Educational use only.

Not for sale or publication

Mechanical Knowledge

2007 Edition

Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Mechanical Knowledge
2007

Introduction
The Under-17 Car Club is not just about learning to drive cars, lorries, fire engines, and
anything else we are able to safely arrange to get our hands on! It is also about a greater
understanding of all aspects of safer motoring and how to avert problems caused by avoidable
mechanical failure.
It is assumed that as a Grade 1 going for Grade X, you know where the basics are under the
bonnet dipstick; battery; various filler caps; etc, and you have the cockpit check down to a
fine art. With this in mind we have attempted to produce a simple guide to some of the main
mechanical workings of the motor car, and how to look after it in its natural habitat.

Component layout of
Front Wheel Drive Vehicle

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The Petrol Engine

The engine, however it functions, is arguably the heart of any vehicle so we will start with diagrams of
the basic components of a petrol engine. All the main parts are labelled and this page is designed to
refer back to as various functions are explained. Some parts are common to the three main types of car
engine.

Sump

The Cylinder
Head
The engines cylinder block is usually made of cast iron on to which an aluminium cylinder head is bolted.
This contains the inlet valves that let the petrol-air mixture enter the combustion chamber, and the
exhaust valves that let gases leave it. These can be moved by pushrods from a block-located crankshaftdriven camshaft.
The head more
engine block
gudgeon pin
usually
uses
Piston rings
The Engine Block
single or twin
piston
overhead
camshaft
camshafts driven
Connecting rod
by a toothed
rubber belt or a
chain which runs
main bearings
rod bearings
inside the engine
rod cap
and is lubricated
Vibration damper
by engine oil as it
crankshaft
returns to the
main bearing caps
sump from the
cylinder head.

Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

The Petrol Engine How Does it Work?

The majority of car engines employ the four-stroke cycle which was invented by
Nicholas Otto way back in 1876.

The Four-Stroke Cycle

A typical four stroke petrol engine, as the name suggests, has four processes. See diagram below.
1.

INDUCTION: On the induction stroke the piston is going down and the exhaust valve is closed.
The inlet valve opens and a mixture of petrol and air is sucked in.

2. COMPRESSION: On the compression stroke the inlet valve closes. As the piston goes up it
compresses the mixture of petrol and air.
3. POWER: On the power stroke the spark plug creates a spark which ignites the
fuel/air mixture causing a rapid burn. This creates great pressure which acts on the
piston crown (top of the piston) pushing the piston down the cylinder.
4. EXHAUST: On the exhaust stroke the piston goes back up the cylinder, the outlet valve opens
and the burnt gasses are pushed out into the exhaust system.

Spark-plug

Exhaust valve

Inlet valve
Cylinder
Piston

1. Induction
Connecting Rod
Crankshaft

3. Power

2. Compression
Big
End

4. Exhaust

N.B. One way to remember this is; SUCK SQUEEZE BANG - BLOW !

Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

The Diesel Engine

A Diesel Engine is a type of internal-combustion engine in which ignition of
the mixture of fuel and air is achieved by compressing the air first, which
causes it to get very hot, before adding the fuel. Hence the name
'Compression Ignition Engine' is sometimes used to distinguish it from the
spark-ignition petrol engine. Diesel engines are in general slow-speed engines
and run on diesel fuel oil for road use known as DERV (diesel engine road
vehicle), rather than petrol.
Although patented by German engineer Rudolph Diesel in 1892, engines
working on essentially the same principle were produced by the Priestman
brothers in the UK in 1885 and improved by the British engineer Herbert
Ackroyd Stuart.
Most diesels are four-stroke engines, but operate quite differently from
the four-stroke Otto-cycle petrol engines. Most notably, there are no spark plugs.
Inlet Valve

The first or induction stroke draws air, but no fuel, into the
combustion chamber through an inlet valve.
On the second or compression stroke the air is compressed to a
small fraction of its former volume (as little as 4% of its original
volume) which causes it to heat to approximately 440 C. At the
end of the compression stroke fuel is injected into the combustion
chamber vaporising and burning instantly because of the high
temperature of the compressed air in the chamber. (Some smaller
diesels have an auxiliary electrical glow plug system to assist
ignition of the fuel when the engine first starts up and until it
warms up. The glow plugs then turn off automatically and play no
further part.)
This combustion drives the piston back on the third or power
stroke of the cycle.

Direction of
Movement

The fourth stroke, as in the Otto-cycle petrol engine, is an exhaust

stroke where the gases are blown out. (See diagram left). So the
cycle starts again.
Because diesel engines use higher pressures than petrol engines

they must be made stronger and are therefore heavier. This disadvantage however, is counterbalanced by their
greater efficiency.

The addition of a turbocharger (a form of supercharger) and intercooler can enhance the

performance of a diesel engine both in terms of power and efficiency. (see page 11)
The principal drawback of diesel
engines is their emission of air
pollutants. These engines can
Fuel Injectors
typically discharge high levels of
Exhaust Valve
soot, reactive nitrogen compounds
(commonly designated NO), and
Piston
odour compared to spark-ignition
engines. They were also in the
Starter Ring Gear
past considerably noisier than
their
petrol
counterparts.
Consequently, the use of diesel
engines in cars has traditionally
been low.
Now however, with
Flywheel
developments producing quieter
more environmentally friendly
engines, more modern cars are using diesel power.

Camshaft

Diesel Engine Parts

Cam

Cam Follower

Inlet Valve
Timing Belt
Tensioner
Crankshaft

Big End
Connecting- rod

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The Rotary Petrol Engine

In 1954 the German engineer Felix Wankel developed his
concept of an internal-combustion petrol engine of a radically
new design, in which the piston and cylinder were replaced by
a three-cornered rotor turning in a roughly oval (it's
actually an epitrochoid) chamber, called the bore. The shape
of the combustion chamber is designed so that the three tips
of the rotor will always stay in contact with the wall of the
chamber, forming three sealed volumes of gas. The rotor has
three convex faces, each of which acts like a piston. Each
part of the housing is dedicated to one part of the (now
familiar) combustion process:Induction Compression - Power Exhaust.

The rotor and

housing of a
rotary engine
from a Mazda
RX-7: These
parts replace
the pistons,
cylinders,
valves,
connecting
rods and
camshafts
found in
piston
engines.

1 4 Induction; The fuel-air mixture is drawn (sucked by the rotation of the rotor) into the chamber through
the intake port, and trapped between one face of the turning rotor and the wall of the oval chamber.

5 9

Compression; The turning of the rotor changes the size of the chamber compressing the mixture and
bringing it nearer the spark plugs.
A

The letter A tracks the rotor through one third of its rotation

A
A

10 12 Power; Once the chamber reaches its minimum size, the spark plug fires, igniting the fuel. In newer
engine designs, there are two spark plugs, placed symmetrically on either side of the centre line of the epitrochoid.
The two plugs fire simultaneously, and reduce the time the combustion takes to spread throughout the fuel,
increasing the power of the expansion. As the fuel burns, the expanding gases push the rotor around, driving the
cycle (the power stroke).
13 18 Exhaust; As the rotor turns, the exhaust is expelled directly through the exhaust port. Just as with
the intake, there is no valve, because the turning of the rotor seals and unseals the ports. The cycle takes place
alternately at each face of the rotor, giving three power strokes for each turn of the rotor.

Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Exhaust

Intake
Induction Cycle

As the rotor turns, it rotates around the

small fixed inner gear as shown. This gear
is stationary. The turning of the drive
shaft is accomplished using an output
shaft (above) with an off-centre lobe,
which is mounted inside the rotor. As the
rotor turns, it pushes against the lobe of
the shaft, causing it to turn.

Coolant

Exhaust Cycle

Small Inner Gear

Since 1967 there has been a series of

rotary-engine cars, trucks, buses, and
even motorbikes. However, production of
Spark Plug
the engine was discontinued in any great
number because of poor fuel economy and high pollutant emissions.

Rotor
Compression &
Ignition Cycle

Wankel engines are less fuel-efficient than piston engines, due to

the shape of the combustion chamber (long instead of small and
concentrated), and also as a consequence dirtier than traditional
engines. One solution that has been advanced for this problem is
to use two spark plugs, placed symmetrically, so that
the combustion does not have to travel as far.
However, the limited demand for the engines has
meant that not as much research has gone into solving
these problems.
At the moment, the main
manufacturer of Wankel engines is Mazda, which produces the RX8 sports car. The rotary engine was also manufactured for use in
chainsaws, lawnmowers, snowmobiles and other lighter-duty
applications, though for the most part those engines are no longer
made.

The Mazda RX8 is the most

recent development, a high
performance car with truly
revolutionary technology.
The
naturally aspirated two-rotor
engine will produce about 250
horsepower; fuel consumption however is still fairly high.

Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Crankshaft and Flywheel

As you can see from the picture, the crankshaft is not a straight piece of metal.
When the piston is pushed down by the power stroke of the petrol or diesel engine, it causes the
crankshaft to turn by pushing down on it. Each piston takes its turn to push down on the crankshaft,
turning it a bit each time. Do this fast enough and the crankshaft rotates rapidly. Connect the
crankshaft to the driveshaft via a gearbox, and we have motion in the car.
The flywheel adds both momentum and balance to the rotation of the crankshaft.
The geared teeth on the outside of the flywheel is where the starter motor (see Starter Motor)
connects to turn the engine over as the ignition key is turned.
Flywheel Assembly

Flywheel Ring gear

Cylinder Liner

Piston Rings

Gudgeon pin

Piston
Small end bush

Big End Bearings

Connecting rod

Main Bearing

Crank Pin

Crankshaft Assembly

Connecting rod Cap

Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Electrical System
The cars engine management system, Electronic Control Unit (E.C.U.), is one of many components to make
demands on the vehicles battery.
The system is charged by the alternator which is driven by the engine (see Alternator).
This charges the battery and in turn provides electrical power for the vehicles ancillaries.
A key function of the electrical system is to start the cars engine. This is usually
undertaken by a pre-engaged motor (see Starter Motor) in which a solenoid moves a bevel
gear into mesh with the teeth on the engines flywheel.

Starter Motor

Alternator

In addition to providing current for the cars lights and windscreen wipers, modern
electrical systems have to service a radio/CD player, cigarette lighter, heated windows,
central locking, electric windows, air conditioning, seat adjustment, and more recently,
satellite navigation and mobile phones.

Ignition Control
Whether a carburettor (in older vehicles) or
a fuel injection system is employed, the
petrol/air mixture has to be ignited by a
spark-plug. Current is supplied from a high
tension coil. The engine management E.C.U.
(Electronic Control Unit) controls the timing of the spark
from information supplied by sensors detecting the position
of the petrol engines crankshaft.

Fuel Injection
A carburettor had been used from the earliest days of motoring as a component in petrol
engines which the fuel-air mixture was created. The limitation of such an arrangement was
that the mixture was unevenly distributed which resulted in incomplete combustion and an
undesirable amount of unburnt fuel reaching the atmosphere (pollution).
As a result, the carburettor has now been replaced by an electronic fuel injection system
enabling a precise amount of fuel to be delivered, by injectors, to each cylinder. Fuel is pumped, under
constant pressure, from the tank through a filter to the injectors. The air/fuel mixture is constantly
being adjusted by the engine management Electronic Control Unit (E.C.U.) which receives information
from sensors in the engine inlet and the exhaust systems.

The Air Filter

The Air Filter on an engine has two main functions: The first is to remove
dust and dirt from the air being drawn into the engine; secondly it acts to
silence the noise of the air entering the intake. Never run the engine without
the air filter fitted, excessive engine wear could result, and back firing could
cause a fire in the engine bay.

Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

The Starter Motor

Wire to Battery
Solenoid
Wire to Ignition switch

Return Spring

Commutator

Actuating Arm

Brushes

Pinion
Armature

Field Windings

When the ignition key is turned to start, a current is applied to the solenoid
which pulls on the actuating arm. This moves the pinion into mesh with the
gear teeth on the outer edge of the flywheel (see Crankshaft and Flywheel).
When the solenoid is fully retracted an
internal connection in the solenoid supplies
current to the starter body from the
battery, causing the armature to turn the
pinion and from there the engine. When
the ignition key is released a one-way
clutch in the pinion lets it freewheel until
the return spring retracts the pinion out of
Starter Motor
mesh with the gear teeth on the flywheel.
(pre-engaged)
At this point the engine should be running.

Starter Motor
Ring Gear

Flywheel

The starter motor is designed for high current consumption and delivers considerable power for its size
for a limited time, which explains why a battery soon dies if a car is not firing for some reason.

The Alternator
Alternators generate electrical power for motor vehicles. All vehicles
require a direct-voltage supply for ignition, lights, fans, etc. In modern
vehicles the electric power is generated by an alternator that is
mechanically coupled to the engine usually by a drive belt. An alternator
produces an alternating current (AC) which needs to be converted to a
direct current (DC) by a rectifier. A regulator is used to control the
field current so that the output voltage of the alternator-rectifier is
properly matched to the battery voltage as the speed of the engine
varies. Regulator voltage is normally between 13.5 and 14.5 volts.
Charging control is necessary because excessive voltage can damage electrical components and cause the
battery to overheat producing hydrogen and oxygen gas with potentially explosive results!

OXYGEN + HYDROGEN +SPARK = BANG !

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Superchargers & Turbochargers

A Supercharger, is a compressor used to increase the amount of air admitted to an
internal-combustion engine cylinder during the inlet stroke. It enables more fuel to
be burnt, so increasing the power output. Superchargers are mechanically driven
from the crankshaft by gears or a drive belt. Another form of forced induction is
the use of a turbine utilizing the power of the engine exhaust gases.

The

combination of a directly coupled turbine and compressor is termed a turbo-charger

(see diagram), and is widely used in both petrol and diesel engines. The turbocharger is

driven by otherwise wasted exhaust gases, it is a small, high-revolution pump that

forces air into the cylinders at pressure and is invariably used in conjunction with an
intercooler.
It enables the engine to give more power for a given weight and cubic capacity,
reduces noise, and maintains power at the higher altitudes encountered in
mountainous country. High-performance petrol engined cars commonly use turbochargers and/or superchargers.
An intercooler is a radiator to cool air between the turbo and the engine to make it
denser further increasing engine power.

Catalytic Converter
Catalytic Converter, a device incorporated in the exhaust system
of motor vehicles that reduces emissions of certain pollutants.
Exhaust gases are passed through chambers coated in such rare
metals as palladium and platinum; these metals act as catalysts, encouraging chemical reactions
that change pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and certain hydrocarbons into
carbon dioxide and water. Emission standards mean catalytic converters are fitted as standard to all new petrolengine cars sold in the United States since 1983 and in the EU since 1993. Catalytic converters for diesel engines
have also been developed.
In practice catalytic converters reduce emissions less on the road than in test conditions. They can take a 5mile (8
km) drive to work efficiently and require the vehicle to use unleaded petrol. Leaded petrol causes them to stop
functioning.

Lubrication
All moving parts of a vehicle require lubrication. Without it, friction would increase power
consumption and damage the parts. The lubricant also serves as a coolant, a noise-reducing cushion,
and a sealant between engine piston rings and cylinder walls.
Oil is circulated under pressure from a pump that draws the lubricant from a reservoir contained
within the sump at the bottom of the engine (see top diagram - Page 3). It is filtered and delivered
under pressure to the main crankshaft bearings from a gallery located in the side of the engine block, and to the
appropriately named big-ends of the connecting rods (see bottom diagram - Page 3) via holes drilled in the shaft. Oil
reaches the bores by splash although it is pumped to the camshaft and valve gear. It then drains back down into the
sump.
The oil level in the engine should be regularly checked via the dipstick (see the Checklist). Not keeping the oil level
at the correct level, halfway between Min and Max, can lead to catastrophic failure of the engine!
Wheel bearings and universal joints require a fairly stiff grease, unless they are the newer sealed for life ones
which only require checking for wear during servicing. Other chassis joints require a soft grease that can be
injected by pressure guns. Hydraulic transmissions require a special grade of light hydraulic fluid, and manually
shifted transmissions use a heavier gear oil similar to that for rear axles to resist heavy loads on the gear teeth.
Gears and bearings in lightly loaded components, such as generators and window regulators, are generally fabricated
from self-lubricating plastic materials.

11

Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Cooling System
Once any engine starts running the moving parts create a lot of friction which results in heat. Also, the combustion
temperature of petrol is 25000c. and although the engine needs a certain amount of heat to run efficiently, too much
heat will cause damage. It must therefore be cooled down.
The cylinders and the head of the engine have channels containing a water/anti-freeze mixture which is circulated
by a pump. As the engine heats up the water mixture (coolant) gets hot. The pump forces the coolant from the
bottom of the radiator around the engine and then back to the top of the radiator. The engine temperature and
therefore the flow of coolant to the radiator is controlled by a thermostat. When the engine is cold the thermostat
remains closed to speed up the engine warm-up time. When the correct operating temperature for the engine is
reached, the thermostat opens allowing coolant to flow through the radiator to maintain a constant temperature.
The Radiator consists of two
tanks (top and bottom) joined
by a large number of tubes
which carry the coolant
between them.
The tubes
have a large number of
cooling fins covering them to
increase their surface area
and maximise the transfer of
heat to the air flowing
through the radiator.
To
assist cooling particularly at
low speeds, a fan is placed
just behind the radiator to
draw air through the fins.
The Radiator Pressure Cap
seals the cooling system but
allows access for topping up
the
water/anti-freeze
(See Automatic Gearbox)
mixture.
As the engine
temperature rises and the
coolant heats up, pressure builds up within the system raising the point at which it the fluid boils. The cap prevents
pressure build-up beyond a safe operating level allowing excess pressure to escape. The cap also contains a vacuum
valve, allowing air in again, to prevent a vacuum forming in the system when the engine cools and the pressure drops.
The Water Pump is driven by a belt, which loops around a pulley, which is connected to the crankshaft. The faster
the crankshaft goes, the faster the water pump operates increasing the flow of coolant through the system.
The Fan can be operated either by the same belt that drives the water pump, or by means of an electric motor
which is switched on to cool the water in the radiator when a thermostatic switch detects the engine temperature
has reached its maximum safe level.
Valves

Valve Pushrods

Piston

Water Pump
and Fan

Flywheel

Camshaft

Connecting Rod

Crankshaft
Sump
(Oil Reservoir)

Petrol Engine

Engine Coolant is a mixture of

water and anti-freeze, usually
50% of each. Anti-freeze, as well
as preventing the coolant from
freezing in cold weather, also
prevents corrosion of the cooling
system
components.
This
is
particularly
important
when
different metals are present in
the engine, i.e. aluminium and cast
iron.

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

The Clutch
The function of the Clutch in a motor vehicle is to disconnect the engine from the road wheels whilst changing gear
and then allow the engine to pick up speed smoothly.
In a clutch system a flywheel is bolted to the rear of the crankshaft. The face of the flywheel which touches the
clutch plate is very smooth to prevent wear. The clutch plate is a two piece disc about 20cms (8 inches) in diameter.
In the centre of the plate is a hole with splines (similar to gear teeth) in it, which correspond to splines on the input
shaft of the transmission. The inner splined portion of the plate is connected to the outer friction part by buffer
springs which absorb the initial take-up shock. Both sides of the plate are covered with friction material on the
outer part of the diameter. This is high friction, low wearing, heat resistant material.
When the clutch pedal is pressed down a release bearing presses down on the centre of the clutch cover and forces
the pressure plate away from the clutch plate. This allows the clutch plate to remain stationary between the
revolving flywheel and the clutch cover. Gears can now be selected. A slow release of the clutch pedal by the driver
gradually clamps the clutch plate to the flywheel allowing direct drive from the crankshaft to the transmission.
Clutch Master Cylinder

Clutch Pedal
Slave Cylinder

Clutch Cover

Manual Transmission
On most front and rear wheel drive cars the gearbox is
attached directly to the engine. To change gear, the drive
passes through a clutch that must be briefly disengaged by
the driver using the clutch pedal. The gearbox usually has
four or five forward speeds and a reverse. The changes
are effected by sliding dog clutches positioned on the
combined
first-motion/output
shaft.
This
also
incorporates synchromesh cones, which allow silent gear
changes.
(see page 14)

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Manual
Transmission
- continued from page 13.
Why have a Gearbox?
A car moves at various
speeds and so do its
wheels, but a car
engine always spins
much faster.
The
gearbox matches the
speed of the engine to
the speed of the
wheels for a range of
practical
conditions:
pulling away, overtaking
other vehicles, crawling
up steep hills and
cruising at top speed.
That is why a gearbox
has four or five gear
ratios or speeds.

First motion
shaft
(from engine)

Main output shaft

takes motion to the
cars differential and
then on to the
wheels.

How It Works
The rotating clutch shaft brings power into the gearbox from the engine; this
then permanently drives the layshaft. Pairs of gears on the layshaft and the
main shaft convert this motion to a suitable speed. The main shaft then takes
this motion out of the gearbox, transmits it to the differential then on to the
road wheels.
To engage the correct gear, the driver depresses the clutch and moves the gear
lever. This doesnt move the gear wheels around as you may think, they all stay in
position on their shafts, and, with the exception of reverse (which works slightly
differently) they all mesh continuously with one another. This means they are
rotating all the time.

To Change Gear

Follow the arrows for each gear.

The red dog is the one doing the
locking. Third (not shown) works
by the same principle as first and
second. Fourth gear locks the
main shaft directly to the clutch
shaft. Reverse slides a little idler
gear into place.

The clever bit is that the gears for first, second and third arent fixed to the
main shaft. They are actually free to spin on bearings. Until they are selected
and locked into place, they arent actually driving anything.
Gear Selection
With a manual gearbox, the engine is disengaged from
the drive during gear changing, and then progressively
re-engaged, by means of the clutch. To select a gear
(first, second or third) the driver moves the gear
lever which, by an arrangement of selector rods, slides
a collar along the main shaft. A synchromesh system
on all gears aids smooth changing from gear to gear.
In a synchromesh system the collar, called a dog, that
is fixed to the main shaft rotates with it, is moved by
a selector rod to engage with a cone (cone not shown) on
Toothed collars called dogs
spin freely inside the claws of
the front of the gear wheel to be engaged. Friction
the selector forks, and slide
along the splines on the main
between the collar and the cone acts on the freely
shaft. The teeth then slip
into holes in the gear wheels,
rotating gearwheel to smoothly bring its rotational
locking them onto the shaft.
speed up to that of the main shaft. When both gear
and collar (see diagrams, left and right showing the principle) are rotating together,
dog teeth on the gear engage with an outer toothed ring on the collar locking the two together.

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Automatic Transmission
Cars with automatic transmissions have a gear lever of a kind although instead of numbers they show letters. D
(drive), R (reverse), P (park), N (neutral). Most also show 1 and 2, selecting one of these will hold the car in the
selected gear preventing it from changing, very useful on steep hills. Automatics have a normal hand brake but also

use an additional lock provided by placing the gear lever in the P (park) position (see Brakes). The main brake pedal

must be applied to permit shifting the transmission out of P (park).

The engine can only be started with the gear lever in P (park) or N (neutral) to prevent the car from moving

when starting.

An automatic unit is much more complicated than a manual one and has at its heart a series of epicyclic gears, which
are selected mechanically. Changes are effected automatically by a complex sequence of hydraulically controlled
commands. This works in conjunction with a torque converter or fluid flywheel, which transmits the engines power
using hydraulic fluid to an automatic gearbox. It therefore does not require a clutch pedal meaning there are only
two pedals in the cockpit, an accelerator and a brake.
A simpler system that makes fewer demands on the engine, and is therefore more economical, is continual variable
transmission. This initially used rubber belts in conjunction with pulleys that expanded and contracted to alter the
engines power ratios. On the newer versions, however, this function is undertaken by a steel belt contained within
the transmission casing.

Drive Lines
In a front-wheel drive vehicle (see diagram on Page 2 ), power is conveyed by gearing to a differential that is
inside the engine/gearbox unit. The differentials function is to permit cornering so that the outer-driven wheel
turns faster and further than the inner one. Drive is transferred to each wheel by a constant velocity joint that can
also absorb steering forces.

Prop shaft

Component layout of
rear wheel drive vehicle
On a rear-wheel drive vehicle, power is transmitted from the gearbox to the rear-located differential via a
propeller (prop) shaft. It is then conveyed to the wheels by half-shafts (in the case of a live rear axle) or universally
jointed drive shafts (if independent rear suspension is employed).

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Steering

MacPherson Strut
Assembly

Coil Spring

Sway Bar
Mount Bushing
CV
Driveshaft

CV Boot
Outer Constant
Velocity (CV) Joint
Ball Joint

Rack & Pinion

Steering Gear

Gaiter

Control Arm
Bushing

Inner Socket
Assembly

Lower Control Arm &

Ball Joint Assembly

Outer Tie
Rod End
Strut Rod
Bushing

The most popular steering system is rack and pinion. Power-assisted steering, which is hydraulically activated by an
engine-driven pump and previously the preserve of expensive cars, is becoming increasingly popular.
Steering on cars is achieved by means of a steering rack. A tube attached to the vehicle body contains a rod with
teeth machined into it, known as a rack. A pinion gear connected to the steering wheel by the steering column moves
the rack left or right when the steering wheel is turned. (see diagrams below )
At the end of the rack
a track rod is attached
by a ball joint, this
allows
for
the
suspension movement.
A rubber gaiter seals
the rack to prevent
dirt from entering.

Details of a steering rack

when stationary.
Suspension Top
Bearing

Coil Spring

Steering Rack
Gaiter

Details of a steering rack

when turned.
As the steering wheel is turned the
movement is transmitted down the
steering column to the pinion. As
the pinion turns it moves the rack.
This movement is transmitted
through the steering arms to the
wheels which move accordingly.

McPherson Strut

Track Rod

Brake Disc

At the end of the track rods are the track

rod ends connecting the steering to the
steering arms.
These are attached to the wheel hubs and
move the wheels to left and to the right as
the steering wheel is turned.

Track Rod End

Suspension Arm

Steering Arm
(Attached to the Hub)

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Steering - continued
The track rods are adjustable; these allow the tracking of the front wheels to be adjusted. Vehicles
with incorrect tracking will suffer excessive tyre wear. Wheels with the front distance between them
less than the rear are said to toe in. Wheels with the front distance between them greater than the
rear are said to toe out. Correct tracking will extend tyre life and improve vehicle handling.

Front

Front

Front

Toe-Out

Toe-In
Parallel
WHEELS

WHEELS

WHEELS

Power Assisted Steering

Power assisted steering is a system that aids the steering of a vehicle by use of a
hydraulic assisted steering rack or by an electric motor driven pump, that amplifies the
turning force (torque), applied to the steering wheel by the driver.
Most modern power-steering systems consist of hydraulic boosts applied to the steering
rack. Rotation of the steering wheel activates a valve that directs oil, pressurized by a pump driven by
the engine, to act on a piston. The hydraulic boost acts only while the steering wheel is moving.
Recently some vehicles use an electro-mechanical power steering system where an electric
motor is geared to the steering column shaft. The motor is controlled by an E.C.U
(Electronic Control Unit) which receives information from sensors in the steering linkage.
This controls the motors direction and amount of assistance applied to the steering column
through the gears linking the motor to the shaft when the driver applied force to the
steering wheel.

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Suspension
Independent suspension is a system in which each wheel is able to act in isolation to the others. One of
its most important advantages is that it keeps the wheels vertical and the tyres on the roadway
regardless of body roll, and therefore improves the cars road-holding ability (the car sticks to the road
better).
One version employs two unequal
length wishbones, with coil springs
and a separate shock absorber
providing the suspension medium.
In the alternative more common
MacPherson
strut
system (see
diagram) there are no wishbones and
the coil spring fits over the shock
absorber in one assembly.
The function of the shock absorber in
the suspension system of a vehicle is
to damp out oscillation; 'damper'
being the correct term for a shock
absorber.

Suspension Top
Bearing

Steering Rack
Gaiter

Coil Spring

McPherson Strut

Track Rod

Brake Disc

Track Rod End

The spring is the means of absorbing

Steering Arm
Suspension Arm
shocks due to the wheel passing over
(Attached to the Hub)
holes and bumps in the road, but
without dampers the result would be uncomfortable, swaying and bouncing. Originally dampers were solid, of a
friction type, which gave poor dynamic control and wore badly. Hydraulic dampers are now used, which consist of a
piston sliding inside a cylinder filled with oil,
the flow of which is controlled by valves. In
this way a resistance to motion in either
direction is provided. One end of the shock
absorber tube connects to the suspension; the
other end of the rod is connected to the
vehicles body. When the suspension spring is
affected by an uneven road its nature is to
bounce up and down, the shock absorber
dampens the springs natural bounce.

If a shock absorber fails or the oil leaks out,

the vehicle will continue to bounce after hitting
a bump. This seriously affects the handling of
the vehicle, making it unstable, difficult to
steer, and seriously compromising its ability to
stop in a straight line.

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Tyres
Tyres are your only point of contact with the road so it should go without saying that they need
to be regularly inspected.
Look at the tyre tread to ensure they are wearing evenly (see Motoring Checklist - Tyres). Check they

have the right amount of tread depth THE LEGAL MINIMUM REQUIREMENT ON ALL CARS IS 1.6mm,
measure if you are unsure; particularly in areas where the tread looks shallower (check the reason for
that - there may be a problem with steering or suspension). A tyre with bald patches is not only illegal
its unsafe. Look for signs of damage, cuts and bulges are a potential blow-out.

Know the correct air pressure for your car. Incorrect inflation will damage the tyres and seriously
shorten their lifespan. If you are going to transport heavy loads in your car (e.g. moving house or going
on holiday with a lot of luggage) look in the handbook to se if you need to temporarily increase the air
pressure in the tyres.

Shoulder Wear
Wear on Both Sides.
Under-inflation
will
cause
overheating of the tyre because
the tyre will flex too much,
therefore the tread will not sit
correctly on the road. This will
cause loss of grip, excessive
wear, and possible sudden tyre
failure because of a build-up of
heat.
Check and adjust pressures.
Incorrect wheel camber (wear
on one side) repair or renew

suspension parts.

Hard cornering reduce speed.

Centre Wear
Over Inflation.

Uneven Wear
Wheel Misalignment.

An over inflated tyre will wear

rapidly in the centre part of the
tread. The grip will be seriously
reduced; the ride harsher, and
there is a greater danger of
shock damage in the tyre
casing.
Check and adjust

Front tyres may wear unevenly

as
a
result
of
wheel
misalignment. Most tyre dealers
and garages can check and
adjust the wheel alignment
(tracking) for a small fee.

You may sometimes have to

inflate your cars tyres to higher
pressures specified in you
handbook for maximum load or
sustained high speed. Dont

Repair or renew suspension

parts.

pressures.

forget to reduce pressures to

normal afterwards.

The
suspension
malfunctioning.

may

be

Unbalanced wheel.

Balance tyres.

Incorrect toe setting.

Adjust front wheel alignment.

Tracking (see Steering)

Wheel Balance

Tyres should be balanced when fitted to the wheel. This involves spinning the
wheel and tyre on a special machine and fitting small weights to the wheel to make
them spin true. Occasionally the weights can fall off causing Wheel Imbalance.
This can be felt as vibration either through the steering, (front imbalance) or
throughout the car (rear imbalance) at a certain speed, typically 50mph. Wheel
balancing should be done as soon as possible by a tyre dealer or a garage because, if left unchecked,
there is potential for damage to steering and suspension.

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Brakes
Most cars use Disc Brakes on their front wheels although these are fitted on front and back wheels on the more
expensive models. When the brake pedal is applied, hydraulic pressure is applied to callipers that grip the disc
slowing and stopping the car. Drum Brakes, that use internally actuated shoes, are often fitted at the rear.
All cars feature a hand or Parking Brake that operates on the vehicles rear brake shoes or discs.

Disc Brakes
A frictional brake is one where a fixed part is brought into contact with a moving
part which has to be slowed or stopped. In a car, each wheel has a hub-mounted
disc and a brake unit or calliper rigidly attached to the suspension. The calliper
has two friction-pad assemblies, one on each side of the disc. When the brake is
applied, hydraulic pressure* forces the friction pads against the disc. The disc is
gripped by the two pads in a similar way that the wheel rim of a bicycle is gripped
by its brake blocks.
* (Hydraulics the transmission of braking force from the brake pedal to the
brakes by the use of liquid pressure and a piston. In a car the liquid is brake
fluid.)

Disc
Calliper

Diagram 1: When the brake pedal is pressed, high pressure brake fluid (red) forces the piston out and at the
same time forces the whole calliper back to cause both pads to clamp onto the disc. The calliper floats on the
calliper pin.
The brake pads themselves are made of a material that withstands the great temperatures generated when braking.
However, the disc is open to the atmosphere except where it passes through the caliper, so cooling is very effective.
This arrangement is self-adjusting, and the ability of the discs to dissipate heat rapidly in the open air stream makes
them practically immune to fading. They grip the metal disc even when wet and will wear away rather than the disc.
It is cheaper and easier to replace two disc pads rather than the disc itself.

Vented Discs
High Performance Car

(Diagram 1)

Disc

Disc

Off

On

Cross section through disc brakes showing

the hydraulic operation.

When the brakes are released, the

hydraulic pressure drops.
The low
residual pressure (blue) allows the seal
to draw the piston back freeing the
disc from the pads and releasing the
brakes. The seal twists and deforms
when the brakes are applied and it is
the recovery from this deformed state
which causes the piston and pads to
release. Most systems allow a minimal
pad drag even when the brakes are
released.
However, note that the
piston can also slide through the seal
providing a self adjusting action to
compensate for pad wear.

With disc brakes a larger brake force is needed to operate the system, so the driver/pedal action is therefore
usually assisted by a Servo-mechanism. (See Diagram 2) The servo uses the vacuum from the inlet manifold of a
petrol engine, or a vacuum pump from a diesel engine, to convert the relatively small amount of force applied when
the brake pedal is pressed into the larger force needed to operate the braking system.

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Tandem brake master cylinder

(Diagram 2)
Servo vacuum pipe

Rear drum brake

Brake servo

Brake Pedal
Front disc brake

Brake shoe

This vehicle brake system operates as two

independent ones. Should there be a
failure in either circuit; some braking is still
available to stop the vehicle.

Front wheel
Brake circuit

Rear wheel
Brake circuit

Vacuum

Drum brakes. Drum brakes are mainly used on the rear of some small cars, the drum itself being mounted on the
wheel hub and rotating with the wheel. The brake components are either mounted on a back plate, fixed to the axle,
or the suspension arm.
When the brake pedal is depressed, two pivoted brake shoes (Diagram 3 - 3a & 3b) are forced apart at their free
ends to press against the inside of a brake drum. Wheel cylinders ( 9.) are located between the movable ends of the
brake shoes, and each is fitted with two pistons that are forced outward toward the ends of the cylinder by the
pressure of the fluid between them. As these pistons move outward, they push the brake shoes against the inner
surface of the brake drum which is attached and rotates with the wheel. The pivot at the fixed end of the brake
shoes contains an adjuster to compensate for the wear on the brake shoes. (see also diagram on next page)

Rear Wheel Drum Brake

1.
2.
3a.
3b.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Brake back (cover) plate

Brake shoe adjuster
Brake shoe, rear (trailing)
Brake shoe, front (leading)
Bottom return spring
Spring plate
Tensioning pin
Brake shoe return spring
Thrust rod
Brake wheel cylinder
Compression spring
Spring plate
Thrust pin
Brake shoe locating plate
Hand brake operating lever
(shown as a dashed outline)

Direction of
rotation

14

(Diagram 3)

Much heat is created during braking and may cause drum brakes to fade and lose their effectiveness through
reduced friction between brake drum and the shoes because of the high temperatures. For this reason most cars
and some motor cycles use disc brakes, at least on the front wheels.

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Hydraulic Brake Fluid

Hydraulic brake fluid has a
reservoir which is found under
the bonnet and constitutes one
of the checks to be made along
with water, oil, etc. A word of
caution, as the brake pads wear,
the brake pistons push outwards
which
means
that
small
reservoir behind the piston fills
up with fluid. This means that
the level of fluid may need
topping up if it goes near the
Minimum mark on the reservoir
under the bonnet. When the
brake pad is replaced, the piston
is pushed back which in turn pushes the fluid out of the piston reservoir, back up into the main reservoir.
If this is already full, because it looked low and was topped up, the excess fluid will overflow.

(see also Weekly Checks Brake Fluid Level)

TAKE CARE; brake fluid is very toxic, flammable, and will damage paintwork if spilt on the vehicle.

Antilock braking systems (ABS)

Antilock braking systems (ABS) became available in the late 1980s and have subsequently become
standard equipment on a growing number of cars. ABS installations consist of wheel-mounted sensors
that input wheel rotation speed into a microprocessor. When the brakes are applied and the E.C.U
(Electronic Control Unit) senses that the wheels are about to lock-up, (tyres start skidding or a loss of
traction) the control unit signals a hydraulic or electric modulator to regulate brake line pressure to stop
impending wheel lockup.
The brake continues to work as the system alternately releases and applies brake pressure, felt by the
driver as a pulsing sensation through the brake pedal. The wheels meanwhile continue to roll, retaining
the driver's ability to steer the vehicle and stop in a shorter distance.

Hand (Parking) Brake

Hand brakes must be mechanically operated, applying force only to the rear brakes (with a few rare
exceptions) by means of a flexible cable connected to a hand lever or pedal.

Automatic Transmission - Park

On cars with automatic transmissions, an additional lock is usually provided in the form of a pawl (a
pivoted lever that locks into a toothed ratchet) that can be engaged, by placing the gear lever in the P
(park) position, to prevent the drive shaft and rear wheels from turning. The main brake pedal must be
applied to permit shifting the transmission out of P (park). This stops the possibility of undesired vehicle
motion that could be caused by accidental movement of the transmission control. The engine can only be

started with the gear lever in P (park) or N (neutral).

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

Motoring Checklist
Visual vehicle checks before you get in !

Weekly checks;

p
p
p
p

Are the tyres inflated?

Can you see through all the windows?
Are the lights and number plates clean?
Is anything leaking from underneath?

Your vehicles hand book will tell you how to maintain your car and keep it in good condition. Below is just a general
guide including warnings where appropriate. Various fluids used in cars can be quite nasty and so can the battery, so
take the warnings here and in the handbook seriously.

Engine Oil Level

Before you start make sure your car is on level ground. Check the oil level before you drive, or at least 5 minutes
after the engine has been switched off to give oil in the upper part of engine a chance to settle. Besides that, the
engine will be HOT! Check the oil level using the dipstick in the usual way it should be about half way between Min
and Max. If it needs topping up make sure you use the correct oil for your vehicle and NEVER OVERFILL IT.

Coolant (Water/Antifreeze mixture)

DO NOT ATTEMPT TO CHECK COOLANT LEVEL WHEN THE ENGINE IS HOT, the coolant will be too! There is a great risk
of scalding. Adding coolant should not be necessary on a regular basis, if you have to, check the system for leaks. If
topping-up is necessary add a mixture of water and antifreeze to the expansion tank up to the correct level taking
care to securely replace the pressure cap.
Finally - make sure the antifreeze is safely stored, it is poisonous.

Screen Washer
Keep the washer bottle filled up with water and screenwash additive diluted according to its instructions. The
additive not only cleans better than plain water it stops the washer system freezing in cold weather.
(N.B. NEVER use antifreeze in the washer bottle.)

Wipers
Check the wiper blades for damage or cracks. If the glass swept area is smeared change the blades. Your handbook
should tell you how.

Tyres
First a visual check for any foreign objects caught in the tread. If removal reveals that the tyre has
been punctured, replace the object to mark the spot, and change the wheel for the spare. Your tyre
dealer will advise you as to whether you need a new one or it can be repaired. Also look for bulges and
cuts particularly in the sidewalls, accidental kerbing can damage tyres and the wheels.
Check the tyre pressures regularly with the tyres cold. The vehicle handbook will advise you about the correct
pressure for general use and also for when the car is fully laden.
Finally, look at the tyre tread and check they are wearing evenly (see main section Tyres). Check they have the
legal amount of tread depth THE LEGAL MINIMUM REQUIREMENT ON ALL CARS IS 1.6mm, measure if you are not sure
particularly in areas where the tread looks shallower (check the reason for that).

Brake Fluid Level

Make sure your car is on level ground. Always buy fresh fluid, appropriate for your vehicle for the job (see the
handbook) and handle it with care, it can damage eyes and paintwork. DONT USE ANY THAT HAS BEEN OPEN for some
time, it absorbs moisture from the air which can dangerously affect the braking efficiency.
Refer to the handbook for how to check the level. The fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear but never
let it drop below Minimum. If you spill any fluid always replace the cap on the reservoir before flushing the spill
away to avoid contamination. If you have to repeatedly top it up, do not use the car until youve had the brakes
professionally checked. There could be a leak in the system, NEVER TAKE RISKS WITH BRAKES.

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The Battery
Under normal operating conditions the battery requires little maintenance. Do a visual check to make sure all looks
normal the terminals are clean and that the battery is still firmly secured in its holder. Your handbook will explain
how to service it. Things to beware of;-

1
1
1

Do not use an open flame or cause a spark when checking the battery. They give off hydrogen gas; it is
flammable and may explode.
Do not let battery acid come into contact with skin, eyes, fabric or paintwork. If you get electrolyte on
your skin or in your eyes immediately wash with cold water and consult your doctor.
Switch off the current before disconnecting battery terminals and always disconnect the earth terminal
(negative (-) one first and reconnect it last.
See also HELP section My Battery is flat.

Power Steering (where appropriate)

Check your handbook for this one. Some vehicles do not require this as weekly check because the power steering is
part of the power hydraulic system.
Generally, if you do;- Park the vehicle on level ground. Set the steering straight ahead and then turn off the engine.
Do not turn the steering once the engine is stopped or the reading will be inaccurate.
IT IS ESSENTIAL to use the correct power steering fluid for your vehicle depending on the year of manufacture and
type of system fitted. The handbook should guide you, any doubts dont do it, get the professionals. NEVER TAKE
RISKS WITH STEERING !

Lights, Bulbs, and fuses

The spares should be replaced in your vehicles spares box as and when you use them. Again, your handbook should
tell you how to change bulbs and fuses on your type of car. Make sure you check the vehicle lights on a regular basis
particularly if there are no warning lights in the cockpit to tell when there is a failure. If you have to check the
lights unaided, back up to a wall or garage door and use the reflected light to check if they are working. The horn
will be checked for the MOT test, better done by you first!

HELP!
Ive put the wrong fuel in my car.

/ petrol into diesel,

either way serious damage will
result if you run the engine which neither the vehicle warranty or the insurance will cover. The fuel tank will need
draining. Call for help!

DONT EVEN START IT UP. Diesel into petrol

Im on the motorway and the dashboard has suddenly lit up like a Christmas tree can I carry on to the
next exit?
NO! STOP as soon as it is safe to do so. Dont assume its an electrical fault.

e.g. - If youve lost the oil the engine could seize, not good in the middle of a carriageway. Call for help.

Im driving along and smoke or steam is coming out from under the bonnet.
STOP as soon as it is safe to do so:-

1. If its smoke you will probably have smelt it already. GET OUT. Phone the fire brigade. If you are tempted to use
the extinguisher DONT OPEN THE BONNET, spray it in through a gap in the radiator grill. If in any doubt stay well
away and wait for help.
2. If its steam, wait for things to cool down before you very carefully open the bonnet. Chances are something has
broken to cause the cloud of steam, and you cant drive very far without coolant. You might as well call for help
whilst youre waiting.
My cars battery is flat.
Modern cars wont push start on a dead battery, electronic fuel pumps need power. No power no fuel !
Neither will automatics no clutch you can play with.
An older car may - get lots of helpers and a safe runway. Sit in the drivers seat, car in neutral, handbrake off. Now
they push. When you are rolling depress the clutch and put the car in third gear. Ease the clutch in gently and

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Educational use only. Not for sale or publication

hopefully the engine will fire. Keep it running. Only try this couple of times, if it doesnt work give up!
You must put right whatever it was that made the battery go flat in the first place. Here are some possibilities;

# The battery has drained because of repeated attempts to start the vehicle.

Something is wrong with the

engine, get help.

# The lights have been left on for a period of time. An interior light left on overnight can flatten the battery.
# The charging system is not working properly (alternator the drive belt the wiring).
# There is something wrong with the battery. Low electrolyte, or worn out.
After checking, try recharging the battery, or get a new one. A jump start could get you out of trouble but
WARNING;- Jump starting your vehicle is a last resort after all else has failed because of the risk of

severe damage to modern electronic components.

When jump starting a car using a booster battery or another car you must take some precautions;-

1
1
1
1
1
1

If the vehicles have an onboard computer (E.C.U.) you will need SPECIAL JUMP LEADS WITH A SURGE
PROTECTION DEVICE. If you dont have any dont attempt it, you could fry everyones electrics.
Before connecting the other battery make sure that the ignition is switched off (both vehicles if youre
using another car as a donor).
Make sure all other electrical equipment is switched off lights, wipers, heater, etc.
Make sure the booster battery is the same voltage as the discharged one in the vehicle.
If the dead battery is being jump-started from the battery in another vehicle, the two vehicles MUST NOT
TOUCH each other.
Ensure the vehicles are out of gear; in an automatic make sure it is in either neutral N or park P.

Jump Starting a Car (see diagram)

1
2
3

Connect one end of the red jump lead to the positive

(+) terminal of the flat battery.
Connect the other end of the red lead to the positive
(+) terminal of the booster battery.

Connect one end of the negative jump lead to the

negative (-) terminal of the booster battery.

Connect the other end of the negative jump lead to a

bolt or bracket on the engine block, well away from the
battery, on the vehicle to be started.

a Ensure the jump leads will not come into contact with
the fan, drive belts, or other moving parts of the
engine.

a Start the donor car, then start the engine.

With the
engine/s running at idle speed, disconnect the jump
leads in REVERSE ORDER OF CONNECTION.

In Conclusion.
Properly looked after, your car should to be of little trouble.
However, if you are not considering a career as a mechanical engineer, or even if you are, you may want to join a
reliable rescue service. Not all breakdowns can be fixed at the roadside, and these lovely people are paid to crawl
out of bed at 3 oclock in the morning in the middle of the winter to get us out of trouble!

Happy Motoring.

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