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John Locke
John Locke
John Locke
For other people named John Locke, see John Locke (dis- self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated
ambiguation).
that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa.
John Locke FRS (/lk/; 29 August 1632 28 Octo- Contrary to Cartesian philosophy based on pre-existing
concepts, he maintained that we are born without innate
ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by
experience derived from sense perception.[6]
1 Biography
Lockes father, also called John, was a country lawyer and
clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna,[7] who
had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian
forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His
mother was Agnes Keene. Both parents were Puritans.
Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched
cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about
twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptised the same day.
Soon after Lockes birth, the family moved to the market
town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol,
where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton.
In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster
School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander
Popham, a member of Parliament and his fathers former commander. After completing his studies there, he
was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the
college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of
the university. Although a capable student, Locke was
irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time.
He found the works of modern philosophers, such as
Ren Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard
Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School,
Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental
philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the
Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member.
John Lockes Kit-cat portrait by Godfrey Kneller, National Portrait Gallery, London
ber 1704), was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most inuential of Enlightenment
thinkers and known as the Father of Classical Liberalism".[2][3][4] Considered one of the rst of the British
empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he
is equally important to social contract theory. His work
greatly aected the development of epistemology and
political philosophy. His writings inuenced Voltaire and
Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well
as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to
classical republicanism and liberal theory are reected in
the United States Declaration of Independence.[5]
2
serve as Lord Ashleys personal physician. In London,
Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of
Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major eect on
Lockes natural philosophical thinking an eect that
would become evident in An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding.
1 BIOGRAPHY
was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, recent scholarship
has shown that the work was composed well before this
date.[9] The work is now viewed as a more general argument against absolute monarchy (particularly as espoused
by Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis of political legitimacy. Though
Locke was associated with the inuential Whigs, his ideas
about natural rights and government are today considered
quite revolutionary for that period in English history.
2.1
Inuence
2 INFLUENCE
he is accused of hypocrisy and racism, or of caring only to have profound inuence on the Declaration of Indefor the liberty of English capitalists.[32]
pendence and the Constitution of the United States.
2.3
Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow See also: Lockean proviso
senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to
property is waste and an
material goods. He argues that property is a natural right According to Locke, unused
[38]
oence
against
nature,
but,
with the introduction of
and it is derived from labour.
durable goods, men could exchange their excessive perIn Chapter V of his Second Treatise, Locke argues that the ishable goods for goods that would last longer and thus
individual ownership of goods and property is justied not oend the natural law. In his view, the introduction
by the labour exerted to produce those goods or utilise of money marks the culmination of this process, making
property to produce goods benecial to human society.[33] possible the unlimited accumulation of property without
[39]
Locke stated his belief, in his Second Treatise, that nature causing waste through spoilage. He also includes gold
on its own provides little of value to society; he provides or silver as money because they may be hoarded up with[40]
the implication that the labour expended in the creation of out injury to anyone, since they do not spoil or decay
goods gives them their value. This is used as supporting in the hands of the possessor. In his view, the introduction
evidence for the interpretation of Lockes labour theory of money eliminates the limits of accumulation. Locke
of property as a labour theory of value, in his implication stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement
that goods produced by nature are of little value, unless on the use of money, not by the social contract estabcombined with labour in their production and that labour lishing civil society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited
is what gives goods their value.[33]
accumulation but does not consider it his task. He just
Locke believed that ownership of property is created by implies that government would function to moderate the
the application of labour. In addition, he believed prop- conict between the unlimited accumulation of property
erty precedes government and government cannot dis- and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth; he does
pose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily. Karl Marx not identify which principles that government should aplater critiqued Lockes theory of property in his own so- ply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of
cial theory.
his thought form a consistent whole. For example, labour
theory of value of the Two Treatises of Government stands
side by side with the demand-and-supply theory devel2.4 Political theory
oped in a letter he wrote titled Some Considerations on the
Consequences
of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising
See also: Two Treatises of Government
of the Value of Money. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but in the end upholds the unlimited accuLockes political theory was founded on social contract mulation of wealth.[41]
theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that
human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance.
Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed 2.5 On price theory
men to be selsh. This is apparent with the introduction
of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and Lockes general theory of value and price is a supply and
independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend demand theory, which was set out in a letter to a Memhis Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions.[34] Most schol- ber of Parliament in 1691, titled Some Considerations
ars trace the phrase "life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the
piness, in the American Declaration of Independence, Raising of the Value of Money.[42] He refers to supply as
to Lockes theory of rights,[35] though other origins have quantity and demand es "rent". The price of any combeen suggested.[36]
modity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of
Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conicts in a civil way
with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day.[37]
Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers
and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come
5
unlimited or constant. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, he explains the
value of goods as based on their scarcity and ability to
be exchanged and consumed. He explains demand for
goods as based on their ability to yield a ow of income.
Locke develops an early theory of capitalisation, such as
land, which has value because by its constant production
of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income. He considers the demand for money as almost the
same as demand for goods or land; it depends on whether
money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable
funds. As a medium of exchange, he states that money
is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or
conveniences of life, and for loanable funds, it comes
to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain
yearly income... or interest.
2.5.1
Monetary thoughts
3 Religious beliefs
6
to an Arian position.[52]
5 SEE ALSO
etc. , did he examine as a philosopher which consequences they had in the abovementioned way. Following Locke, the American Declaration of Independence
founded human rights on the biblical belief in creation:
All men are created equal, (...) they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable rights, (...) life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness. Lockes doctrine that governments need the consent of the governed is also central
to the Declaration of Independence.
6.1
Notes
References
6.1
Notes
[8] Henning, Basil Duke (1983-01-01), The House of Commons, 16601690 1, Google, ISBN 9780436192746, retrieved 28 August 2012
[9] Laslett 1988, III. Two Treatises of Government and the
Revolution of 1688.
[10] Rebecca Newberger Goldstein, Betraying Spinoza: The
Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity, New York:
Schocken Books (2006), pp. 26061
[11] John Locke, Britannica Online.
[12] Julian Hoppit, A Land of Liberty? England. 16891727
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), p. 195.
[13] John Kenyon, Revolution Principles. The Politics of Party.
16891720 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1977), p. 200.
[14] Kenyon, p. 51. Kenyon adds: Any unbiassed study of
the position shows in fact that it was Filmer, not Hobbes,
Locke or Sidney, who was the most inuential thinker of
the age. Kenyon, p. 63.
[15] J. R. Milton, Locke, John (16321704), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,
2004; online edn, May 2008, accessed 12 Sept 2013.
[16] The Three Greatest Men. Retrieved 13 June 2009. Jefferson identied Bacon, Locke, and Newton as the three
greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception.
Their works in the physical and moral sciences were instrumental in Jeersons education and world view.
[17] Jeerson, Thomas. The Letters: 17431826 Bacon,
Locke, and Newton. Retrieved 13 June 2009. Bacon,
Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to
have copied for me: and as I consider them as the three
greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception,
REFERENCES
6.2 Citations
Heussi,
Karl (1956),
Kompendium der
Kirchengeschichte (in German), Tbingen, DE,
11. Auage, Seite 398.
Laslett, Peter (1988), Introduction, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press to Locke, John, Two
Treatises of Government.
Locke, John (1996), Grant, Ruth W; Tarcov,
Nathan, eds., Some Thoughts Concerning Education and of the Conduct of the Understanding,
Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co, p. 10.
Locke, John (1997), Woolhouse, Roger, ed., An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, New York:
Penguin Books.
Olmstead, Clifton E (1960), History of Religion in
the United States, Englewood Clis, NJ: PrenticeHall.
Waldron, Jeremy (2002), God, Locke, and Equality:
Christian Foundations in Lockes Political Thought,
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN
978-0-521-89057-1.
6.3 Sources
9
Chappell, Vere, ed., 1994. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge U.P. excerpt and text
search
Dunn, John, 1984. Locke. Oxford Uni. Press. A
succinct introduction.
, 1969. The Political Thought of John Locke:
An Historical Account of the Argument of the Two
Treatises of Government. Cambridge Uni. Press.
Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the
theological element in Lockes political thought.
Hudson, Nicholas, John Locke and the Tradition
of Nominalism, in: Nominalism and Literary Discourse, ed. Hugo Keiper, Christoph Bode, and
Richard Utz (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 283
99.
7 External links
10
Locke, Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
UCSD.
John Locke Bibliography
Locke Studies An Annual Journal of Locke Research
Hewett, Caspar, John Lockes Theory of Knowledge,
UK: The great debate.
The Digital Locke Project, NL.
Portraits of Locke, UK: NPG.
Huyler, Jerome, Was Locke a Liberal?, Independent,
a complex and positive answer.
Timeline of the Life and Work of John Locke at The
Online Library of Liberty
Vaughn, Karen, Locke on Property (bibliographical
essay), The Online Library of Liberty, Liberty fund.
Constitutional Government: Lockes Second Treatise (15) on YouTube Transcript by Professor
Steven Smith
John Locke (16321704), The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, Library of Economics and Liberty
(2nd ed.) (Liberty Fund), 2008
EXTERNAL LINKS
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