Bone Connective Tissue

BIOL 2304
Dr. Aglaia Chandler
Bone
Two types: Compact
and Spongy
Compact bone consists
of osteons (Haversian
systems) osteocytes in
lacunae and lamellae.
Spongy bone is
characterized by
trabeculae filled with
red bone marrow
trabeculae
Compact Bone
Compact Bone Terms
Osteon/Haversian System: structural unit of compact
bone. Oriented parallel to shaft and forming a
group of hollow tubes through which an artery, vein
and nerve pass into and through bone.
Lacunae: small cavities (halos) containing osteocyte
Osteocyte: true bone cell, spider shaped and found in
lacunae at the junctions of the lamellae
Lamellae: layers of the collagen fiber matrix with each
layer going in opposite direction to the adjacent
layer.
Compact Bone Terms
Lamellae: may be concentric (forming rings like a tree),
circumferential (encircling the entire bone structure), or
interstitial (interspersed in matrix of lamellae).
Canaliculi: Hair like canals that connect each lacunae
and in turn connect to the Central canal. Remove wastes
and bring nutrients into osteocytes
Volkmans canal/perforating canal: Canals running
perpendicular to the Haversian canals, but connecting to
them. They bring in the artery, vein and nerves to the
bone structure.
Compact Bone Structure
Compact Bone Structure
Spongy Bone
composes the inner portion of the bone lining the marrow
cavity with a honeycomb (laced) appearance of trabeculae
and spicules. Although it looks poorly organized it is
designed to withstand the specific stresses put on each
bone because of their trabeculae.
Trabeculae are tiny bone struts or plates that form very
strong support structure for the spongy bones. They are
irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes, but contain
no osteons per se as they receive nutrients from the
marrow tissue.
Spongy Bone Histology
Spongy Bone Histology
Spongy bone is the tissue that makes up the interior of bones; compact bone is
the tissue that forms the surface of bones. In long bones, spongy bone forms
the interior of the epiphyses; the diaphysis (shaft) consists of compact bone
surrounding the central marrow cavity.
Flat bone structure
Bone Structure
Articular cartilage: Consists of
Hyaline cartilage covering the
end of the bone surface where
it articulates with another
bone,
(e.g. femur and tibia, humerus
and scapula). Fibrocartilage
makes up the menisci of the
knee joints.
Epiphyses: The end of the
bone. One at each end of long
bones.
Epiphyseal line: Remnant of
the cartilaginous growth
plate or epiphyseal plate.
Bone structure
Periosteum: Tough outer
connective tissue covering on
bone. Consists of 2 layers;
outside is dense irregular CT
and deeper layer lined with
osteoblast and osteoclast cells.
It is richly supplied by blood
vessels and nerves and secured
to bone by Sharpeys fibers.
Endosteum: connective tissue
covering on inside of bone
cavities. Is osteogenic in that it
contains osteoblasts and
osteoclasts.
Diaphysis: The shaft of
the bone between the
two epiphyses.
Contains the medullary
cavity and is filled with
yellow marrow in
adults.
Sharpeys fibers: Bundles
of collagenous fibers
that tightly attach the
periosteumto bony
matrix.
Bone structure
Bone Blood Supply
Bone is highly vascular and well nourished by blood.
Bone marrow
Yellow marrowis found in medullary cavity of
long bones and is not hematopoietic in adults.
Yellow marrow replaces red marrow as we mature
and is made up mainly of fat.
Red marrowis found in the axial skeleton and
girdles and in the epiphyses of the femur and
humerus and is very active hematopoietically.
Bone Tissue
Two types: a) Compact b) Spongy
Bone Cells
1.. Osteoclasts: Bone destroying cells (C = chewing)
2. Osteoblasts: Bone generating cells (B=building)
3. Osteocytes: Mature bone cells, spider shaped;
maintain bone tissue
Bone Cells
Bone Cells
Chemical Composition of Bone
In addition to bone cells, the majority of compact
and spongy bone is composed of inorganic
molecules (Calcium and phosphate).
These molecules are called hydroxyapatite and
are made of calciumand phosphate --naturally
occurring mineral form of calcium apatite with
the formula Ca
5
(PO
4
)
3
(OH).
The combination of these form a cement like
material that gives bone its hardness and
strength. In combination with collagen fibers that
form the matrix of bones and allows for elasticity
and flexibility.
Bone Matrix
The matrix of bone is made up of organic and
inorganic matter.
The organic portion is of collagen fibers and various
proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans and
glycoproteins.
The inorganic portion is calcium phosphate salts
hydroxyapatite and calcium carbonate
The combination of these makes for a bone that is
very strong and yet flexible.
Bone Growth and
Development
Bone Formation
Bone is derived from hyaline cartilage by either
interstitial ossification or appositional growth.
Interstitial ossification is growth within cartilage.
Appositional growth is growth from the
periphery or outside edge.
Bone Development
Ossification or osteogenesis
- is the process of forming new bone
Two methods of ossification:
1. Endochondral ossification
2. Intramembranous ossification
Endochondral vs. Intramembranous
Ossification
Endochondral ossification (cartilage model
replaced by bone) is involved in: embryonic
bone formation, growth in length of long
bones, and fracture healing
Intramembranous ossification forms FLAT
BONES (skull, sternum, mandible, and
clavicle). Multipotent mesenchymal cells
differentiate directly into osteoblasts and
bone is formed. Growth and modeling occur
by bone formation on the convex surface
and bone resorption on the concave surface.
Appositional growth: adding layers outside,
like rings on a tree. Interstitial growth:
growth from within.
The formation of LONG BONES takes place via
Endochondral ossification as well as
Intramembranous ossification. Both
appositional (bone width) and Interstitial
(bone length) growth take place in each
Endochondral vs.
Intramembranous Ossification
Bone growth begins long before
birth. The basic shape of a long bone,
such as an arm bone is first formed as
CARTILAGE.
MANY BONES IN A NEWBORN BABY
ARE COMPOSED ALMOST ENTIRELY
OF CARTILAGE. "SOFT SPOT" OF
BABYS HEAD!
Later the cartilage cells will be replaced
by cells that form the bones. THE
CARTILAGE IS REPLACED DURING
OSSIFICATION, OR THE PROCESS OF
BONE FORMATION.
Ossification begins to take place up to
seven months before birth as MINERAL
(CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS)
DEPOSITS ARE LAID DOWN NEAR THE
CENTER OF THE BONE (CENTER OF
OSSIFICATION) IN EACH BONE.
Endochondral Ossification
The process by which bone is formed from hyaline
cartilage
Most bones in the body are formed by this method
(including the vertebrae, pelvic bones and limb bones).
Consists of 3 sites of ossification.
1. The primary ossification center
2. The metaphysis
3. The secondary ossification center
Endochondral
Ossification
The formation of long bones begins (~8wks gestation) with the proliferation and
aggregation of mesenchymal cells at the site of future bone. These cells differentiate
into chondroblasts and produce cartilage. The cartilage (mainly type II and
proteoglycans) assumes the shape of the future bone. The area surrounding the
cartilage in the diaphysis (the perichondrium) starts to give rise to bone forming cells
(osteoblasts) and this layer is now known as the periosteum. As a result a thin layer of
bone is formed around the cartilage model. The chondrocytes within the center of the
model become hypertrophic and begin to synthesize alkaline phosphatase.
Subsequently the matrix surrounding undergoes calcification.
Endochondral
Ossification
The calcified matrix inhibits the diffusion of nutrients causing the death to the
chondrocytes. This leaves large holes where blood vessels can grow into once they
have pierced the thin layer of bone on the diaphysis. Cells from the periosteum enter
with the invading blood vessels and become osteoprogenitor cells in the cavity left by
the dying chondrocytes. When the invading osteoblasts come in contact with
chondrocytes in the cavity they begin to lay down osteoid (bone that lacks minerals)
on the remaining calcified cartilagenous spicules. Additional bone is formed via
appositional growth.
Endochondral
Ossification
Initially the perichondrium becomes the periosteumand starts laying down bone on the
diaphysis. Then after vessel invasion, the growth plate forms at the primary ossification
center. Later when vessels invade the proximal end of the bone, a secondary center is
formed.
The secondary ossification center expands until it fills the epiphysis except for the articular
cartilage on the joint surface and the physis itself.
The physis (growth plate), with the articular cartilage, is the site of endochondral
ossification. It is covered peripherally with perichondrium. It grows transversely by
appositional growth, longitudinally by interstitial growth. It shrivels ~14yrs due to
estrogen
The Secondary Ossification Center
Begins at the time of birth.
Forms in the epiphysis and develops similarly to the
primary ossification center.
The bone formed in the secondary ossification site
persists as spongy bone and growth occurs
beneath the outer covering of hyaline cartilage
which persists as articular cartilage within the joint
cavity on each end of the epiphysis.
Bone Growth
Once the cartilage models of embryonic
development are replaced by bone, they must
continue to grow through infancy, childhood and
adolescence.
Increased length: bones continue to lengthen
because hyaline cartilage remaining in the epiphyseal
plates continues to grow. As adulthood approaches,
this cartilage becomes less active and is eventually
replaced by bone.
Bone Growth
Appositional growth - Increased Width: bones
continue to widen as osteoblasts form more
layers of bone around the outside and
osteoclasts break down some of the bony
matrix inside.
Why would bone need to be broken down
inside as it grows outside?
Appositional Growth
adding layers outside, like rings on a tree
Appositional Growth
Control of Bone Growth
Bones increase in length and width because of the
influence of minerals, vitamins, and hormones in
the body.
Calcium and phosphate are necessary for
calcification.
Vitamins A, C, and D promote bone growth.
The specific hormones which affect growth are:
growth hormone (GH), thyroid hormone (T3 and
T4), and the sex steroids (estrogen and
testosterone).
Hormones & Vitamins
Bone Growth:
Increase in Length
BONE TISSUE FORMS AS OSTEOCYTES SECRET MINERAL DEPOSITS
THAT REPLACE THE CARTILAGE. OR A BONE MATRIX GRADUALLY
REPLACES THE ORIGINAL CARTILAGE.
The long bones develop and grow THROUGH OUT CHILDHOOD at centers
of ossification in their EPIPHYSIS (ENDS).
Growth occurs in the EPIPHYSEAL DISC or PLATE (GROWTH PLATES)
AT THE JUNCTION OF THE DIAPHYSIS WITH EACH EPIPHYSIS (AT
EACH END OF THE BONE)
AN EPIPHYSEAL DISC IS STILL CARTILAGE, AND THE BONE GROWS
IN LENGTH AS MORE CARTILAGE IS PRODUCED ON THE EPIPHYSIS
SIDE.
ON THE DIAPHYSIS SIDE, OSTEOBLAST (CELLS THAT PRODUCE
BONE MATRIX, (A BLAST CELL IS A "PRODUCING" CELL, AND "OSTEO"
MEANS BONE) TO REPLACE CARTILAGE.
Between the ages of 16 and 25 years, ALL of the cartilage of the
EPIPHYSEAL DISC IS REPLACED BY BONE. THIS IS CALLED CLOSURE
OF THE EPIPHYSEAL DISC, AND THE BONE LENGTHENING PROCESS
STOPS (Epiphyseal Line).
In adults, cartilage is found in those parts of the body where FLEXIBILITY IS
NEEDED.
SUCH PLACES INCLUDE THE TIP OF THE NOSE, THE EXTERNAL EAR,
THE VOICE BOX (LARYNX), AND THE ENDS OF BONES WHERE JOINTS
ARE FORMED. CARTILAGE IS ALSO FOUND WHERE THE RIBS ARE
ATTACHED TO THE BREASTBONE (STERNUM), THUS ALLOWING THE
RIB CAGE TO MOVE DURING BREATHING.
CARTILAGE PROVIDES AN IMPORTANT COMBINATION OF STRENGTH
AND FLEXIBILITY.
Epiphyseal Plate Growth Zones
Consists of five distinct zones:
1. Zone of resting cartilage
2. Zone of cartilage proliferation
3. Zone of cell hypertrophic cartilage
4. Zone of calcified cartilage
5. Zone of ossification
Epiphyseal Plate Growth Zones
Intramembranous Ossification
Bone formed by replacing a fibrous membrane
and not from cartilage. Ex. Skull and clavicle
Basic Overview of Process
during the first 8 wks of embryonic development, fibrous
membranes (CT) form in the areas of future flat bones
beginning around 8 wks, an ossification center forms in
the membrane. This center is composed of osteoblasts.
the osteoblasts begin to secrete hydroxyapatite
the internal spongy bone forms
the external compact bone forms
Intramembranous Ossification
Intramembranous Ossification
Bone Remodeling
Even though the bones in an adult do not continue
to grow as described above, they are constantly
being remodeled. This means that bone is always
being broken down by osteoclasts and reformed by
osteoblasts .
Each week we turn over about 5% of our bone
mass.
Bone Remodeling
A. Wolfe's Law- shape of bone is altered by
mechanical forces
B. Bone Remodelling
1. Osteoclasts - reabsorb = turned on by bone disuse have ruffled border &
hydrolytic enzmes, therefore, lots of lysosomes
2. Osteoblasts - secrete new bone with disuse of bone
3. Activity of blasts and clasts regulated by hormonal control:
a. parathyroid hormone - increases calcium absorption (increase blood
concentrations of calcium--maximizes tubular reabsorption of calcium within the kidney )
b. calcitonin - decreases calcium absorption (reduces blood calcium levels)
Osteoporosis
imbalance between bone resorption and bone
formation
In normal bone up to 10% of all bone mass
may be undergoing remodeling at any point
in time.
Bone is resorbed by osteoclasts after which
new bone is deposited by osteoblast cells
Osteoporosis
Trabecular bone is more active, more subject
to bone turnover, to remodeling.
Common osteoporotic fracture sites, the
wrist, the hip and the spine, have a
relatively high trabecular bone to cortical
bone ratio.
Bone Markings and Landmarks
Bone Markings and Landmarks