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1 s2.0 S0360128509000604 Main PDF
1 s2.0 S0360128509000604 Main PDF
1 s2.0 S0360128509000604 Main PDF
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 8 August 2009
Accepted 10 November 2009
Available online 28 December 2009
Fly ash, generated during the combustion of coal for energy production, is an industrial by-product which
is recognized as an environmental pollutant. Because of the environmental problems presented by the y
ash, considerable research has been undertaken on the subject worldwide. In this paper, the utilization of
y ash in construction, as a low-cost adsorbent for the removal of organic compounds, ue gas and
metals, light weight aggregate, mine back ll, road sub-base, and zeolite synthesis is discussed.
A considerable amount of research has been conducted using y ash for adsorption of NOx, SOx, organic
compounds, and mercury in air, dyes and other organic compounds in waters. It is found that y ash is
a promising adsorbent for the removal of various pollutants. The adsorption capacity of y ash may be
increased after chemical and physical activation. It was also found that y ash has good potential for use
in the construction industry. The conversion of y ash into zeolites has many applications such as ion
exchange, molecular sieves, and adsorbents. Converting y ash into zeolites not only alleviates the
disposal problem but also converts a waste material into a marketable commodity. Investigations also
revealed that the unburned carbon component in y ash plays an important role in its adsorption
capacity. Future research in these areas is also discussed.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Fly ash
Adsorption
Wastewater
Heavy metals
Dye
Organics
Zeolite
Construction
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Properties of coal fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
2.1.
Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
2.2.
Chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Properties of biomass ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Fly ash utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
Adsorbents for cleaning of flue gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
5.1.
Sulphur compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.2.
Adsorption of NOx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.3.
Removal of mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.4.
Adsorption of gaseous organics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Removal of toxic metals from wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
6.1.
Adsorption of various types of heavy metals on fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.2.
Adsorption mechanism and kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
6.3.
Adsorption isotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
6.4.
Factors affecting adsorption of metal on fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Removal of other inorganic components from wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
7.1.
Removal of phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.2.
Removal of fluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.3.
Removal of boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Removal of organic compounds from wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.1.
Removal of phenolic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
328
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
8.2.
Removal of pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.3.
Removal of other organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Removal of dyes from wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.1.
Azo dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.2.
Thiazine dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.3.
Xanthene dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
9.4.
Arylmethane dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
9.5.
Other dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Leaching of fly ash in water system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Synthesis of zeolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11.1.
Application of zeolite synthesised from fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Construction work/industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Lightweight aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Road sub-base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Mine backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Cost estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Barriers to utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Future research and prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
1. Introduction
Since wide scale coal ring for power generation began in the
1920s, many millions of tons of ash and related by-products have
been generated. The current annual production of coal ash worldwide is estimated around 600 million tones, with y ash constituting about 500 million tones at 7580% of the total ash produced
[1]. Thus, the amount of coal waste (y ash), released by factories
and thermal power plants has been increasing throughout the
world, and the disposal of the large amount of y ash has become
a serious environmental problem. The present day utilization of ash
on worldwide basis varied widely from a minimum of 3% to
a maximum of 57%, yet the world average only amounts to 16% of
the total ash [1]. A substantial amount of ash is still disposed of in
landlls and/or lagoons at a signicant cost to the utilizing
companies and thus to the consumers.
Coal is a dominant commercial fuel in India, where 565 mines
are operated by Coal India and other subsidiaries. In 2003,
production of hard coal was 358.4 Mt.; while utilization was 407.33
Mt. India is the sixth largest electricity generating and consuming
country in the world. Fly ash can be considered as the worlds fth
largest raw material resource [2]. An estimated 25% of y ash in
India is used for cement production, construction of roads and brick
manufacture [3]. The y ash utilization for these purposes is
expected to increase to nearly 32 Mt by 20092010. Currently, the
energy sector in India generates over 130 Mt of FA annually [4] and
this amount will increase as annual coal consumption increases by
2.2%. The large-scale storage of wet y ash in ponds takes up much
valuable agricultural land approximately (113 million m2), and may
result in severe environmental degradation in the near future,
which would be disastrous for India.
Fly ash particles are considered to be highly contaminating, due
to their enrichment in potentially toxic trace elements which
condense from the ue gas. Research on the potential applications
of these wastes has environmental relevance, in addition to
industrial interest. Most of the y ash which is produced is disposed
of as landll, a practice which is under examination for environmental concerns. Disposal of y ash will soon be too costly if not
forbidden. Considerable research is being conducted worldwide on
the use of waste materials in order to avert an increasing toxic
threat to the environment, or to streamline present waste disposal
Nomenclature
A
B
Ce
Cs
Ct
k1
k2
ks
ki
qe
qt
DG0
DH0
K
Kd
Kf
m
1/n
q
R
S
DS0
t1/2
V
Vb
Vm
x/m
RedlichPeterson constant
RedlichPeterson constant
equilibrium concentration of the solution
surface concentration
solution concentration
pseudo-rst order rate constant
pseudo-second order rate constant
mass transfer co-efcient
rate parameter of intraparticle diffusion control stage
amount of adsorbate adsorbed at equilibrium (mg/g)
amount of adsorbate adsorbed at any time t (mg/g)
standard Gibbs free energy of adsorption (kJ/mol)
standard enthalpy change of adsorption (kJ/mol)
Langmuir equilibrium constant
distribution co-efcient
Freundlich constant
mass of the adsorbent
adsorption intensity
heat of adsorption
universal gas constant
specic surface area
standard entropy change of adsorption (JK1 mol1)
half-life period
eluted volume (ml)
volume of efuent at break point (ml)
Langmuir monolayer adsorption capacity
amount adsorbed per unit of the adsorbent
heterogeneity factor
Abbreviations
AASHTO American association of state highway and transport
ofcials
ABS
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
ACC
autoclaved cellular concrete
ACCG
activated carbon-commercial grade
ACLG
activated carbon laboratory grade
Acid Orange 7 p-(2-hydroxy-1 naphthylazo)benzene sulfonic
acid
AEA
air entraining admixture
AMD
acid mine drainage
ASR
alkalisilica reaction
ASTM
American society for testing of materials
BDTDA benzyldimethyl tetradecylammonium
BFA
bagasse y ash
BG
Brilliant green
CANMET Canada centre for mineral and energy technology
CC
char-carbon
CCP
coal combustion products
CCB
coal combustion by-products
CEC
cation exchange capacity
CFA
coal y ash
CFS
chemical xation and solidication
CPC
CR
DDD
DDE
DEF
DNP
DTA
EDTA
EPA
FA
FAZ-Y
FGD
FTIR
GGBFS
HDTMA
HeCB
HVFA
HSFA
IFA
LCA
LOI
MB
MSWI
MV
NMR
NPC
OG
OPC
PPC
RB
RBB
RCC
RHFA
RPC
RY
SDS
SSA
SEM
SMZ-Y
TCB
TCLP
TEA
TEM
TOC
TPABr
USEPA
UHPC
TNT
UHPC
WC
XRD
XRF
ZFA
329
330
Bituminous
Sub-bituminous
Lignite
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
K2O
LOI
2060
535
1040
112
05
04
04
03
015
4060
2030
410
530
16
02
02
04
03
1545
1025
415
1540
310
010
06
04
05
331
(1)
(2)
(3)
Fig. 1. Schematic plant view of ue gas desulfurization using coal ash [23].
332
(4)
Table 2
Summary of adsorption of metals on y ash.
Metals Adsorbent
Adsorption
Temperature ( C) References
capacity (mg/g)
Zn2
Coal y ash
Fe impregnated y ash
Al impregnated y ash
Coal y ash
Coal y ash(I)
Coal y ash(II)
Bagasse y ash
Bagasse y ash
Fly ash
Fly ash
Fly ash
Fly ash
Rice husk ash
Bagasse y ash
Fly ash
Rice husk ash
Fly ash
6.513.3
7.515.5
7.015.4
0.252.8
0.251.19
0.071.30
2.342.54
13.21
4.64
0.27
0.0680.75
3.4
5.88
7.03
11.11
14.30
7.84
3060
3060
3060
20
20
20
3050
30
23
25
055
[81]
Fly ash
Fly ash-washed
Fly ash-acid
Fly ash
Fly ash zeolite
Fly ash
Fly ash (I)
Fly ash (II)
Bagasse y ash
Fly ash
Coal y ash
Rice husk ash
Afsin-Elbistan y ash
Seyitomer y ash
Bagasse y ash
Fly ash
Fly ash
198.2
195.2
180.4
1.68.0
95.6
0.670.83
0.080.29
0.00770.22
1.242.0
0.05
18.98
3.04
0.29
0.21
6.19
207.3
1.38
25
25
25
20
20
20
20
3050
25
25
[79]
Fly ash
Fly ash-washed
Fly ash-acid
Fly ash
Bagasse y ash
Fly ash
Fly ash
Treated rice husk ash
444.7
483.4
437.0
753
285566
18.8
18.0
12.61
25
25
25
32
3050
Fly ash
Fly ash wollastonite
Fly ash
Fly ash (I)
Fly ash (II)
Fly ash
Fly ash-washed
Fly ash-acid
Fly ash
Bagasse y ash
Fly ash
Fly ash
Coal y ash
Fly ash
CFA
CFA-600
CFANAOH
1.39
1.18
1.78.1
0.341.35
0.091.25
207.3
205.8
198.5
0.630.81
2.262.36
0.76
7.5
20.92
7.0
178.5249.1
126.4214.1
76.7137.1
30
30
20
20
25
25
25
25
3050
32
25
Fly ash
Fe impregnated y ash
Al impregnated y ash
Fly ash(I)
Fly ash(II)
Bagasse y ash
Fly ash
Bagasse y ash
Fly ash
9.014.0
9.814.93
1015.75
0.400.98
0.061.16
1.121.70
3.9
6.48
0.03
3060
3060
3060
20
20
3050
[81]
Fly ash
52.6106.4
2040
[65]
Cd2
Pb2
Cu
333
Ni2
Cr3
[83]
[84]
[93]
[94]
[104]
[105]
[106]
[87]
[86]
[85]
[71]
[63]
[71]
[80]
[83]
[85]
[95]
[105]
[70]
[86]
[64]
[85]
[79]
[68]
30
3060
3060
3060
[79]
[92]
[87]
[75]
[73]
[68]
[80]
[84]
[79]
[69]
[93]
[100]
[87]
[70]
[75]
[74]
[84]
[95]
[87]
[85]
[67]
334
Table 2 (continued )
Metals Adsorbent
Adsorption
Temperature ( C) References
capacity (mg/g)
Cr6
2.92
0.31
23.86
25.64
1.38
1.82
1.67
0.55
0.82
4.254.35
3060
3060
3060
20
20
3050
[61]
Fly ash
Fly ash
Fe impregnated y ash
Al impregnated y ash
Sulfo-calcic
Silico-aluminous ashes
Fly ash-C
Treated rice husk ash
Fly ash coal-char
Fly ash
Fly ash coal-char
2.82
11.0
12.5
13.4
5.0
3.2
0.630.73
6.72
3.789.2
7.727.8
0.0234.5
30
3060
3060
3060
30
30
521
30
25
20
25
[76]
[82]
Hg2
As3
As5
[62]
[82]
[85]
[85]
[97]
[87]
[87]
[77]
[73]
[109]
[107]
[109]
335
336
logqe qt logqe
x
1=n
Kf Ce
m
(12)
k1
t
2:303
(5)
t
1
1
t
qt
k2 q2e qe
(6)
dCt
ks SCt Cs
dt
(7)
qt ki t 1=2
(8)
x
1=n
log logKf logCe
m
Ce
B 1
Ceb
x=m
A A
x
Vm KCe
m
1 KCe
(9)
Ce
1
Ce
x=m
KVm Vm
(10)
q
K Ko exp
RT
(11)
(14)
ln Qe ln Qm b32
(15)
3 RTln1=C
6.3. Adsorption isotherms
(13)
(16)
E 1=2b
1=2
(17)
qe RT=blnACe
(18)
qe RT=blnA RT=blnCe
(19)
B RT=b
(20)
Q Ks Ce b=1 as Ce b
(21)
337
DG0
ln Kc
RT
DS0
R
DH0
RT
(22)
338
Adsorbent
Capacity (mg/g)
References
Phenol
FA
Sugar y ash
FA-C
Wood FA
Coal-FA
FA-C
Fly ash
FA
Coal FA
FA
FA-C
Fly ash
Wood FA
FA
FA
Sugar y ash
Wood FA
FA
Bagasse y ash
Coal FA
Wood FA
Wood FA
Fly ash
Sugar FA
Sugar FA
Bagasse FA
Bagasse FA
FA
FA
FA
67
0.470.66
0.26
5.4
0.81.0
98.7
98.7
22
1.51.7
20
118.6
118.6
143.8
5.806.44
6.528.06
0.761.15
134.9
7.809.68
8.3
85.496.4
34.5
52.5
1.39
(7.57.7) 103
(6.56.7) 103
(2.42.5) 103
(2.02.1) 103
1.541.65
0.35
0.15
[139]
[143]
[148]
[142]
[147]
[141]
Ortho-chloro phenol
2,4-Dichloro phenol
3-Chloro phenol
Para-chloro phenol
2-Nitro phenol
3-Nitro phenol
4-Nitro phenol
Para-nitro phenol
Cresol
m-Cresol
p-Cresol
2,4 Dimethyl phenol
DDD
DDE
Lindane
Malathion
Carbofuran
TCB
HeCB
[147]
[142]
[139]
[141]
[151]
[143]
[142]
[151]
[143]
[142]
[143]
[146]
[134]
[113]
[160]
[161]
[162]
[164]
easier as more solutes are taken up. Phenols have a strong hydroxyl
functional group which interacts with the adsorbent surfaces,
resulting in vertical alignment of the molecule on the surface.
Moreover, additional adsorption is motivated and consequently
strengthened by the interaction between the adsorbed molecules.
This phenomenon is known to contribute signicantly to the
cooperative nature of adsorption and hence an S type curve.
The potential of y ash as a substitute for activated carbon for
the removal of phenolic compounds from wastewater was examined [140,141]. The maximum phenol loading capacity of each
adsorbent was 27.9 mg/g for y ash and 108.0 mg/g for granular
activated carbon. Adsorption of phenolic compounds on a mixture
of bottom and y ash was reported [142]. The effect of molecular
weight and molecular conguration on adsorption of phenol (Ph),
m-cresol (m-Cr), p-cresol (p-Cr), 2-nitrophenol (2-NP) and
4-nitrophenol (4-NP) from aqueous solution was investigated. The
ultimate capacity of the adsorbent is considerably less than that
predicted from summing the single-component data; this was
attributed to increased competition for adsorption sites. Bagasse y
ash was converted into a low-cost adsorbent and used for removal
of phenolic compounds [143145]. The uptake increases when
larger quantities of adsorbent are used. The presence of an anionic
detergent Manoxol-IB reduces uptake of phenol and p-nitrophenol.
Adsorbent prepared from y ash was successfully used to remove
cresol from an aqueous solution in a batch reactor [146].
Kao et al. [147] utilized y ash for removal of 2-chlorophenol (2CP) and 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP). More adsorption takes place
with y ash of higher carbon content and larger specic surface area.
Adsorption of chlorophenol is not inuenced by matrix in wastewater. Chlorophenols in wastewater were also removed efciently
through a y ash column. The breakthrough time was inversely
proportional to ow rates. The effectiveness of less expensive
adsorbents such as peat, y ash and bentonite in removing phenol
from wastewater was also examined [148]. Peat, y ash and bentonite
were found to adsorb 46.1%, 41.6%, and 42.5% phenol, respectively.
339
340
341
Table 4
Comparison of dye adsorption on y ash.
Dye
Methylene blue
Crystal violet
Rosaniline hydrochloride
Rhodamine B
Egacid orange II
Egacid red G
Egacid yellow G
Midlon black VL
Acid blue 29
Acid blue 9
Acid red 91
Acid red 91
Acid red 91
Congo red
Malachite green
Egacid orange II
Orange-G
14.4 10
1.89 105
1.4 105
2.2 105
6.0 106
8.0 106
(1640) 106
1.4 105
2.4 105
2 106
1.2 104
2 105
>2 105
>1.6 106
2.20 105
2.01 105
9.76 105
1.0 106
1.0 104
9.13 105
1.35 105
1.15 105
8.0 106
2.5 107
1.15 105
2.36 104
1.40 104
5.20 105
3.3 105
3.25 106
5.43 106
2.34 106
1.46
7.26 106
4.47 105
1.70 105
4.67 104
3.05 104
4.15 105
Temperature ( C)
Adsorption isotherm
25
22
30
30
30
30
30
Langmuir
Langmuir
RedlichPeterson
RedlichPeterson
Langmuir and Freundlich
Langmuir and Freundlich
Langmuir and Freundlich
RedlichPeterson
RedlichPeterson
Langmuir
Langmuir
Kinetic model
References
[202]
[205]
[186]
[182]
[186]
Pseudo-second order
25
25
[189]
25
Freundlich
Langmuir
Langmuir
25
22
25
25
Freundlich
Langmuir
22
22
22
22
Langmuir
Langmuir
Langmuir
Langmuir
Freundlich
Freundlich
Freundlich
20
Freundlich
Freundlich
[179]
[190]
[204]
[186]
[177]
[204]
[205]
[189]
[205]
[203]
Pseudo-second order
[172]
[173]
[197]
[205]
[198]
342
Table 5
Comparison of adsorption on phenols, dyes and metals on various other adsorbents.
Organic
compounds
Adsorbent
Capacity
(mg/g)
References
Phenol
Coal
Residual coal
Residual coal treated with H3PO4
Rice husk
Coke breeze
Rice husk
Rice husk char
Petroleum coke
Lignite
Neutralized red mud
Sewage sludge
13.23
45.45
142.8
4.508
0.172
4.508
7.91
6.01
10.0
4.127
94.0
[215]
390
250
114.94
19.83
19.82
17.3
8.82
120.43
20.2
18.6
[222]
[220]
[223]
[221]
103.3
95
73
12
11
168
35.6
11.24
5.40
12.59
17.65
5.57
15.53
[226]
[227]
[225]
[233]
[234]
[235]
[236]
[228]
[237]
[224]
[225]
[238]
[63]
Dye
(Basic blue 9)
Metal (Zn2)
[208]
[209]
[210]
[218]
[217]
[219]
[216]
343
344
345
Table 6
Zeolites and other neomorphic phases synthesized from y ash and Joint Committee
of Powder Diffraction Standard (JCPDS) codes for XRD identication.
Zeolitic product
Chemical formula
JCPDS
NaP1 zeolite
Nap zeolite
Phillipsite
K-chabazite
Zeolite F linde
Herschelite
Faujasite
Zeolite A
Zeolite X
Zeolite Y
Perlialit
Analcime
Hydroxy-sodalite
Hydroxy-cancrinite
Kalsilite
Tobermorite
Na6Al6Si10O32$12H2O
Na3.6Al3.6Si12.4O32$12H2O
K2Al2Si3O10$H2O
K2Al2SiO6$H2O
KAlSiO4.1$5H2O
Na2Al2Si1.68O7.44$1.8H2O
Na2Al2Si3.3O8.8$6.7H2O
NaAlSi1.1O4.2$2.25H2O
NaAlSi1.23O4.46$3.07H2O
NaAlSi2.43O6.86$4.46H2O
K9NaCaAl12Si24O72$15H2O
NaAlSi2O6$H2O
Na1.08Al2Si1.68O7.44$1.8H2O
Na14Al12Si13O51$6H2O
KalSiO4
Ca5(OH)2Si6O16$4H2O
39-0219
34-0524
30-0902
12-0194
25-0619
31-1271
12-0228
43-0142
39-0218
38-0239
38-0395
19-1180
31-1271
28-1036
33-0988
19-1364
(lower than 100 C), zeolites P, X and NaP1 were obtained with
24 M NaOH solution, while hydroxy sodalite and zeolite-Y were
obtained with 410 M NaOH solution. At temperature, (higher than
120 C), zeolite NaP1, hydroxy sodalite and analcime were
obtained with 410 M NaOH solution. For non-direct synthesis
[286,287], silica and alumina were extracted from y ash with hot
alkaline solution and this resulted in the mixture of silicate and
aluminate extracts. These extracts were used as the starting
material for faujasite synthesis at 6090 C and time period of two
ve days.
Fusion with sodium hydroxide prior to hydrothermal reaction
was applied by Shigemoto et al. [288290] to improve the
conversion of y ash into NaX Zeolite. Several studies
[277,292,293] examined the efciency of Na and K-Zeolite synthesis
after alkaline activation of y ash in closed systems for short activation periods (8100 h). The time of activation (from hours or days
to minutes) can be signicantly reduced for zeolite synthesis using
microwave-assisted hydrothermal process [281]. This alkaline
conversion of y ash is based on combination of different activation
solution/y ash ratios, with temperature, pressure, and reaction
time to obtain different types of zeolite. Sodium or potassium
hydroxide solutions with different molarity, at atmospheric and
water vapor pressures, from 80 to 200 C and 3 to 48 h have been
combined to synthesize up to 13 different zeolites from same y ash
[284]. The zeolite contents of resulting material varied widely (40
75%) depending mainly on activation solution/y ash ratio and
reaction time. This methodology was applied at a pilot plant scale
for the production of 2.7 tons of zeolitic material in 8 h in a singlebatch experiment [284].
To avoid the synthesis process with the generation of wastewater, Park et al. [293,294], developed a synthesis strategy based on
salt mixtures instead of aqueous solutions as reaction medium. This
interesting process has limitations, since, up till now, only low-CEC
zeolites are obtained to high temperature needed in the activation
process. Hollman et al. [287], developed a two-stage synthesis
procedure that enables the synthesis of >99% pure zeolite products
from high-Si solutions from a light alkaline attack of y ash. The
solid residue from this attack was converted into classic zeolitic
products by using conventional conversion method. This process
has advantages of producing pure zeolitic material, instead of blend
zeolite/residual y ash particles obtained from other strategies.
Moreover, high-pore volume zeolites, including zeolites X and A,
may be obtained in this process.
The lignite y ash and rice husk ash were also used as raw
materials for ZSM-5 zeolite synthesis [295]. Factors affecting the yield
346
347
Table 7
Summary of adsorption of metals on y ash based zeolite.
Metals
Adsorbent
Zn2
Cd2
Fly
Fly
Fly
Fly
Fly
Fly
Fly
Fly
Fly
Fly
Fly
Pb2
Cu2
Ni2
Cr3
Co2
Cs
ash
ash
ash
ash
ash
ash
ash
ash
ash
ash
ash
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
zeolite
Adsorption
capacity (mg/g)
4A
X
X
4A
X
4A
4A
4A
30.80
95.6
97.78
70.6
420.61
50.45
90.86
8.96
41.61
13.72
443.9
Temperature ( C)
20
20
25
References
[308]
[307]
[309]
[307]
[309]
[308]
[309]
[308]
[306]
348
much strong and stable protective cover to the steel against natural
weathering action.
Because of the presence of cementitious compounds of calcium
and a reactive glass, the high-calcium y ash is quite suitable in
Portland cement products. Several studies are being conducted to
better understand the complexities of alkali aggregate reactivity
and sulphate resistance with respect to y ash in concrete. The
availability of high-lime y ash containing compounds found in
cement has led to high-strength concretes produced by the addition of y ash and plasticizers. High-strength and high-performance concrete can also be made with Class F y ash. The ball
bearing effect produced by the spherical y ash particles has
resulted in better pumpability of concrete and easier nishing with
trowels and other tools. The utilization of y ash in concrete
produces less permeability because of the spherical particles, and
therefore improved packing, i.e. more dense paste and pozzolanic
reaction. In mass concrete,with high-percentage replacement of
cement with y ash, there is a lower heat of hydration compared to
straight Portland cement concrete, particularly when Class F y ash
is used. Class C y ash may not lower the heat of hydration.
Traditionally, with bituminous-type y ash, 1525% of the cement
was replaced. The advent of cementitious, high-lime y ash has
permitted normal replacements of 2540% and up to 75% for
parking lots, driveways, and streets. Nowadays, chemical admixtures are essential components of the concrete mixtures. Newly
developed admixtures allow lowering the water/cement ratio to
very low levels without loss of workability. By incorporation of
superplasticizers (SPs), the early strength development of y ash
concrete can be accelerated to achieve the desired performance.
Generally, the long term ultimate mechanical properties of y ash
concretes are higher than those of plain Portland cement concretes.
The setting and hardening rates of y ash concrete at early ages are
slower, especially under cold weather conditions. Extended
hydration period makes the material more sensitive to curing
conditions. These problems may be solved by using various
methods such as steam curing. There are few studies on the effect of
steam curing on high-volume Class C y ash concrete.
There has been much concern about sulphate resistance of
concrete containing high-lime y ash. It was reported that Saskatchewan lignite y ash concrete increases sulphate resistance
[314]. Research with other high-lime y ash has produced conicting results with respect to sulphate resistance. Dunstan [315]
has proposed a sulphate resistance factor, R, which is equal to CaO5/Fe2O3 oxide analysis percentages. When R is less than 1.5, y ash
should improve sulphate resistance.
Mehta [316319] has discussed the factors that contribute to
attack of sulphates on y ash concrete. As noted in his review paper
on this subject [316], the agents responsible for concrete expansion
and cracking are alumina-bearing hydrates, such as calcium monosulfo-aluminate and calcium aluminate hydrate, which are
attacked by the sulphate ion to form ettringite and calcium trisulfoaluminate. Acidic-type interactions between sulphate ions and
calcium hydroxide also lead to strength and mass loss.
Exhaustive research has been conducted on y ash admixture
concrete and its properties. Research showed that y ash used as an
additive to Portland cement has a number of positive effects on the
resulting concrete. A decrease in water demand, decreasing the
water:cement ratio. An improvement of the packing of particle size
decreases air entrainment in the concrete. Although research has
indicated that decreased air entrainment adversely affects initial
freeze than durability of the concrete, if y ash concrete is allowed
to cure fully, the effects are minimum and the concrete mix will
perform satisfactorily.
Fly ash increases resistance to corrosion, and ingress of corrosive
liquids by reacting with calcium hydroxide in cement into a stable,
349
350
large volume of y ash that has all the attributes of high-performance concrete i.e. excellent mechanical properties, low permeability, superior durability, and that is environmentally friendly.
McCarthy and Dhir [374] have demonstrated that y ash is
generally under-utilised, particularly in relation to its application as
a binder. However, the authors have attempted to show, through
a number of different methods, by which this can be extended, in
particular the use of coarser y ash, materials of high LOI, and that
which has been treated with moisture. These provide considerable
potential for substantial increases in y ash utilisation. Fly ash can
be used more effectively in concrete by simple adjustment of the
concrete constituent materials or through more rened concrete
mix proportioning techniques. It has also considered how
improvements can be obtained through combination with one or
more other binder materials, beyond normal Portland cement. It is
believed that these routes are of importance towards developments
in and achievement of high-performance concrete.
An attempt has been made to consider methods for the
continued use of y ash as a binder through post-production processing if changes in the production process modify its properties. It
is demonstrated that y ash has a role to play in the development of
high-performance concretes through the use of multi-binder
combinations. It is shown that in other construction applications
where cementitious binders are required, such as grouting and
masonry, y ash can be used and will give similar or improved
properties compared to neat Portland cement binders.
The composition and characteristics of y ash have tended to
dictate the way the material is used in concrete. For example, in
structural concrete y ash levels of 30% of the binder content are
common, because at higher levels early strength of concrete may be
reduced. Adjustment to the constituent materials, e.g. the cement
characteristics, use of chemical admixtures and the way the
materials are proportioned, are potentially simple routes to further
exploiting y ash.
Experience with y ash in structural concrete has generally seen
the material used at levels of around 30% of the binder. At this level,
it has been demonstrated that, in almost all respects, similar or
enhanced performance compared to that of Portland cement
concrete of equivalent 28 day strength is possible. Where higher
levels have been used, these have tended to be in special situations
where, for example, control of heat or properties other than
strength has been important. As y ash is slower reacting than
Portland cement, use at higher levels can have a detrimental effect
on early concrete strength, which with greater levels of a relatively
slower reacting material will tend to be reduced. This can
frequently be a critical parameter in relation to the management of
site operations and overall economy of construction. Overcoming
this potential restriction is a necessary requirement towards the
use of higher y ash contents in concrete for mainstream structural
applications. A possible means of achieving this lies in the combination of y ash with cement that exhibits high early strength
characteristics or is fast reacting. This can be with cements which
are chemically composed or ground to a greater neness to provide
high early strength. The advantage of combining y ash with these
materials is two-fold. The dilution of cement with slow reacting y
ash will reduce the rate of setting and promote the development of
a better hydrate structure, while these cements will boost the early
strength of y ash concrete, potentially allowing greater levels of
material to be used.
Given the importance of efciently using binders and the
increased availability and use of super plasticizing admixtures,
a possible route to minimising the increases in binder content
required with y ash is through reduced water contents and
inclusion of these admixtures to maintain workability. This
approach is attractive because it is more effectively using the
351
352
AEA solution. However, in this case, the surfactants were simultaneously adsorbed by the y ash and the initially formed precipitate
did slowly dissolve again. The same effect is seen in concrete pastes
where the surfactants are adsorbed on the surface of cement
particles and therefore, hardly any precipitations of surfactants
occur. The polar ends of the surfactants are oriented toward the
particle making them still able to contribute to air entrainment.
Other compounds of y ash, which may inuence the air
entrainment in concrete, have been reported by Gebler and Klieger
[390]. Laboratory data indicated that increased SO3 or total alkalis
(as Na2O), content in y ash lead to reduced air loss or decreased
AEA requirements in freshly mixed concrete, respectively. The
latter observation is noted to be in agreement showing that less
AEAs were required in Portland-cement mortars with increased
alkalis [391]. Finally, higher neness of y ash has been argued to
lead to increased required dosage of AEAs [382], but has been
stated by others to be of minor importance [383].
Post-treatment methods have been applied to improve y ash
quality. Ozonation, thermal treatment and physical cleaning of
carbon have been found to improve the y ash performance for
concrete utilization. The capability of the residual carbon to adsorb
AEAs can be reduced by exposing y ash to an oxidizing environment, which increases the oxygen population on the surface. Gao
et al. [392] discussed how both wet and dry methods can be applied
to improve y ash quality, but they argued that wet methods give
rise to problems such as high drying costs and loss of pozzolanic
activity of the treated ashes. From the evaluation of laboratory data
and economic calculations based on ozone requirements, price of
ozone, y ash sales price, and disposal costs, Gao et al. [392] estimated that development of a commercial post-treatment process
based on ozone appears to be protable. The process can take place
at ambient temperature, while thermal treatment in air requires
more than 300 C, which is considered to be impractical by the
authors [392]. Nevertheless, thermal post-treatment of y ash has
successfully been implemented in at least one case [393], where y
ash with an average LOI on 12.5 wt% was treated in a uidized bed
combustor. The process was operated without additional fuel. The
LOI of the product was approximately 2.5 wt% and it performed
well in concrete. It is noted, that patents have been drawn by Hurt
et al. [394,395], which describes a method for improvement of y
ash quality by ozone treatment.
Separation processes can recover carbon from y ash, making
the mineral-rich fraction suitable as concrete additive. Several
studies have been published describing how carbon in y ash can
be reduced by physical cleaning [396406] and many patents have
been drawn. However, none of the studies compared the AEA
adsorptivity of the y ash before or after the cleaning process. The
recovered carbon product is often disposed in landlls [407].
Fly ash produced from pulverized coal combustion is used in
concrete as pozzolanic additive, but has in some cases been
reported to interact with air entraining admixtures (AEAs), which
are important to enhance air entrainment in concrete. The interaction between AEAs and y ash appears to be related to the
residual carbon present in y ash due to its capability to adsorb the
AEAs in the concrete mixture. Regulations for approval of y ash as
concrete additive are typically based on the carbon content determined by the LOI test. However, the wide installation of improved
combustion technologies in order to reduce NOx emissions has lead
to generation of y ashes containing residual carbon having
a higher adsorption capacity of AEAs (per unit mass of carbon).
Therefore, y ashes can show poor performance in concrete utilization even at LOI values within the established regulations. There
are still some unresolved issues within this eld, and Pederson et al.
[408] recommended the following potential subjects to be included
in further work.
353
ecological problems of y ash disposal and the reduction of cultivable land that is needed for the production of burnt clay brick. The
advantage of these bricks over burnt clay bricks are: Lower
requirement of mortar in construction, Plastering over brick can be
avoided, Controlled dimensions, edges, smooth and ne nish and
can be in different colours using pigments, cost effective, energyefcient and environment friendly (as avoids the use of fertile clay).
The technical quality of compositionally different groups of solid
bricks red between 800 and 1000 C was evaluated [418]. The
textures of the bricks with y ash were very similar to the textures
of those without it, except that the samples with the additive
contained spherical y ash particles with diameters ranging from
0.1 to 10 mm. These particles led to a reduction in the density of the
bricks and a substantial improvement in their durability, with less
decay being caused by salt crystallization in the pores. This is
because y ash causes a reduction in the number of micropores, the
pores that make porous materials most vulnerable to salt-induced
decay. Use of this additive could have practical implications as
a means of recycling and for achieving cost savings in brick
production.
Fly ash in wet state with low quality was also used as raw
material to replace clay to make red bricks [419]. The effect of y
ash with high replacing ratio of clay on ring parameters and
properties of bricks were investigated. The results indicate that the
plasticity index of mixture of y ash and clay decreased dramatically with increased replacing ratio of y ash. Additive can be
chosen to improve the plasticity index of mixture to meet plastic
extrusion used in most brick making factories. The sintering
temperature of bricks with high replacing ratio of y ash was about
1050 C, which is 50100 C higher than that of clay bricks. The
properties of red bricks were improved by using pulverized y
ash. The red bricks with high volume ratio of y ash were of high
compressive strength, low water absorption, no cracking due to
lime, no frost and high resistance to frost-melting.
In addition to brick products, y ash has been utilized in the
manufacture of lightweight roong products such as rigid roong
tiles. The roong tiles have the advantage of being both lighter than
clay products and providing a class A re-rating making them an
excellent replacement for cedar shake roong in high re danger
areas. The manufacture of sintered y ash light weight aggregates is
an appropriate step to utilize a large quantity of y ash. Many
countries like the UK, USA, Germany, Poland and Russia are
producing lightweight aggregates commercially under different
trade names, such as Terlite, Lytag, Waylite corsonalite, sinterlite,
etc. Being lighter in weight, sintered y ash lightweight aggregates
will reduce the dead weight and material handling cost for multistoreyed constructions.
14. Road sub-base
Utilization of y ash as a material in the construction of roadways and associated peripheral projects has been a signicant
outlet for y ash. Fly ash has been used in embankment soil
stabilization, subgrade base course material, as an aggregate ller,
a bituminous pavement additive and as a mineral ller for bituminous concrete. Fly ash used as a soil stabilizer along roadway
embankments has been a benecial practice for a number of
reasons. In areas where borrow or ll and cover material are scarce,
y ash may be in plentiful supply from nearby electric power
generation facilities. Ease of availability combined with positive
physical properties can make y ash soil stabilization cost effective.
Shear strength is an important characteristic for soil stabilization
y ash utilization and it generally equals or exceeds the strength of
soils typically used for embankments [420,421]. This strength is
partially due to some y ash having self-hardening or pozzolanic
354
mine void and placing steel casing down to that level. The dry y
ash is then injected at relatively low pressure (1230 psi) into the
mine void. The dry y ash easily owed 65 feet in either direction
from the borehole along the shaft as it lled to the mine roof. The
ash had an angle of repose of only 8 degrees from the horizontal
exhibiting excellent ow characteristics. The eventual lling at the
roof covered 15 feet in either direction from the borehole and
provided an airtight seal for the mine shaft. Moisture from
surrounding strata eventually provided the y ash with the water
needed for hydration and the y ash hardened, exhibiting no signs
of shrinkage or settling.
Fly ash-water slurry injection is conducted in much the same
manner as dry ash injection with the exception of the use of higher
injection pressures (up to 100 psi) and a slightly larger 10 inch
borehole being drilled [422]. Experimental results determined that
an ideal water content equating to approximately 100 gallons per
ton of y ash (25% water by total mix weight), produces a slurry
that pumps easily and does not shrink upon drying.
Bulk quantities of coal y ash have been used to replace the
conventionally used sand for reclaiming underground mines.
During 19992000, the national Thermal Power Corporation
Limited (NTPC), India used about 60,000 ton of ash for backlling
underground mines of Singareni Colliery Company Limited,
Southern India, in collaboration with Central Mining Research
Institute, India[423]. The potential application of coal y ash in
reclaiming abandoned coal mine is of great practical signicance.
Research and Development are still on for commercial use of such
huge quantum of y ash as mine-lling material. Since about 80%
coal is produced from open cast mines, Coal India Ltd., is in crucial
stage of being able to handle this excessive overburden and planning for y ash back lling in the abandoned mines for eco-engineering development with viable plant life. On the contrary Coal
India Ltd., itself, is facing problem of disposal of the abundant
overburden wastes (w6000 million m3) as against their in situ
volume of the available open cast mine pits (4000 million m3) and
regaining the conguration of the landscape [424]. Since there are
various limitations and threats to environmental degradation,
effective scientic work is to be done before a rm decision is taken
for bulk use of y ash in reclaiming abandoned mines.
The technical feasibility of disposing coal combustion by-products in underground mines has been proven and the selection of
this disposal alternative will be decided based primarily on cost and
regulatory compliance issues. As such, additional research on the
technical issues of injecting coal combustion by-products or coal
combustion by-product slurries should only be needed in limited
special circumstances. On the other hand, more research into the
chemical aspect and the interaction of the coal combustion byproducts, mine water, local geology, and groundwater is needed to
assess the environmental impact of coal combustion by-product
mine injection. Also, many new coal combustion by-products are
being generated and are presenting challenges for surface disposal,
let alone for underground disposal. For example, many electric
utilities have installed FGD scrubbers to meet the requirements of
the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. These by-products are
different both physically and chemically from y ash and require
additional research. A pilot study of xated scrubber sludge injection into an abandoned underground mine was recently performed
by the Indianapolis Power and Light Company at their Petersburg
Station. No degradation of groundwater was found following the
injection at this project.
16. Cost estimation
Fly ash is available free of cost at the power plant and hence only
transportation cost, laying and rolling cost are there in case of y
355
356
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank the reviewers of this manuscript
for their valuable suggestions and comments.
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