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CH 19
CH 19
19.2
no physical component
Database systems that run on each site are independent of each other
Transactions may access data at one or more sites
19.3
Sites may not be aware of each other and may provide only
limited facilities for cooperation in transaction processing
19.4
Fragmentation
19.5
Data Replication
A relation or fragment of a relation is replicated if it is stored
sites.
Fully redundant databases are those in which every site contains a
19.6
19.7
Data Fragmentation
Division of relation r into fragments r1, r2, , rn which contain
or more fragments
Vertical fragmentation: the schema for relation r is split into
19.8
account_number
A-305
A-226
A-155
balance
500
336
62
account_number
A-177
A-402
A-408
A-639
balance
205
10000
1123
750
19.9
customer_name
tuple_id
Lowman
1
Hillside
Camp
2
Hillside
Camp
3
Valleyview
Kahn
4
Valleyview
Kahn
5
Hillside
Kahn
6
Valleyview
Green
7
Valleyview
deposit1 = branch_name, customer_name, tuple_id (employee_info )
account_number
balance
tuple_id
500
A-305
1
336
A-226
2
205
A-177
3
10000
A-402
4
62
A-155
5
1123
A-408
6
750
A-639
7
deposit2 = account_number, balance, tuple_id (employee_info )
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition
19.10
Advantages of Fragmentation
Horizontal:
Vertical:
19.11
Data Transparency
Data transparency: Degree to which system user may remain unaware
of the details of how and where the data items are stored in a distributed
system
Consider transparency issues in relation to:
Fragmentation transparency
Replication transparency
Location transparency
19.12
19.13
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
19.14
Use of Aliases
Alternative to centralized scheme: each site prefixes its own site
Solution: Create a set of aliases for data items; Store the mapping of
19.15
Distributed Transactions
and 2 Phase Commit
19.16
Distributed Transactions
Transaction may access data at several sites.
Each site has a local transaction manager responsible for:
19.17
19.18
Failure of a site.
Loss of massages
Network partition
19.19
Commit Protocols
Commit protocols are used to ensure atomicity across sites
19.20
executed
Let T be a transaction initiated at site Si, and let the transaction
coordinator at Si be Ci
19.21
Ci adds the records <prepare T> to the log and forces log to
stable storage
if not, add a record <no T> to the log and send abort T message
to Ci
19.22
log and forces record onto stable storage. Once the record stable
storage it is irrevocable (even if failures occur)
Coordinator sends a message to each participant informing it of the
19.23
19.24
If an active site contains a <commit T> record in its log, then T must be
committed.
2.
If an active site contains an <abort T> record in its log, then T must be
aborted.
3.
If some active participating site does not contain a <ready T> record in its
log, then the failed coordinator Ci cannot have decided to commit T.
4.
If none of the above cases holds, then all active sites must have a <ready
T> record in their logs, but no additional control records (such as <abort
T> of <commit T>).
In this case active sites must wait for Ci to recover, to find decision.
Blocking problem: active sites may have to wait for failed coordinator to
recover.
19.25
Sites that are not in the partition containing the coordinator think
the coordinator has failed, and execute the protocol to deal with
failure of the coordinator.
No harm results, but sites may still have to wait for decision
from coordinator.
The coordinator and the sites are in the same partition as the
coordinator think that the sites in the other partition have failed, and
follow the usual commit protocol.
19.26
Instead of <ready T>, write out <ready T, L> L = list of locks held
by T when the log is written (read locks can be omitted).
19.27
Assumptions:
No network partitioning
At any point, at least one site must be up.
At most K sites (participants as well as coordinator) can fail
Phase 1: Obtaining Preliminary Decision: Identical to 2PC Phase 1.
Every site is ready to commit if instructed to do so
Phase 2 of 2PC is split into 2 phases, Phase 2 and Phase 3 of 3PC
In phase 2 coordinator makes a decision as in 2PC (called the pre-commit
decision) and records it in multiple (at least K) sites
In phase 3, coordinator sends commit/abort message to all participating
sites,
Under 3PC, knowledge of pre-commit decision can be used to commit despite
coordinator failure
19.28
19.29
Two phase commit would have the potential to block updates on the
accounts involved in funds transfer
Alternative solution:
Debit money from source account and send a message to other
site
Site receives message and credits destination account
Messaging has long been used for distributed transactions (even
before computers were invented!)
Atomicity issue
once transaction sending a message is committed, message must
guaranteed to be delivered
Guarantee as long as destination site is up and reachable, code to
handle undeliverable messages must also be available
e.g. credit money back to source account.
If sending transaction aborts, message must not be sent
19.30
User code executing transaction processing using 2PC does not have to
19.31
19.32
19.33
19.34
Concurrency Control
19.35
Concurrency Control
Modify concurrency control schemes for use in distributed environment.
We assume that each site participates in the execution of a commit
19.36
Single-Lock-Manager Approach
System maintains a single lock manager that resides in a single
19.37
Simple implementation
19.38
Primary copy
Majority protocol
Biased protocol
Quorum consensus
19.39
Primary Copy
Choose one replica of data item to be the primary copy.
Site containing the replica is called the primary site for that data
item
Benefit
Drawback
19.40
Majority Protocol
Local lock manager at each site administers lock and unlock requests
When the lock request can be granted, the lock manager sends a
message back to the initiator indicating that the lock request has
been granted.
19.41
19.42
Biased Protocol
Local lock manager at each site as in majority protocol, however,
requests for shared locks are handled differently than requests for
exclusive locks.
Shared locks. When a transaction needs to lock data item Q, it simply
19.43
Such that
Q r + Qw > S
and
2 * Qw > S
Quorums can be chosen (and S computed) separately for each
item
Each read must lock enough replicas that the sum of the site weights
is >= Qr
Each write must lock enough replicas that the sum of the site weights
is >= Qw
For now we assume all replicas are written
19.44
Timestamping
Timestamp based concurrency-control protocols can be used in
distributed systems
Each transaction must be given a unique timestamp
Main problem: how to generate a timestamp in a distributed fashion
19.45
Timestamping (Cont.)
A site with a slow clock will assign smaller timestamps
19.46
May be periodic
Also useful for running read-only queries offline from the main
database
19.47
database
19.48
19.49
Deadlock Handling
Consider the following two transactions and history, with item X and
transaction T1 at site 1, and item Y and transaction T2 at site 2:
T1:
write (X)
write (Y)
X-lock on X
write (X)
T2:
write (Y)
write (X)
X-lock on Y
write (Y)
wait for X-lock on X
19.50
Centralized Approach
A global wait-for graph is constructed and maintained in a single site;
a new edge is inserted in or removed from one of the local waitfor graphs.
If the coordinator finds a cycle, it selects a victim and notifies all sites.
19.51
Local
Global
19.52
19.53
1. T2 releases resources at S1
Suppose further that the insert message reaches before the delete
message
T 1 T2 T3 T1
The false cycle above never existed in reality.
False cycles cannot occur if two-phase locking is used.
19.54
Unnecessary Rollbacks
Unnecessary rollbacks may result when deadlock has indeed
occurred and a victim has been picked, and meanwhile one of the
transactions was aborted for reasons unrelated to the deadlock.
Unnecessary rollbacks can result from false cycles in the global wait-
19.55
Availability
19.56
Availability
High availability: time for which system is not fully usable should be
components
Failures are more likely in large distributed systems
To be robust, a distributed system must
Detect failures
19.57
Reconfiguration
Reconfiguration:
19.58
Reconfiguration (Cont.)
Since network partition may not be distinguishable from site failure,
19.59
Majority-Based Approach
The majority protocol for distributed concurrency control can be
Read operations look at all replicas locked, and read the value
from the replica with largest version number
May write this value and version number back to replicas with
lower version numbers (no need to obtain locks on all replicas
for this task)
19.60
Majority-Based Approach
Majority protocol (Cont.)
Write operations
find highest version number like reads, and set new version
number to old highest version + 1
19.61
Allows reads to read any one replica but updates require all
replicas to be available at commit time (called read one write all)
Read one write all available (ignoring failed sites) is attractive, but
incorrect
If failed link may come back up, without a disconnected site ever
being aware that it was disconnected
The site then has old values, and a read from that site would
return an incorrect value
19.62
Site Reintegration
When failed site recovers, it must catch up with all updates that it
Unacceptable disruption
Solution 2: lock all replicas of all data items at the site, update to
latest version, then release locks
19.63
All actions performed at a single site, and only log records shipped
19.64
Coordinator Selection
Backup coordinators
Election algorithms
19.65
Bully Algorithm
If site Si sends a request that is not answered by the coordinator within
19.66
same algorithm.
If there are no active sites with higher numbers, the recovered site
19.67
19.68
What is Consistency?
Consistency in Databases (ACID):
19.69
Availability
Traditionally, availability of centralized server
For distributed systems, availability of system to process requests
Network partitioning
consistency
19.70
Via replication
19.71
Usually
Tradeoff
Key issues:
Reads
Writes
19.72
Eventual Consistency
19.73
Availability vs Latency
CAP theorem only matters when there is a partition
Even
Thus
If
19.74
19.75
19.76
Query Transformation
Translating algebraic queries on fragments.
19.77
account relation.
Final strategy is for the Hillside site to return account1 as the result
of the query.
19.78
depositor
branch
site SI
19.79
account
depositor at S2. Ship temp1 from S2 to S3, and compute
temp2 = temp1 branch at S3. Ship the result temp2 to SI.
Devise similar strategies, exchanging the roles S1, S2, S3
Must consider following factors:
19.80
Semijoin Strategy
Let r1 be a relation with schema R1 stores at site S1
temp1 at S2
19.81
r2 .
Formal Definition
The semijoin of r1 with r2, is denoted by:
r1
r2
it is defined by:
R1 (r1
Thus, r1
r2 )
r2.
r1.
19.82
r2
r3
shipped to S4 and r3
S2 ships tuples of (r1
19.83
timestamping, etc.)
System-level details almost certainly are totally incompatible.
A multidatabase system is a software layer on top of existing
19.84
Advantages
Preservation of investment in existing
hardware
system software
Applications
Organizational/political difficulties
Organizations do not want to give up control on their data
Local databases wish to retain a great deal of autonomy
19.85
Character sets
ASCII vs EBCDIC
19.86
Query Processing
Several issues in query processing in a heterogeneous database
Schema translation
19.87
Mediator Systems
Mediator systems are systems that integrate multiple heterogeneous
19.88
19.89
serializability.
If the local systems permit control of locking behavior and all systems
19.90
Cloud Databases
19.91
Key-value stores
Several implementations
19.92
key values
Multiple versions of data may be stored, by adding a timestamp to the
key
19.93
Data Representation
19.94
as data are inserted, if a tablet grows too big, it is broken into smaller
parts
Tablet mapping function to track which site responsible for which tablet
19.95
19.96
19.97
19.98
Directory Systems
Typical kinds of directory information
White pages
Yellow pages
19.99
19.100
Data Manipulation
Distributed Directory Trees
19.101
o: organization
c: country
19.102
19.103
DNs
19.104
19.105
LDAP Queries
LDAP query must specify
A search condition
A scope
Just the base, the base and its children, or the entire subtree
from the base
Attributes to be returned
19.106
LDAP URLs
ldap:://aura.research.bell-labs.com/o=Lucent,c=USA
ldap:://aura.research.bell-labs.com/o=Lucent,c=USA??sub?cn=Korth
2.
3.
19.107
ldap_unbind(ld);
19.108
19.109
19.110
Suffix of a DIT gives RDN to be tagged onto to all entries to get an overall
DN
Many LDAP implementations support replication (master-slave or multimaster replication) of DITs (not part of LDAP 3 standard)
E.g. Ou= Bell Labs may have a separate DIT, and DIT for o=Lucent may
have a leaf with ou=Bell Labs containing a referral to the Bell Labs DIT
19.111
End of Chapter
19.112
Assumptions:
No network partitioning
At any point, at least one site must be up.
At most K sites (participants as well as coordinator) can fail
Phase 1: Obtaining Preliminary Decision: Identical to 2PC Phase 1.
Every site is ready to commit if instructed to do so
Phase 2 of 2PC is split into 2 phases, Phase 2 and Phase 3 of 3PC
In phase 2 coordinator makes a decision as in 2PC (called the pre-commit
decision) and records it in multiple (at least K) sites
In phase 3, coordinator sends commit/abort message to all participating
sites,
Under 3PC, knowledge of pre-commit decision can be used to commit despite
coordinator failure
19.114
No network partitioning
19.115
< precommit T>) in its log and forces record to stable storage.
Coordinator sends a message to each participant informing it of the
decision
Participant records decision in its log
If abort decision reached then participant aborts locally
If pre-commit decision reached then participant replies with
<acknowledge T>
19.116
to stable storage.
Coordinator sends a message to each participant to <commit T>
Participants take appropriate action locally
19.117
19.118
19.119
Figure 19.02
19.120
Figure 19.03
19.121
Figure 19.04
19.122
Figure 19.05
19.123
Figure 19.06
19.124
Figure 19.07
19.125