JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITION

JUDGMENT second act of the intellect by which it pronounces the agreement/disagreement between
terms or ideas
PROPOSITION judgment expressed in a sentence; it expresses agreement or disagreement between
terms
Truth value; either true or false
1. Categorical expresses a direct judgment; direct assertion of the agreement/disagreement of
two terms in an absolute manner. Example: All men are mortal.
2. Hypothetical does not express a direct judgment but a relation between two judgments, in
which the truth of one depends on another. If you break it, then you pay for it.
a. Conditional expresses a condition; if-then
b. Disjunctive expresses an alternative; either-or
c. Conjunctive combines two judgments; and
ELEMENTS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
1. Subject
2. Predicate
3. Quantifier expresses application or extension of the proposition; whether it applies in whole or
in part. Examples: All, no, some
4. Copula link the subject and predicate terms; expresses agreement or disagreement between
the subject and predicate. Example: is/are, is not/are not
STANDARD FORM OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS AND VENN DIAGRAMS
All S are P.

All S are not P/No S are P.

Some S are P.

Some S are not P.

Examples:
All lawyers are liars.
No lawyers are liars
Some lawyers are liars.
Some lawyers are not liars.
QUANTITY, QUALITY AND DISTRIBUTION
1. Quantity -- attribute of every categorical proposition, determined by whether the proposition
refers to all members or only to some members of the class designated by its subject term

2. Quality either affirmative or negative depending on whether it affirms or denies class

membership
a. Affirmative predicate is always affirmed of its expression accord to the whole of its
comprehension (attributes) and part of its extension (reference).
Example: All lawyers are liars.
b. Negative predicate is denied of its subject according to a part of its comprehension
and the whole of its extension
Example: No lawyers are liars. All lawyers are not liars.
3. Distribution describes the relationship between a categorical proposition and each one of its
terms, indicating whether or not the proposition makes a statement about every member of the
class represented by a given term.
o A term is said to be distributed if the proposition makes an assertion about every member
of the class denoted by the term; otherwise, it is undistributed
CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITION
All S are P.

LETTER
NAME
A

QUANTITY

QUALITY

Universal

Affirmative

TERMS
DISTRIBUTED
S

All S are not P.

Some S are P.
Some S are not P.

E
I
O

Universal
Particular
Particular

Negative
Affirmative
Negative

S and P
None
P

PATTERN
Su + Pp (Su +
Pu)
Su Pu
Sp + Pp
Sp Pu

REMEMBER: Unprepared Students Never Pass.

SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
OPPOSITION relation existing between two proposition having the same subject and predicate terms
but different in quality, quantity or both

1. Contradictory quantity and quality are changed

o Opposite value
2. Contrary partial opposition; quality is changed but not quantity (applies only to universal)
o Cannot be both true, but may be both false
3. Sub-contrary partial opposition; quality is changed but not quantity (applies only to particular)
o Cannot be both false; but may be both true
4. Sub-altern quantity is changed but not quality
o Truth flows downward, falsity flows upward

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
EQUIVALENCE similarity in terms of meaning between propositions
EDUCTION process of forming equivalent propositions
1. Conversion switch subject term with predicate term. NOTE: The extension or application of the
terms in the converse cannot be increased.
Example: All dogs are animals Some animals are dogs (converse)
GIVEN STATEMENT
(CONVERTEND)
All A are B.

CONVERSE
All B are A.

No A are B.

No B are A.

Some A are B.

Some B are A.

Some A are not B.

Some B are not A.

2. Obversion (1) change quality (but not quantity); and (2) replace predicate with term
complement (-non)
Example: All dogs are animals All dogs are not non-animals (No dogs are non-animals)
GIVEN STATEMENT
(OBVERTEND)
All A are B.

OBVERSE
No A are non-B.

No A are B.

All A are non-B.

Some A are B.

Some A are not nonB.

Some A are not B.

Some A are non-B.

3. Contraposition (1) switch subject and predicate terms; and (2) replace subject and predicate
terms with their term complements

GIVEN STATEMENT
(CONTRAPONEND)
All A are B.

CONTRAPOSITIVE
All non-B are non-A.

No A are B.

No non-B are non-A.

Some A are B.

Some non-B are nonA.

Some A are not B.

Some non-B are not

non-A.

REMEMBER:
1. In conversion, E and I propositions yield logically equivalent results (same truth value)
2. In, conversion, the extension of the terms cannot be increased. Thus, the converse of A is either
A or I.
3. In contraposition, A and O propositions yield logically equivalent results (same truth value)
4. In obversion, the truth value does not change.

VARIETIES OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

1. Single contains only one sentence in its construction. Example: Every dog is an animal.
a. Simple when the subject and predicate are simple terms. Example: All cats are animals.
b. Composite -- may be complex or modal
1) Complex when the subject or predicate or both are complex terms
Example: A good lawyer is an honest lawyer.
2) Modal when the copula expresses the mode of the proposition
a) Necessary expresses that the predicate necessarily belongs to the
subject.
Example: A triangle must have 3 sides and 3 angles.
b) Possible expresses that the predicate may or can belong to the subject
Example: A chair may be made of wood.
c) Impossible expresses that the predicate cannot and will not belong to
the subject
Example: Good cannot be evil.
d) Contingent expresses that the predicate need not belong to the subject
Example: Classes need not be suspended.
2. Multiple has two or more sentences in its construction
a. Overtly multiple proposition which is plainly composed of two or more sentences

1) Copulative composed of two or more sentences combined in a grammatical

unity
Example: The movie is long and boring.
2) Adversative contains two sentences united in opposition
Example: The subject is interesting but difficult.
3) Relative expresses a relation of time and place between two sentences
Example: After the class, Peter went home.
4) Causal an abridged syllogism, it is composed of two sentences one of which is
the reason or cause of the other
Example: The crops are suffering because of the drought.
5) Comparative expresses a comparison between two subject and the degree of
comparison is greater, lesser or equal to each other
Example: Family is more important than friends.
b. Covertly multiple appears to be single but in reality, are multiple. Example: Only God is
perfect.
1) Exclusive contains words like only, alone, and indicates the exclusion of any
predicate from the subject or vice-versa
Example: This movie is for adults only.
2) Exceptive contains words like save, except, and indicates that a portion of
the predicate does not apply to the subject and vice-versa
Example: Everyone except the last three qualified for the next round.
3) Reduplicative and Specificative contains particles that duplicate the subject
giving it special emphasis
Example: John as a doctor treats the sick. (Reduplicative)
John as a doctor joined the protest. (Specificative)
HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS
1. Conditional expresses a relation whereby one judgment or proposition necessarily flows from
the other; if-then proposition (cause and effect)
Example: If it rains, then the streets are wet.
2. Disjunctive two alternatives cannot be both false at the same time; at least one must be true;
either-or proposition
Example: You either pass or fail this subject.
a. Proper disjunctive mutually exclusive or contradictories
Example: The answer is right or wrong.
b. Improper disjunctive not mutually exclusive; may be both true but cannot be both
false
Example: The water is either hot or cold.
3. Conjunctive -- expresses two alternatives which cannot be true simultaneously; disjunctive in a
modal form; and proposition
Example: One cannot be in Cebu and in Davao at the same time.
a. Two-part conjunctive alternatives are limited to only two
Example: One cannot study and play at the same time.
b. More-than-two part conjunctive alternatives are not limited to the two expressed in the
proposition
Example: A parent cannot be a mother and a father at the same time.
COMPLEX AND HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS IN MODERN LOGIC
COMPOUND OR COMPLEX STATEMENT contains statements as components

TYPES OF COMPLEX OR COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS

1. Negation the negation of statement is formed by using not in the statement or prefixing the
phrase It is false that
Example: It is not the case that all prisoners are violent.
o Symbol: curl (~); denies or contradicts the statement it precedes
o The negation of any true statement is FALSE and vice-versa
P
T
F

~P
F
T

2. Conditional If-then proposition. It expresses a relation in virtue of which one proposition

necessarily flows from the other (logical, causal or actual relations).
o If the antecedent is true, the consequent is also true and if the antecedent is false, the
consequent is also false
3. Material Implication there is no real connection between the antecedent and consequent
Example: If pigs can fly, then I will be happy.
o Symbol: horseshoe (
o A conditional statement is false when the antecedent is true and the consequent false,
and is true in all other cases
P
T
T
F
F

Q
T
F
T
F

P Q
T
F
T
T

4. Disjunction either-or statement. It expresses that two things cannot be false at the same time;
at least one must be true
Example: You either pass or fail Logic.
o Symbol: wedge (v)
o The disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts is true and that otherwise it is
false
P Q PvQ
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
5. Conjunction formed by placing the word and in between them
Example: Diane Reeves sings jazz, and Christina Aguilera sings pop.
o Symbol: ()
o The conjunction is true when its two conjuncts are true and is false in all other cases
P
T
T
F
F

Q
T
F
T
F

PQ
T
F
F
F

6. Material Equivalence the compound of two statements which is the condition of each other
(bi-conditional).
Example: The team will win if and only if they run the ball.

o
o

Symbol: triple bar ()

The bi-conditional is true when its two components have the same truth value and that
otherwise it is false

P
T
T
F
F

Q
T
F
T
F

PQ
T
F
F
T