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1 Ref
1 Ref
. |c
q.(v+I.R
s
)q.k.1
-1] -
I + I. R
s
R
p
(2)
Where I and I represent, respectively, the voltage and
current in the output terminals of the PV cell; I
ph
is the
photocurrent; I
and KI
and KI
id
dc
id
i
dq
s
i
*
c
i
*
L
i
L
i
*
dc
i
*
*
L
i
c
i
c
i
pv
i
*
645
Figure 7 shows the voltage source (:
s
), current source (i
s
),
the compensation current synthesized by the PV-AF system
(i
c
), and the load current (i
L
), for three different operation
modes of the PV-AF system, as follows: 1. reactive power
compensation and harmonic currents suppression, with
nonlinear load connected to the grid; 2. reactive power
compensation, harmonic currents suppression and grid active
power injection, also for nonlinear load connected; 3. Grid
active power injection, without nonlinear load connected to
the grid.
TABLE II
Parameters adopted in the simulations
Nominal utility voltage (rms) Vs = 127V
Nominal utility frequency f = 60Hz
Inductance filter Lf = 2.5mH
Resistance of Inductance filter RLf = 0.48 u
Commutation inductance LL = 1.2mH
DC-bus voltage Vdc = 260V
DC-bus capacitor Cdc = 2300F
Switching frequency fsw = 20kHz
Sampling frequency of the A/D converter fs = 60kHz
PWM gain KPWM = 5.33x10
-4
Current PI controller gains
KPi = 226.49
KIi = 6.61x10
5
/s
DC-bus PI controller gains
KPv = 0.275
KIv = 1.42/s
MPPT PI controller gains
KPmppt = 0.16
KImppt = 0.53 /s
In Figure 7 (a) is shown the voltage and currents
quantities when the PV-AF system is operating only as
shunt-APF. In this operation mode, the filter is compensating
the load reactive power and suppressing the harmonic
currents of the load. It is verified that the compensated
sinusoidal source current is in phase with respect to the grid
voltage source.
The voltage and currents of the PV-AF system performing
injection of active power into the grid and, simultaneously,
performing reactive power compensation, as well as
harmonic suppression are shown in Figure 7 (b). For this
operation mode, all of the involved power quantities (active,
harmonic and reactive) are been provided to the load by the
PV-AF system, while the additional power produced by the
PV array is injected into the grid.
Figure 7 (c) shows the PV-AF system injecting into the
grid all of the active power produced by the PV array. For
this operation mode the load was disconnected. As can be
noted, the sinusoidal source current is in opposite phase with
the voltage source. However, all off the power produced by
the PV array is injected into the grid.
Table III presents the total harmonic distortion (THD) of
the compensated source current for the three operation modes
of the PV-AF system shown in Figure 7. The THD of the
source current is lower than 5% for the case 1, and it agree
with the IEEE recommendation [15]. The operation modes 1
and 2 obtained the THD lower that established by the
standard of NBR [16], which recommends that the THD of
the current injected into the grid must be lower than 5%.
TABLE III
THD of the source and load currents for full-bridge diode
rectifier followed by R-L load
Operation modes
(THD %)
iL is
1. Reactive and harmonic power injection, with
nonlinear load connected (P
sum
=0)
27.3 4.6
2. Active, reactive and harmonic power injection,
with nonlinear load connected (P
sum
=1kW/m
2
)
27.3 4.1
3. Active power injection, without nonlinear load
connected (P
sum
=1kW/m
2
)
---- 2.1
Figure 8 shows the behavior of the system for different
levels of the solar irradiation, taking into account the single-
phase system feeding a nonlinear load composed by a full-
bridge diode rectifier, followed by R-L load. Figure 8 (a)
shows the ideal PV active power out (P
p
), obtained from the
model, and the real power (P
o
) extracted from the
photovoltaic array by the MPPT algorithm. Figure 8 (b)
shows the RMS values of the currents i
s
(source current) and
i
c
(compensation current). As can be seen, for the increasing
of the solar radiation (up to 500 W), there is a reduction of
the RMS source current, because the PV system helps to
provide energy to the load current. However, when the
available power of the photovoltaic system is greater than
500W, the surplus PV current is injected into the grid. Thus,
the RMS injected current into the grid will increase. The
Figure 8 (c) shows the DC-bus voltage.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7. Voltage (:
s
) and currents (i
s
, i
c
, i
L
) of the PV-AF system, considering a rectifier with inductive filter as load: (a) Case 1. Reactive
power compensation and harmonic filtering; (b) Case 2. Active power injection, reactive power compensation and harmonic filtering;
(c) Case 3. Utility grid active power injection.
-10
0
10
-10
0
10
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-10
0
10
Time [s]
-200
0
200
-10
0
10
-20
0
20
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-10
0
10
Time [s]
-200
0
200
-20
0
20
-20
0
20
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-10
0
10
Time [s]
-200
0
200
646
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 8. PV-AF system for different levels of solar radiation, considering a rectifier with inductive filter as load: (a) PV array output powers
(P
p
and P
o
); (b) RMS values of the i
s
and i
c
currents; (c) PV array DC-bus voltages (I
dc
-
and I
dc
).
In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed
PV-AF system, it was tested in presence of loads that drain
from the utility, currents with high THD. The tests were
performed when the PV-AF system was working only as
shunt-APF as shown in Figure 9 (a). The nonlinear load
chosen for the tests was composed by a full-bridge diode
rectifier, followed by R-C load. In this case, the TDH of the
load current was around 96.4%. Thus, with the PV-AF
system operating as filter, the TDH of the compensated grid
current was reduced to 8.5%, i.e., a great decreasing of the
harmonics present in the grid current was obtained.
Figure 9(b) shows the voltage and currents for the PV-AF
system performing injection of active power into the grid
and, simultaneously, performing load reactive power
compensation, as well as load harmonic suppression. It was
also considered the load used in the tests shown in Figure 9
(a).
Table IV shows the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the
compensated source current for the two tests. Despite the
THD of the source current is slightly greater than 5%, it must
consider that the THD was strongly reduced demonstrating
the robustness of the proposed control.
Figure 10 shows the behavior of the system for different
levels of the solar irradiation, taking into account the single-
phase system feeding a nonlinear load composed by a full-
bridge diode rectifier, followed by R-L load. Figure 10 (a)
shows the ideal PV active power out (P
p
), obtained from the
model, and the real power (P
o
) extracted from the
photovoltaic array by the MPPT algorithm. Figure 10 (b)
shows the RMS values of the currents i
s
(source current) and
i
c
(compensation current). As can be seen, for the increasing
of the solar radiation (up to 500 W), there is a reduction of
the RMS source current, because the PV system helps to
provide energy to the load current. However, when the
available power of the photovoltaic system is greater than
500W, the surplus PV current is injected into the grid. Thus,
the RMS injected current into the grid will increase. The
Figure 10 (c) shows the DC-bus voltage.
TABLE IV
THD of the source and load currents for full-bridge diode
rectifier followed by R-C load
Operation modes
(THD %)
iL is
1. Reactive and harmonic power injection, with
nonlinear load connected (P
sum
=0)
96.4 8.5
2. Active, reactive and harmonic power injection,
with nonlinear load connected (P
sum
=1kW/m
2
)
96.4 7.0
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9. Voltage (:
s
) and currents (i
s
, i
c
, i
L
) of the PV-AF system, considering a Rectifier with Capacitive Filter as load: (a) Case 1. Reactive
power compensation and harmonic filtering; (b) Case 2. Active power injection, reactive power compensation and harmonic filtering.
0 5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Time [s]
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
15
Time [s]
0 5 10 15 20
200
220
240
260
280
300
Time [s]
-10
0
10
-10
0
10
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-20
0
20
Time [s]
-200
0
200
-10
0
10
-40
-20
0
20
40
3 3.02 3.04 3.06 3.08 3.1
-20
0
20
Time [s]
-200
0
200
i
s
v
s
i
c
i
L
647
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 10. PV-AF system for different levels of solar radiation, considering a rectifier with capacitive filter as load: (a) PV array output powers
(P
p
and P
o
); (b) RMS values of the i
s
and i
c
currents; (c) PV DC-bus voltages (I
dc
-
and I
dc
).
Figure 11 shows the voltage and currents of the PV-AF
system when occurs a transient in the load (power rate
varying from 50% to 100%). Figure 11 (a) shows the results
when the load is composed by a Full-bridge diode rectifier
followed by R-C load, while Fig, 11 (b) the load is composed
by a full-bridge diode rectifier followed by R-C load.
VI. CONCLUSION
This work presented the implementation of a single-phase
grid-tied photovoltaic and active filter system. It was applied
to a single-phase AC power system for active power
injection, as well as harmonic current suppression and
reactive power compensation. The photovoltaic system was
connected to the utility grid by means of a DC/AC full-
bridge converter. The photovoltaic arrangement was
implemented by means of an equivalent model, representing
ten panels connected in series. Thus, it was possible to
connect the photovoltaic arrangement directly to the DC-bus
converter, without the necessity of the usage of any DC-DC
converter for voltage step-up.
The current reference synthesized by the full-bridge
converter was obtained by means of a SRF algorithm,
adapted for applications in single-phase systems. The MPPT,
P&O algorithm was used in order to extract the maximum
PV array power.
By means of the results, it was possible to verify the
performance of the system carrying out the active power
injection and/or performing the compensation of reactive
power and suppression of current harmonics. The appropriate
dynamic behavior of the PV-AF system for different levels
of solar radiation was also verified.
The effectiveness of the PV-AF system was verified
considering two different loads draining currents from the
utility with distinct THDs. The PV-AF system was capable
to suppress high amount of harmonic currents and,
simultaneously, inject active power into the utility grid with
low-current THD. The fast response was also verified by
means of load transients.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11. Voltage (:
s
) and currents (i
s
, i
c
, i
L
) of the PV-AF system considering load transient: (a) Full-bridge diode rectifier followed by
R-C load; (b) Full-bridge diode rectifier followed by R-L load.
0 5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Time [s]
P
pv
P
o
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
15
Time [s]
0 5 10 15 20
200
220
240
260
280
300
Time [s]
V
dc
*
V
dc
-20
0
20
-20
0
20
1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1
-40
-20
0
20
40
Time [s]
-200
0
200
-20
0
20
-10
0
10
1.9 1.95 2 2.05 2.1
-20
0
20
Time [s]
-200
0
200
648
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[3] I.T. Salamoni, R. Rther, Potencial Brasileiro da
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