elie#s. hese reco""endations can hardly $e descri$ed as !roviding
direction #or the co"!le"entary use o# *uro%A"erican "edicine and Navajo healing cere"onies >U.6. /e!art"ent o#
Health( ,3--?.
1
Medical ethno"usicologist Benja"in @oen argues #or this ty!e o# research in the #irst cha!ter o# Beyond the Roof of
the World >,33;?( and Maurice Bloch gently ta=es anthro!ologists to tas= #or shying a)ay #ro" issues that hel! us
understand hu"an nature in Essays on Cultural Transmission >,334( !. -0?.
Music and Arts in Action7 Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page 03
The discussion of cosmographic orientation that constitutes the final part of this
article is m! attempt to ans#er a 9uestion that arose and persisted during m! nearl!
three !ears living on the Navajo reservation% I taught high5school in :anado
Ari2ona a to#n nestled deep in the reservation% *ere the normal identit! issues
facing all teenagers seemed amplified &! cultural discord% Most pu22ling to me #ere
m! students #ho appeared to have fairl! strong traditional roots e6emplified &! the
fact that the! spo3e the language carried corn pollen #ith them attended ceremonies
and spo3e of pra!ers &ut #ho also identified #ith American heav!5metal music%
These students often #ore clothing e6hi&iting the names of their favorite &ands% I
#as particularl! struc3 &! the contradiction &et#een heav! metal music;s glorification
of death and m! perception of the Navajos; po#erful fear of the dead%
8
I &ecame
interested in these students; efforts to maintain a significant Navajo identit! despite
modernit!;s pervasive messages% M! ideas articulated here result from m! e6periences
on the reservation including interacting #ith Navajo students co5#or3ers medicine
men and friends and o&serving various rituals%
7

In this article I #ill first e6amine the Navajo concept of health and the healing
function of ceremonial activities specificall! the 1nem!#a! ceremon! and then turn
to a discussion of the #a! these ceremonies affirm identit! and aid healing% Music
pla!s an important part in these ceremonies and therefore it #ill &e a recurring
theme in the article% I full! recogni2e that m! ideas are interpretations &ut I &elieve
that creating a coherent narrative is an essential step to#ards understanding% In doing
this I am follo#ing Clifford :eert2 #ho &elieved that fashioning a narrative #as a
necessar! means to reducing the $pu22lement( of comple6 interactions )+,<- pp% +75
+=0%
It is useful to note that the Navajo are one of the largest native groups in the United
States and occup! a massive reservation that covers parts of Ari2ona Ne# Me6ico
and Utah and is compara&le in si2e to the >epu&lic of Ireland% The Navajo refer to
their native land as the Navajo Nation or the Dinehtah and the! refer to themselves
as the Din?% @ut of respect for them throughout this paper I #ill refer to them &!
this name%
CONCETS O! "EA#IN$
In Din? tradition ever! ailment #hether ph!sical ps!chological or emotional has
its roots in the spiritual realm% The earl! researcher Aather Berard *aile )+,-. p% +/0
descri&ed this connection $Sic3ness in native ideolog! is not organic &ut is caused
&! jealous and angr! supernaturals #ho ma3e demands upon humans #hich must &e
satisfied(% Another related native concept is that of hzh or $&alance(% A life that has
hzh possesses good health &eaut! peace and harmon! )Iverson /CC/ p% +/0% If a
person does not possess hzh, he or she is in discord #ith his or her ph!sical and
supernatural surroundings and is in a state of illness% And although the s!mptoms of
an illness ma! &e manifested either ps!chological or ph!sicall! an ill person ma! &e
referred to as confused &e#ildered or frustrated )*aile +,-. p% .,0% This emphasis
5
his is )ell docu"entedA see( #or eBa"!le( /onald 6ander >-;:;( !. -3,?.
4
My C#ield)or=D "ore closely rese"$les that o# Eary <ithers!oon >-;::?( )ho has )ritten so"e o# the "ost insight#ul
$oo=s and articles on the /inF( and )ho !roduced these a#ter living #or #i#teen years on the reservation.
Music and Arts in Action7 Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page 0-
on the ps!cho5ph!sical connection is uni9ue #hen compared to "estern medicine
#here ph!sical and ps!chological ailments are t!picall! categori2ed and treated
separatel!% In the Din? tradition ph!sical and ps!chological maladies are one illness%
=

The phrase $#al3 in &eaut!( is commonl! used among the Din? and em&odies this
notion of health and their cultural philosoph! in general% The phrase$#al3 in &eaut!(
is regularl! said at home school and communit! events and is even printed on
souvenirs% This motto is derived from the most commonl! performed ceremon! the
Blessing#a! #hich ma! &e performed several times in the course of a !ear and can
&e re9uested #henever special &lessings are desired% Aor e6ample a #oman #ho is
pregnant or a person #ho is leaving the reservation for long5term #or3 ma! re9uest
the Blessing#a!% Dart of the ceremon! involves the important pra!erE $Beaut! shall &e
in the front of me &eaut! shall &e in the &ac3 &eaut! shall &e &elo# me a&ove me
all around me( )Aris&ie and McAllester +,<. p% /+,0% The phrase $#al3 in &eaut!(
encapsulates the Din? concept of health &! emphasi2ing that good health )hzh) is
s!non!mous #ith &alance harmon! and &eaut!%
If an individual is ill or out of hzh he or she must first see3 a diagnosis% A diagnosis
can occur #hen the patient;s famil! arranges for an assessment from a medicine man
or #oman that speciali2es in diagnosis% Since diseases or distur&ances result from the
violation of a ta&oo the offence of a deit! or the possession of a ghost individuals
ma! not 3no# the cause of their discomfort% Diagnosis re9uires an act of divination%
A diviner #ill usuall! discuss things #ith the patient and ma! then attempt to
identif! the source using several means including starga2ing and most fre9uentl!
$hand5trem&ling(% In the latter activit! the practitioner sings a song invo3ing :ila
Monster one of the assistants of the deities $#ho gave the song in the &eginning(%
During this song the singer;s hand and arm &egin to sha3e and the particular motion
of the sha3ing indicates the diagnosis for the illness )Fluc3hohn and Geighton +,=C
p% +8.0% Aollo#ing the diagnosis the famil! ma! arrange for a ceremon! from a
medicine man that speciali2es in the remed! for the diagnosed ailment%
Numerous ceremonies e6ist in the Navajo tradition% Some last onl! an hour #hile
most last several da!s and some as man! as nine da!s% The Din? also refer to these
ceremonies as $sings( the practitioner is often referred to as a $singer( )as #ell as the
adopted term $medicine man(0 and the patient ma! &e descri&ed as the one $sung
over(% 1ach ceremon! is usuall! descri&ed as a $chant( or $#a!(% :lad!s A% >eichard
)+,<< pp% -//5/-0 has identified appro6imatel! si6t!5eight different ceremonies%
Some of the most common ceremonies include the 1nem!#a! Blessing#a!
Night#a! and the female pu&ert! ceremon! 3no#n as FinaaldH%
A ceremon! involves various activities and the intoning of numerous chants that the
singer has learned and perfected through an apprenticeship% These chants are often
performed #ithin the traditional DIn? home called a hogan% The chants are usuall!
sung in a loosel! metered melod! that contains a limited num&er of pitches% The! are
generall! unela&orated and also act as a memor! guide and as a #a! of preserving
order )>eichard +,<< p% /..0% The chanting ma! &e accompanied &! a drum or
2
his is o# course co""on a"ong "any cultures >Lader"an and Rose"an( -;;2?.
Music and Arts in Action7 Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page 0,
rattle although these are not al#a!s mandated% Darticipants in the ceremon! ma! also
join in the singing of familiar chants%
The contents of the chants involve the creation legends of the Din?% *aile descri&ed
the content of the ceremoniesE
J legends songs and pra!ers are chiefl! concerned #ith the creation and placement
of the earth and s3! sun and moon sacred mountains and vegetation the inner
forms of these natural phenomena the control of he5and she5rains dar3 clouds and
mist the inner forms of the cardinal points and li3e phenomena that ma! &e
considered as har&ingers of &lessing and happiness% )*aile +,-< 9uoted in
Fluc3hohn and Geighton +,=C p% +8,0
The songs and activities #ithin a ceremon! are ascri&ed to various deities #ho
created performed and then taught the ceremon! to humans% Aor e6ample
authorship of the Blessing#a! is credited to the *ol! Deople and specificall! to the
deit! Changing "oman% She is one of the primar! figures in Din? m!thologies and
her sons helped rescue the ne#l! created humans% According to the m!tholog! the
original Blessing#a! ceremon! #as held #hen the human race #as created%
Conse9uentl! all other ceremonies refer &ac3 to this ceremon! )Fluc3hohn and
Geighton +,=C p% +8,0%
Several items are #orth emphasi2ing here% Airst all ceremonies focus on the retelling
of parts of the creation stor!% Thus if a patient has a&dominal pro&lems the curing
ceremon! #ill li3el! not address his a&domen &ut #ill instead retell creation m!ths%
These stories after all often depict individuals overcoming conflict and restoring
&alance% Although this ma! seem disconnected from the actual ailment the Din?
&elief in the supernatural causes of illness ma3es the recounting of hol! stories a
fitting remed!% Second the deities #ho #ere part of the original creation are also
credited #ith first introducing the stories chants and rituals activities to humans%
Thus these ancient ritual activities purport po#er that can &e harnessed #hen
repeated%
The practitioner or medicine man is seen as a spiritual intermediar! #ho helps the
patient re5ac9uire &alance% Although a practitioner ma! use ph!sical remedies such as
her&al applications and emetics massages and s#eat5&aths the reenactments of these
ancient chants invo3e the greatest healing potential% "hen chanting the singer does
not merel! supervise and perform he assumes control of a supernatural po#er and
personifies the deit! #ho created the song )Fluc3hohn and Geighton +,=C p% =0% B!
invo3ing spiritual po#er the singer see3s to heal the discomforted patient% This
healing event does not necessaril! see3 the removal of a ph!sical ailment although
this ma! &e a goal of the ceremon!' its primar! purpose is to re5esta&lish &eaut! or
&alance )hzh0 in the patient;s life%
The ritualistic use of music in these ceremonies has a profound spiritual &asis% The
medicine man assumes supernatural control partiall! &ecause of the po#er of
spea3ing and chanting% According to :ar! "itherspoonE
Navajos &elieve strongl! in the po#er of thought% The #orld #as created &! it' things
are transformed according to it' life is regenerated from it% Deople are cured and
&lessed vegetation is improved and increased and health and happiness are restored
&! the po#er of thought KJL According to the Navajo speech is the outer form of
thought and thought the inner form of speech% )"itherspoon +,<< p% /,0
Although these thoughts can &e e6plicated through various forms of speech such as
pra!er singing is ascri&ed significant po#er% It is credited #ith the po#er to actuall!
create% In multiple e6amples of the creation stor! things )mountains people etc%0
#ere actuall! sung into e6istence% Aor e6ample one of the most important deities
Changing "oman #as created out of tur9uoise &! the *ol! Deople through their
singing sacred songs )Mol&rod +,.8 pp% +<<5<,0% Singing can thus propel po#erful
thoughts into e6istence% Music;s po#er #ill &e discussed more &elo#%
IDENTIT% AND "EA#IN$ T"ROU$" T"E ENEM%&A% CEREMON%
To understand the healing function of the ceremonies I #ill focus on the 1nem!#a!
ceremon! 4 another commonl! performed ceremon!% The 1nem!#a! ceremon! is
used as a remed! for patients #ho feel afflicted &! foreign ghosts or enemies% Indeed
fear of possession is one of the greatest fears for traditional &elievers )Sander +,<, p%
+C,0% 1ven those #ho have converted to Christianit! still e6press considera&le fear of
ghosts% The ceremon! has in the past &een used for #arriors including Din? soldiers
#ho served in the #ars of the United States% The ceremon! also applies to an!one
#ho has seen the corpse of a $foreigner( including remnants of the &od! )hair &one
etc%0% It ma! also &e used if an individual has had close associations including se6ual
relations #ith a foreigner #ho has since died% Native #itches called s3in#al3ers can
also cause the haunting of individuals% Indeed s3in#al3ers are perhaps the most
feared apparitions since the! are &elieved to &e humans #ho practice &lac3 magic
and assume animal5li3e characteristics and 9ualities%
<

An afflicted individual #ho manifests s!mptoms of $#ea3ness &ad dreams feelings
of danger confusion futilit! loss of appetite suffocating fainting di22iness and
generali2ed an6iet!( ma! need an 1nem!#a! ceremon! )Sander +,<, p% +C+0% This
is li3el! more acute in modern times due to the increase association #ith foreigners
as man! Din? regularl! #or3 off of the reservation during the #ee3 and onl! return
on #ee3ends% Thence the! regularl! associate #ith $foreign( individuals #ho might
possi&l! haunt someone if the! &ecome deceased% If an! of these incidents have
occurred and an individual &egins to feel #ea3 agitated or trou&led in their dreams
their famil! ma! re9uest an 1nem!#a! ceremon! #hich has the purpose of ridding
the patient of a menacing ghost )*aile +,-.' McAllester +,780%
During the three5da! ceremon! participants enact a m!thological &attle in #hich the
patient impersonates the deit! Monster Sla!er and s!m&olicall! 3ills the agitating
ghost% Although this m!th has some violent themes the ceremon! involves ver! little
that is maca&re and instead focuses on restoring peace to the patient% Several
researchers have o&served that perhaps the most important result of a Din? ceremon!
:
My students )ere al)ays #ull o# s=in)al=er stories( es!ecially late at night a#ter $us tri!s or dances. One "e"ora$le
story included an eB!lanation o# a "ethod o# inducing !ossession $y shooting tiny $one #rag"ents into victi"s
through a $lo) gun. For a detailed study o# )itchcra#t see @luc=hohn >-;55?.
is its ps!chological comfort )Fluc3hohn and Geighton +,=C p% +=8' Ge#ton and
B!done /CCC p% 8<=0% I propose that the 1nem!#a! ceremon! functions as a
healing ceremon! &! re5centering the patient #ithin multiple spheres of identit!% The
practitioners of the 1nem!#a! attri&ute the healing to spiritual intervention% M!
e6planation does not see3 to prove or disprove this claim &ut instead considers the
content and structure of the ceremon! and identifies the #a! these aspects &ring
a&out ps!chological comfort and healing%
SOCIA# S"ERE O! IDENTIT%
Both the structure and content of the 1nem!#a! facilitate healing &! creating or
reaffirming the patient;s identit! in a #a! that connects him or her #ith multiple
levels of sociali2ation ranging from famil! to the supernatural% In addition to social
relationships the patient is also reoriented in terms of time and ph!sical space% The
com&ined effect of re5orienting a patient sociall! temporall! and geographicall!
produces a po#erful sense of self5#orth% I descri&e this multi5tiered approach to
esta&lish the patient;s identit! as cosmographic orientation.
In the center of this orientation process is the individual;s d!namic sense of identit!%
Uneasiness confusion and a general sense of an6iet! demonstrate an inner
distur&ance% The individual feels conflict either #ith herself 4 so that she does not
feel li3e herself 4 or perhaps #ith some $other( presence% Aor an individual #ho fears
haunting and #ho has an inclination that she has someho# &een e6posed to a ghost
#hat might &e t!pical &ad dreams or uneasiness ma! &e perceived and thus
aggravated through fearful lenses% *ealing one;s identit! ma! help alleviate the cause
of the s!mptoms #hether an actual haunting or emotional turmoil% The ceremon!
asserts the true identit! of the individual and thus e6cises foreign ghosts that foul the
integrit! of the individual%
The structure and activities of the 1nem!#a! reaffirm
the patient;s association #ith societ! )see Aigure +0%
.

At the most &asic level the ceremon! involves
sustained and often intense interactions #ith
immediate and e6tended famil!% It is a famil!
mem&er and not the patient #ho must first see3 the
aid of a medicine man% Additionall! ceremonies can
&e ver! e6pensive so &efore a practitioner is
contacted the famil! first see3s the financial
assistance of the e6tended famil! )McAllester +,78 p% .0% Throughout the
ceremon! the immediate and e6tended famil! provide food and other forms of
support% A ceremon! rene#s famil! ties%
@nce a medicine man has &een contacted and his services secured the patient;s
famil! then contacts another famil! to act as the $stic3 receiver(% This famil!
impersonates an opposing #ar part! throughout much of the ceremon! and their
involvement often necessitates the gathering of their e6tended famil! mem&ers%
0
he octagonal sha!e o# the #igure "odels the sha!e o# the traditional hogan ho"e.
Figure -9 6ocial 6!here o# Identity
Self
Social
During the first da! and first night the ceremon! ta3es place at or near the home of
the stic3 receiver;s famil!% Gater in the ceremon! &oth families also e6change presents%
Thus the 1nem!#a! ceremon! encourages the participation of the patient;s famil!
and that of an additional famil!% These relationships remind the patient of the
e6tensive and important role of 3inship in Din? culture% Indeed 3inship is regularl!
stressed among the Din?% "hen an individual introduces herself in a traditional #a!
she #ill state her name and her clan% Throughout the ceremon! the patient #ill &e
reminded more poignantl! of her clan and her relationship to those of other clans%
@ther friends of the famil! even ac9uaintances and general communit! mem&ers
ma! participate in the pu&lic aspects of the ceremon!% Both natives and non5natives
sometimes refer to the pu&lic portion of the 1nem!#a! as a S9ua# Dance% It involves
three nights of dancing that includes s#a! songs dance songs and circle dance songs%
*istoricall! these dances #ere one of the fe# occasions at #hich mature girls and
&o!s could freel! mi6 and dance% During these dances the girls choose their dancing
partner and then re9uire their partner to pa! mone! for the dance )McAllester
+,780%
S9ua# Dance songs are far more comple6 than the chants of the ceremon!% The
vocal range encompasses up to an octave and the music has a fairl! active melod! and
rh!thm% Usuall! t#o groups s9uare off and participate in a friendl! rivalr! #hich
ma! involve ne#l! composed songs% Most of the songs use onl! te6ts comprised of
voca&les although some include a fe# lines of Navajo% It is not uncommon for these
songs to include humor and reference modern da! events and technolog!% :eneral
participants ma! also join in the singing of the s#a! songs and round5dance songs%
The entertainment and dancing produces a positive setting that helps counteract the
haunting and distur&ed feelings of the patient% This festive aspect of the ceremon!
increases the circle of sociali2ation and further re5orients the patient concerning his
relationship #ith the Din? people in general%
As Nohn Blac3ing notes of music in general $The function of music is to enhance in
some #a! the 9ualit! of individual e6perience and human relationships( )+,77 p%
-+0% This can &e seen in the 1nem#a! ceremon! as music helps unif! and reesta&lish
relationships% During the more private parts of the ceremon! famil! and close friends
#ill participate in singing chants together% The monophonic singing of participants
led &! the medicine man creates an acoustical unit! that helps shape notions of
famil! oneness% During the more pu&lic portions music and dancing serve as social
gravit! dra#ing in e6tended relations and communit! mem&ers #ho sing and dance
in unit!% Music;s inherent time s!stem s!nchroni2es footsteps and singing so that
music generates communit! organi2ation% Additionall! the dances reinforce notions
of communit! through the singing of conte6tuall!5rich l!rics that &oth echo and
shape comple6 social messages a&out Din? identit! including notions of gender%
Blac3ing )+,77 p% /-/0 asserts and it is demonstrated here that music is not just
refle6ive it is $one of the means through #hich social structure is created(%
SUERNATURA# S"ERE O! IDENTIT%
The content of the 1nem!#a! also informs the
patient of his or her relationship #ith supernatural
&eings as the patient is taught a&out his or her
connection to Din? deities )see Aigure /0% As #ith
most Din? ceremonies the 1nem!#a! recounts
legends a&out the origins of the Din?% The ceremon!
is especiall! po#erful &ecause the patient and some of
the participants re5enact portions of the Din? creation
stor!%
,

In the 1nem!#a! the patient and participants re5enact the m!tholog! concerning
the sla!ing of monsters &! the *ero T#ins as #ell as the legend a&out the #ar on
Taos )McAllester +,78 p% .0% According to the m!tholog! the deities Airst Man and
Airst "oman created a race of humans &ut this group #as se6uall! promiscuous
resulting in the &irth of monsters%

Creatures such as Monster Bird Monster "ho
Fills #ith *is 1!es and Big :iant commenced to devour and terrori2e humans%

In
response Airst Man and Airst "oman created another deit! named Changing
"oman #ho e6posed herself to the sun and conse9uentl! conceived t#in sons
named Monster Sla!er and Born for "ater )Mol&rod +,.8 pp% .=5+.C0%
After ac9uiring supernatural po#ers from Spider "oman and their father the Sun
these t#ins set out to destro! the monsters% Sla!ing each monster in turn the t#ins
dramaticall! and successfull! defeated all of the monsters% Aollo#ing their victor!
Monster Sla!er received the first 1nem!#a! ceremon!%
+C
*ence all practitioners
model their ceremonies after this original ceremon! and the patient imagines him or
herself as Monster Sla!er and even ritualisticall! acts the part of the deit! )*aile
+,-. p% //0%
@ne of the most poignant parts of the ceremon! is referred to as the $&lac3ening(%
During this activit! #hich occurs on the third da! the patient is &lac3ened #ith the
charcoal from various her&s adorned #ith &ands made from !ucca plants and
dressed to resem&le Monster Sla!er% The patient #ears !ucca #ristlets )#hich
represent Monster Sla!er;s long life0 !ucca shoulder &ands )#hich represents
Monster Sla!er;s &o#0 and a feather )#hich represents Monster 1agle0 )McAllester
+,78 p% //0% @nce adorned as Monster Sla!er
++
the individual then s!m&olicall!
3ills the enem! ghost%
Si6teen songs are sung during the &lac3ening ceremon!% In these songs the patient is
referred to as Monster Sla!er &ut he is also called his other names including :a2er
on 1nem! Mil3! "a! Bo! and >ain&o# Bo! )*aile +,-. p% /<,0% In other parts
of the ceremon! the patient is referred to as the grandchild of Changing "oman%
1mphasi2ing the patient;s representation of a god the patient is often referred to in
first personE $Because I am Monster Sla!er &o! &ecause I am long life &o! I live a
;
his act o# i"!ersonation is co""on #or /inF cere"onies.
-3
Blac= Eod is the author and !ractitioner o# the *ne")ay >Haile( -;10( !. 14?.
--
I# it is a #e"ale( a "ale relative )ill act as !roBy >McAllester( -;45( !. -,?.
Music and Arts in Action7 Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page 0:
Figure ,9 6u!ernatural 6!here o#
Identity
Self
Supernatural
long life so I do( )*aile +,-. p% /=80% :ar! "itherspoon )+,<< p% /70 has
o&served that $ritual identification #ith KdeitiesL neutrali2es the contaminating effect
of dangerous things or evil deeds and restores one to the good and harmon! of
hO2hO(% Singing these po#erful songs the patient figurativel! em&odies and performs
the Din? creation stor!% The unela&orated chanting clearl! communicates the
patient;s deistic association% Indeed the simple &ut potent nature of the chant
distinguishes it from the music of dail! life and even from the pu&lic music and
dancing of the ceremon!%
Fluc3hohn and Geighton descri&e this association #ith the supernatural noting thatE
J in the height of the chant the patient himself &ecomes one of the *ol! Deople
puts his feet in their moccasins and &reathes in the strength of the sun% *e comes
into complete harmon! #ith the universe and must of course &e free of all ills and
evil% )Fluc3hohn and Geighton +,=C p% +=70
The effect of this representation is to po#erfull! impress the ps!che of the patient%
Acting in a re5creation of the &eginnings of the Din? reminds the patient that his
people #ere created &! po#erful gods and his life is an e6tension of these
supernatural origins% B! participating in a ceremon! that Monster Sla!er received
including hearing the same songs and even dressing as Monster Sla!er the patient
ma! perceive of himself as having an affinit! #ith the divineE he or she &ecomes a
participant in the eternal% Thus in the chants and actions of the 1nem!#a! the
patient;s circle of sociali2ation #idens to a cosmic circumference%
TIME S"ERE O! IDENTIT%
Identit! can also &e shored up &! esta&lishing the
individual;s relationship to time and in the
ceremonies the patient is often emplaced #ithin a
&road conte6t of time )see Aigure -0% 1ach ceremon!
has seasonal restrictions #ith some &eing performed
!ear round and others such as the 1nem!#a! onl!
occurring at certain times of the !ear% Because the
chants and activities derive from the creation m!ths
the patient &ecomes more conscious of the deep past%
This a#areness of the past is heightened &! the patient;s enacting histor! so that
these stories &ecome intert#ined #ith the immediate realit!% Also most ceremonies
last several da!s #ith much of the chanting done at night so that during the
ceremon! a ne# sense and pulse of time is esta&lished that separates the activities
from the routines of dail! life% Aollo#ing a ceremon! certain restrictions are often
placed on the patient for a period of several da!s% Mircea 1liade )+,=+ p% =,0 has
o&served that religious rituals remove the participants from temporalit! and inserts
them into $m!thical time reactuali2ed &! the festival itself% *ence sacred time is
indefinitel! recovera&le indefinitel! repeata&le%( As the ceremon! restores m!thical
time the act also heightens a#areness of the present so that the patient &ecomes
more a#are of his place in time%
Figure 19 i"e 6!here o# Identity
Self
Time
The rh!thms of the chants themselves #hich tend to &e highl! repetitive are
essential for creating a ne# sense of time even invo3ing a sense of timelessness%
Blac3ing )+,77 p% -80 has commented $the essential 9ualit! of music is its po#er to
create another #orld of virtual time(% Thus during and follo#ing the ceremon! the
patient enters a liminal state that res!nchroni2es his or her chronological position &!
disrupting his or her normal e6pectations of time and re5conte6tuali2ing them #ithin
a grander time scheme%
#ACE S"ERE O! IDENTIT%
Ainall! the ceremon! re5orients the patient;s sense of
place )see Aigure 80% In the ceremon! the patient is
reminded of his ph!sical position in relationship to
the homeland of the Din? and also in concordance
#ith his position in the cosmos% Significantl! most
Din? ceremonies occur #ithin the hogan% This
s!mmetrical octagonal structure is designed according
to traditional prescriptions% @utside the hogan the
Din? legends emphasi2e the topographical features of
their traditional homeland the Din?tah% The places descri&ed in the creation stories
e6ist in the area that includes the current Navajo Nation
+/
so that the patient is
ph!sicall! located in the sacred places descri&ed in the songs% The area is oriented
according to the four cardinal directions #ith four different mountains representing
the outer &oundaries of their homeland% Nearl! ever! large topographic feature on
the reservation has a m!thological connection so reminders of the creation stor!
constantl! surround a Din? individual on the reservation% The sacred places of the
Din?tah contrast the profane spaces outside the traditional &orders%
+-
The chanting in the 1nem!#a! refers to specific topographic features )*aile +,-.
pp% -.5-,0% In the creation stor! these features #ere sung into e6istence and a
parallel performance occurs in the ceremon! as the images of places are recreated in
the minds of participants% Additionall! the four cardinal directions are regularl! and
repetitiousl! used in the description of events so that the patient is sonicall! and
geographicall! surrounded% @ccasionall! the chants also refer to a celestial o&ject such
as the Mil3! "a! )*aile +,-. pp% =< /<,0% Thus the patient is reminded of his
place #ithin his famil! hogan #hich is situated #ithin the sacred topograph! of the
Din?tah #hich is in turn descri&ed in a cosmic conte6t% Cosmographic references re5
orient the patient in his 9uest to see3 &alance%
SOUNDIN$ IDENTIT%
A s!m&ol of this cosmographic orientation occurs earl! in the ceremon!% During the
preparator! stages of the ceremon! select participants ma3e a drum &! stretching
-,
he Navajo )ere one o# the #e) Native A"erican grou!s that )ere a$le to retain their traditional lands.
-1
For an eBa"!le o# the "yth%laden to!ogra!hy( t)o ty!ical%loo=ing "esas lie near Eanado High 6chool that #ro" a
distance to the north rese"$le the heads o# sna=es. An associate o# "ine learned #ro" a /inF hitchhi=er that indeed
t)o "assive sna=es had $een nearing each other #or co"$at )hen they )ere turned into stone. Most $oo=s on the
/inF include so"e co""entary a$out the i"!ortance o# !lace. For a clear descri!tion o# its signi#icance see <y"an
>-;4:( !!. 12%1;?. 6ee also *liadeDs >-;2-? discourse on sacred and !ro#ane s!aces.
Music and Arts in Action7 Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page 0;
Figure 59 Place 6!here o# Identity
Self
Place
&uc3s3in over an earthen pot% Multiple songs accompan! this process )*aile +,-.
pp% += /<,0% "hen the drumhead is attached the practitioner sings five songs%
During the first four songs he &eats on the north then east south and #est sides of
the rim of the drum% @n the fifth song he &eats in the center of the drum% This sonic
event s!m&oli2es the cosmographic cali&ration that the patient #ill undergo in the
ceremon!%
Sound serves an important role in this process of re5orientation% The patient and
participants are encompassed in sacred sounds% During the nighttime dances the
voices of the singers fill the night and encourage sociali2ing and frivolit!% In the more
su&dued setting of the hogan the medicine man intones sacred healing melodies that
envelope that patient% Indeed songs for the Din? are often associated #ith images of a
covering or &lan3et% Aor e6ample a horseman riding at night ma! sing a song that
$covers( him and provides protection against the evils of the night% Concerning this
e6ample :lad!s >eichard )+,<< p% /..0 asserts that $a song moving out into the
space immediatel! surrounding an individual KJL esta&lishes a 2one of protection
that gives comfort for #ithin it is the person #ho dissipates the evils &! the
compulsion of sound and #ords at the same time that he &uo!s up his o#n spirit(%
This notion e6tends to the healing purpose of singing #ithin a ceremon!% As the
singer chants he drives out evil and esta&lishes harmon! &eaut! and &alance in the
patient%
1ach song emphasi2es its function #ithin the ceremon! through repetition% "hile
preparing the drum for e6ample multiple songs are sung% "ithin each song 3e!
ideas are repeated sometimes literall! and sometimes #ith parallelisms% The third
song for e6ample emphasi2es the sounding of the drumE
A nice one a nice a nice one no# gave a sound
a nice a nice a nice one no# gave a sound so it did%
No# I am Changing "oman;s child #hen a nice one gave its sound so it did KJL
1ach of the songs performed during the creation of the drum is nearl! identical
e6cept for specific 3e!#ords that descri&e the creation of the drum% *ere are the
&eginning te6ts of nine of these songs demonstrating the repetitiveness of the chantsE
+% A nice one is preparing it for me KJL
/% A nice one has prepared it for me KJL
-% A nice one no# gave its sound KJL
8% The sound of a nice one has no# gone forth KJL
7% The sound of a nice one has no# ceased KJL
=% Arom a nice one &eaut! no# e6tends KJL
<% Arom a nice one &eaut! is no# spread out KJL
.% Come m! child comeP KJL
,% Come m! child comeP KJL
)*aile +,-. p% /=-0
These nine highl!5repetitive songs onl! one set from man! in the ceremon! imprint
the messages of the songs in the patient;s mind% This repetition creates an almost
h!pnotic sense of sta&ilit! and esta&lishes a sense of timelessness% It also ma! help to
alter the $ps!chic patterning( of the mind )Sander +,<, pp% /8=58<0% The &lan3et
Music and Arts in Action7 Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page ;3
of sound surrounds the patient
constantl! affirming ps!cho5social
identit! #ithin overlapping spheres of
socialit! time and place )see Aigure 70%
Thus the patient &ecomes immersed in
an atmosphere of securit! &alance and
&eaut!%
CONC#USIONS
According to Din? m!tholog! singing
has its origins in cr!ing% The first
singing developed out the cr!ing of
Changing "oman% During a moment
of loneliness and isolation $she cried
and from her cr!ing came a song(
)>eichard +,<< p% /.80% Illness is compounded &! its inherent loneliness and
ph!sical or ps!chological maladies seem to inevita&l! produce emotional turmoil%
Although the healing of ph!sical disease through traditional Din? ceremonies ma! &e
difficult to perceive from a &io5medical perspective its emotional and ps!chological
&enefits are su&stantive though significantl! different from the practice of
ps!cholog!%
At a time #hen an individual ma! feel most vulnera&le and isolated Din? healing
ceremonies help provide a personal and cultural grounding for the individual% Aamil!
and friends come together and social relationships are re5affirmed in #a!s that
connect the individual to those in the present and the past% The patient also
reconnects to the sacred soil of the reservation 4 he is literall! grounded and given a
sense of place% Spirituall! he )re50learns principles and &eliefs and develops an affinit!
#ith the supernatural% In all these #a!s the ill patient e6periences emotional comfort
and reassurance resulting in a reduction in loneliness and ps!chological turmoil%
Indeed hzh is achieved and the individual is prepared to $#al3 in &eaut!(%
Although individuals see3 healing ceremonies these rituals also help address the
general social stress of cultural dissipation or $deterritoriali2ation( )Appadurai +,,=
pp% -<5-.0% Do2ens of people are t!picall! involved #ith a ceremon! and all reap
similar identit!5affirmation &enefits% This t!pe of general social healing seems
especiall! pertinent in the t#ent!5first centur!% Aamil! disintegration is a significant
issue for man!% Due to the lac3 of jo& opportunities on the reservation man! parents
are forced to #or3 in the distant cities of Al&u9uer9ue Alagstaff or Dhoeni6%

Aor
man! this means that one or &oth parents are a#a! during the #ee3 and onl! return
home on #ee3ends% Issues of alcoholism and drug use that continue to plague the
Din? in unusuall! high proportions further compound the pro&lems caused &! the
fra!ing famil!%
+8
Ceremonies re5unite families in po#erful s!m&olic and practical
#a!s% Most participants seem to perceive ceremonies as sacred &ut fun social
activities especiall! the pu&lic dancing of the 1nem!#a! &ut this entertainment
-5
Many Navajo youth are le#t )ith considera$le a"ounts o# unsu!ervised ti"e >so"eti"es )ee=s at a ti"e?( )hich
encourages drug use( alcohol use and seBual !ro"iscuity.
Music and Arts in Action7 Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page ;-
Figure 49 .os"ogra!hic Orientation and the
6!heres o# Identity
Time
Supernatural
Self
Social
Place
functions in a deeper #a! &ringing healing to the patient and reminding all of the
participants of #hat it means to &e Din?%
Because of conte6tual reliance of the ceremonies the! #ould not appl! to non5Din?
#ho #ould not share the same &iological and geographical genealog!% Indeed the
healing ceremonies themselves re9uire the integrit! of place% Aor an outsider
reorienting oneself to a foreign people place and their hereditar! m!thologies #ould
&e a&surd%
The ceremonies ma! even have mi6ed value for some Din? in modern times% Some
!ounger Din? are not fluent spea3ers of the Navajo language although the! often
understand conversations at a &asic level% The result of having the ceremon! done in
a secondar! language could cause interesting and varied ramifications for the patient%
Aor non5fluent spea3ers their close familiarit! #ith the language could re5a#a3en
familial memories and strengthen cultural ties% Indeed thin3ing in the Navajo
language could have significant cognitive ramifications in shaping the #a! the patient
perceives the ritual actions in the ceremon! and even provide a traditional lens for
vie#ing and rethin3ing the activities and events of regular life% Aor patients less
familiar #ith the language it is difficult to imagine the &enefits of the ceremon! as
man! of the s!m&ols of language #ould &e lost% Such unfamiliarit! could minimi2e
the effect or even possi&l! induce a greater sense of unease and even alienation #ith
the culture%
*o#ever there ma! &e some principles that ma! have applications for non5Din?
#ho ma! &e 9uestioning our sole reliance on the paradigm of &iological mechanisms%
+7

I #ill onl! mention a fe# possi&le principles each of #hich could &e e6plored in
greater depth% The idea of cosmographic orientation causes me to reflect on the
increasingl! transient nature of individuals and families #ho often &ecome
disconnected from geograph! famil! communit! and the supernatural% The
appealing Din? concept of hO2hO seems to re9uire a grounding in place time and
societ!% Because #e ma! not possess such visceral roots #e ma! need to more
consciousl! connect to places% "e might ma3e similar efforts to understand our o#n
famil! histories and the histories of our often plural cultures #hich in addition to
lin3ing social circles can help esta&lish a sense of time and our place in it% The stories
of Monster Sla!er and his &rother also impl! a need for m!tholog!% In our age of
dethroning $great men( the Din? accounts of heroes ma! indicate an inherent
human need for these po#erful stories #hether the! &e tales of mortals or immortals%
+=

And finall! meaningful music can provide a medium for communicating social and
supernatural connections for grounding us in time and place for reinforcing rituals
and for esta&lishing identit! and &alance in our often fractured #orld%
-4
For eBa"!les o# this turn to)ards co"!le"entary and alternative "edicines see @oen >,33;? and 6ey$old and Hill
>,33-?.
-2
Bronisla) Malino)s=y >-;50( !. :;? in his descri!tion o# "yths said that "yth )as a Gvital ingredient o# hu"an
civili'ationA it is not an idle tale( $ut a hard%)or=ing active #orceH.
Music and Arts in Action7 Paul F. Moulton ,3-- 8 I66N9 -:45%:-34 8 Page ;,
RE!ERENCES
A!!adurai( Arjun. >-;;2? Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minnea!olis9
University o# Minnesota Press.
Blac=ing( Iohn. >-;;4? Music Culture and E!"erience: #elected $a"ers of %ohn Blac&ing( ed. R.
Byron. .hicago9 University o# .hicago Press.
Bloch( Maurice. >,334? Essays on Cultural Transmission. OB#ord9 Berg.
*liade( Mircea. >-;2-? The #acred and the $rofane: The 'ature of Religion( tr. <.R. ras=. Ne) Jor=9
Har!er K Ro).
Fris$ie( .harlotte I. and McAllester( /avid P. >-;:0? 'a(a)o Blessing*ay #inger: The
+utobiogra"hy of ,ran& Mitchell -..-/-012. ucson( AL9 he University o# Ari'ona Press.
Eeert'( .li##ord. >-;:1? The 3nter"retation of Cultures: #elected Essays. Ne) Jor=9 Basic Boo=s.
Haile( Berard. >-010?. 4rigin Legend of the 'a(aho Enemy Way: Te!t and Translation. Ne) Haven9
Jale University Press.
Iverson( Peter. >,33,? Din5: + 6istory of the 'a(a)o. Al$uMuerMue9 University o# Ne) MeBico
Press.
@luc=hohn( .lyde and Leighton( /orothea. >-;23? The 'a(aho. .a"$ridge9 Harvard University
Press.
@luc=hohn( .lyde. >-;55? 'a(aho Witchcraft. Boston9 Beacon.
@oen( Benja"in /. >,33;? Beyond the Roof of the World: Music $rayer and 6ealing in the $amir
Mountains7 Ne) Jor=9 OB#ord University Press.
Lader"an( .arol and Rose"an( Marina( eds. >-;;2? The $erformance of 6ealing. Ne) Jor=9
Routledge.
Le)ton( *li'a$eth L.( and Bydone( Nictoria. >,333? Identity and healing in three navajo religious
rraditions9 6aDah NaaghOP Bi=Deh H&'h&. Medical +nthro"ology 8uarterly( -5 >5?( 5:2%5;:.
Malino)s=y( Bronisla). >-;50? Myth in !ri"itive !sychology >-;,2?. In Magic #cience and
Religion and 4ther Essays( ed. R. Red#ield. Boston9 Beacon.
McAllester( /avid P. >-;45? Enemy Way Music. .a"$ridge9 Harvard University Press.
Reichard( Eladys A. >-;::? 'a(a)o Religion: + #tudy of #ymbolism. Ne) Jor=9 Princeton9 Princeton
University Press.
6ander( /onald. >-;:;? 'a(aho #ymbols of 6ealing. Ne) Jor=9 Harcourt Brace Iovanovich.
6ey$old( @evin 6. and Hill( Peter .. >,33-? he role o# religion and s!irituality in "ental and
!hysical health. Current Directions in $sychological #cience( -3 >-?( ,,%,5.
U.6. /e!art"ent o# Health and Hu"an 6ervices( Indian Health 6ervices( Navajo Area O##ice.
,3--. Cross Cultural Medicine. Availa$le at9 htt!977))).ihs.gov7Navajo7indeB.c#"Q
"oduleRnaoScrossScultureS"edicine Taccessed Ianuary 13( ,3--U.
<ithers!oon( Eary. >-;::? Language and +rt in the 'a(a)o 9ni(erse. Ann Ar$or9 University o#
Michigan Press.
<y"an( Leland .. >-;4:? Beauty*ay: + 'a(aho Ceremonial. Ne) Jor=9 Bollingen Foundation.
Lol$rod( Paul E. >-;05? Din5 Bahane:: The 'a(a)o Creation #tory. Al$uMuerMue9 University o# Ne)
MeBico Press.
ABOUT T"E AUT"OR
Paul Moulton( Ph./.( is an assistant !ro#essor at he .ollege o# Idaho. His recently co"!leted
doctoral dissertation at Florida 6tate University #ocused on re!resentations o# 6cotland in
"usic. His research in general has centered on "usical re!resentations o# !lace and the #oreign
audiences that are attracted to these !ortrayals. His #orthco"ing articles include GA
.ontroversy /iscarded and Ossian Revealed9 An Argu"ent #or a Rene)ed .onsideration o# The
$oems 4f 4ssianH >in College Music #ym"osium? and GMusical Lands=i!s9 6cottish 6ong$oo=s in
*nglish /ra)ing Roo"sH >in a $oo= edited $y the 6ociety #or *ighteenth%.entury Music?.
AC'NO&#ED$EMENTS
My than=s to Benja"in @oen at Florida 6tate University( )ho o!ened "y eyes to the a!!lication
o# acade"ia to li#e.

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Music and Arts in Action | Volume 3 | Issue 2

Restoring Identity and Bringing Balance

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