Black body - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Black body
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In physics, a black body is an

idealized object that absorbs all
electromagnetic radiation that falls
on it. No electromagnetic radiation
passes through it and none is
reflected. Because no light (visible
electromagnetic radiation) is
reflected or transmitted, the object
appears black when it is cold.
However, a black body emits a
temperature-dependent spectrum of
light. This thermal radiation from a
black body is termed black-body
radiation.[nb 1]

As the temperature decreases, the peak

of the black-body radiation curve
moves to lower intensities and longer
wavelengths. The black-body radiation
graph is also compared with the
classical model of Rayleigh and Jeans.

At room temperature, black bodies

emit mostly infrared wavelengths,
but as the temperature increases
past a few hundred degrees Celsius,
black bodies start to emit visible
wavelengths, appearing red,
orange, yellow, white, and blue
with increasing temperature. By the
time an object is white, it is
emitting substantial ultraviolet
radiation.
The term "black body" was
introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in
1860.
Black-body emission gives insight
into the thermal equilibrium state
of a continuous field. In classical
physics, each different Fourier

The color (chromaticity) of black-body

radiation depends on the temperature
of the black body; the locus of such
colors, shown here in CIE 1931 x,y
space, is known as the Planckian locus.

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mode in thermal equilibrium should have the same energy, leading to the
theory of ultraviolet catastrophe that there would be an infinite amount of
energy in any continuous field. Black bodies could test the properties of
thermal equilibrium because they emit radiation which is distributed
thermally. Studying the laws of the black body historically led to quantum
mechanics.

Contents
1 Explanation
1.1 Black-body simulators
2 Equations governing black bodies
2.1 Planck's law of black-body radiation
2.2 Wien's displacement law
2.3 StefanBoltzmann law
3 Radiation emitted by a human body
4 Temperature relation between a planet and its star
4.1 Factors
4.2 Assumptions
4.3 Derivation
4.4 The result
4.5 Temperature of Earth

5 Doppler effect for a moving black body

6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
8.1 Other textbooks

9 External links

Explanation
Black-body radiation is light in thermal equilibrium with a black body,
light radiation with a given temperature. It is the reference thermodynamic
equilibrium state of light. Experimentally, it is established as the steady
state equilibrium radiation in a rigid-walled cavity that contains a black

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body. There are no strictly exact black bodies in nature, but

graphite is a good approximation, and a closed box with graphite
walls at a steady state gives a good approximation to ideal black
body radiation[1] [2] [3]. A cavity that does not contain any black
material body does not sustain black body radiation at equilibrium;
this fact was found experimentally by Kirchhoff but its physical
significance was understood neither by Kirchhoff nor by Planck.
Because light is the oscillation of a continuous electromagnetic
field, the study of black-body radiation reveals how continuous
fields can have a temperature, something which contradicts
classical physics. Because the thermal state of light was so
confusing before the advent of quantum mechanics, the 19th
century arguments that light has a thermal equilibrium state were
made very carefully.
An object at some fixed temperature T, like an oven, is observed to
glow. The Draper point[4] is the name given to the point at which
all solids glow a dim red (about 798 K).[5][6] At 1000 K, an oven
looks red; at 6000 K, it looks white. No matter how the oven is
constructed, so long as the oven is not too shiny, the color of the
light only depends on the temperature. Since color is the directly
visible measure of the wavelength, this observation means that light
at different temperatures has a different distribution of energy
among the different wavelengths. The amount of energy E per unit
volume in wavelength at temperature T is called the black-body
curve. Detailed experiments revealed that the black-body curve
only depends on the temperature, not on the emitting body. This suggests
that light does in fact come to thermal equilibrium just like anything else,
that the concept of light at temperature T makes sense.

The temperature of a Phoehoe

lava flow can be estimated by
observing its color. The result

Two things that are at the same

temperature stay in equilibrium, so a
body at temperature T surrounded by a
cloud of light at temperature T on average
will emit as much light into the cloud as
it absorbs, following Prevost's exchange
principle, which refers to radiative
equilibrium. The principle of detailed
balance says that there are no strange
correlations between the process of

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agrees well with measured

temperatures of lava flows at
about 1000 to 1200 C.

emission and absorption: the process of

emission is not affected by the
absorption, but only by the thermal state
of the emitting body. This means that the
total light emitted by a body at temperature T, black or not, is always equal
to the total light that the body would absorb were it to be surrounded by
light at temperature T.
When the body is black, the absorption is obvious: the amount of light
absorbed is all the light that hits the surface. For a black body much bigger
than the wavelength, the light energy absorbed at any wavelength per unit
time is strictly proportional to the black-body curve. This means that the
black-body curve is the amount of light energy emitted by a black body,
which justifies the name.[nb 2] This is Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation:
the black-body emission curve is a thermal characteristic of light, which
depends only on the temperature of the walls of the cavity, provided strictly
that the cavity contains some perfectly black material body and is in
radiative equilibrium.[7]
In the laboratory, black-body radiation is approximated by the radiation
from a small hole entrance to a large cavity, a hohlraum, that contains a
black body, and that has reached and is maintained at equilibrium. (This
technique leads to the alternative term cavity radiation.) Any light entering
the hole would have to reflect off the walls of the cavity multiple times
before it escaped, in which process it is nearly certain to be absorbed. This
occurs regardless of the wavelength of the radiation entering (as long as it
is small compared to the hole). The hole, then, is a close approximation of a
theoretical black body and, if the cavity is heated, the spectrum of the hole's
radiation (i.e., the amount of light emitted from the hole at each
wavelength) will be continuous, strictly provided that the cavity must
contain some nearly perfectly black material body and that equilibrium has
been reached and is maintained, but with these provisoes, it does not further
depend on the other material in the cavity (compare with emission
spectrum).
Calculating the black-body curve was a major challenge in theoretical
physics during the late nineteenth century. The problem was finally solved
in 1901 by Max Planck as Planck's law of black-body radiation.[8] By
making changes to Wien's radiation law (not to be confused with Wien's
displacement law) consistent with thermodynamics and electromagnetism,
he found a mathematical formula fitting the experimental data in a

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satisfactory way. To find a physical interpretation for this formula, Planck

had then to assume that the energy of the oscillators in the cavity was
quantized (i.e., integer multiples of some quantity). Einstein built on this
idea and proposed the quantization of electromagnetic radiation itself in
1905 to explain the photoelectric effect. These theoretical advances
eventually resulted in the superseding of classical electromagnetism by
quantum electrodynamics. Today, these quanta are called photons and the
black-body cavity may be thought of as containing a gas of photons. In
addition, it led to the development of quantum probability distributions,
called Fermi-Dirac statistics and Bose-Einstein statistics, each applicable to
a different class of particle, which are used in quantum mechanics instead
of the classical distributions. See also fermion and boson.
The wavelength at which the radiation is strongest is given by Wien's
displacement law, and the overall power emitted per unit area is given by
the Stefan-Boltzmann law. So, as temperature increases, the glow color
changes from red to yellow to white to blue. Even as the peak wavelength
moves into the ultra-violet, enough radiation continues to be emitted in the
blue wavelengths that the body will continue to appear blue. It will never
become invisibleindeed, the radiation of visible light increases
monotonically with temperature.[9]
The radiance or observed intensity is not a function of direction. Therefore
a black body is a perfect Lambertian radiator.
Real objects never behave as full-ideal black bodies, and instead the
emitted radiation at a given frequency is a fraction of what the ideal
emission would be. The emissivity of a material specifies how well a real
body radiates energy as compared with a black body. This emissivity
depends on factors such as temperature, emission angle, and wavelength.
However, it is typical in engineering to assume that a surface's spectral
emissivity and absorptivity do not depend on wavelength, so that the
emissivity is a constant. This is known as the grey body assumption.
Due to the rapid fall-off of emitted
photons with decreasing energy, a
black body at room temperature
(300 K) with 1 m2 of surface area
emits a visible photon every
thousand years or so, which is
negligible for most purposes.

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When dealing with non-black

WMAP image of the cosmic
microwave background radiation
surfaces, the deviations from ideal
anisotropy. It has the most precise
black-body behavior are determined
thermal
emission spectrum known and
by both the geometrical structure
corresponds to a temperature of 2.725
and the chemical composition, and,
K with an emission peak at 160.2
provided there is a radiative
GHz.
equilibrium with a nearly black
body that is present, nearly follow
Kirchhoff's Law: emissivity equals absorptivity, so that an object that does
not absorb all incident light will also emit less radiation than an ideal black
body.
In astronomy, objects such as stars are frequently regarded as black bodies,
though this is often a poor approximation. An almost perfect black-body
spectrum is exhibited by the cosmic microwave background radiation.
Hawking radiation is the hypothetical black-body radiation emitted by
black holes.

Black-body simulators
Although a black body is a theoretical object (i.e.
emissivity e = 1.0), common applications define a
source of infrared radiation as a black body when the
object approaches an emissivity of 1.0, (typically e =
0.99 or better). A source of infrared radiation less
than 0.99 is referred to as a "grey body".[10]
Applications for black body simulators typically
include the testing and calibration of infrared systems
and infrared sensor equipment.

A typical industrial
"extended source
plate" type black
body.

Super black is an example of such a material, made from a nickelphosphorus alloy. More recently, a team of Japanese scientists discovered a
material even closer to a black body, based on single-walled carbon
nanotubes (SWNTs), which absorbs between 97% and 99% of the
wavelengths of the light that hits it.[11]

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Equations governing black bodies

Planck's law of black-body radiation
Main article: Planck's law
Planck's law states that

where
I(,T) d is the amount of energy per unit surface area per unit time per
unit solid angle emitted in the frequency range between and + d
by a black body at temperature T;
h is the Planck constant;
c is the speed of light in a vacuum;
k is the Boltzmann constant;
is frequency of electromagnetic radiation; and
T is the temperature in kelvins.

Wien's displacement law

Main article: Wien's displacement law
Wien's displacement law shows how the spectrum of black body radiation
at any temperature is related to the spectrum at any other temperature. If we
know the shape of the spectrum at one temperature, we can calculate the
shape at any other temperature.
A consequence of Wien's displacement law is that the wavelength at which
the intensity of the radiation produced by a black body is at a maximum,

max, it is a function only of the temperature:

where the constant, b, known as Wien's displacement constant, is equal to

2.897 7685(51) 103 m K.

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Note that the peak intensity can be expressed in terms of intensity per unit
wavelength or in terms of intensity per unit frequency. The form given in
this section is in terms of intensity per unit wavelength, this form given in
the Planck's Law section above was in terms of intensity per unit frequency.
The wavelength at which the power per unit frequency is maximised is
given by
.

StefanBoltzmann law
Main article: StefanBoltzmann law
This law states that amount of thermal radiation emitted per second per unit
area of the surface of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature. That is

where j* is the total energy radiated per unit area per unit time, T is the
temperature in kelvins, and = 5.67 108 W m2 K4 is the Stefan
Boltzmann constant.

Radiation emitted by a human body

Black-body laws
can be applied to
human beings.
For example,
some of a person's
energy is radiated
away in the form
of
electromagnetic
radiation, most of
which is infrared.

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The net power

radiated is the
difference
between the
power emitted
and the power
absorbed:
Much of a person's energy is radiated away in the form of
infrared energy. Some materials are transparent to infrared light,
while opaque to visible light (note the plastic bag). Other
materials are transparent to visible light, while opaque or
reflective to the infrared (note the man's glasses).

Pnet = Pemit Pabsorb.

Applying the StefanBoltzmann law,
.
The total surface area of an adult is about 2 m, and the mid- and farinfrared emissivity of skin and most clothing is near unity, as it is for most
nonmetallic surfaces.[12][13] Skin temperature is about 33C,[14] but clothing
reduces the surface temperature to about 28 C when the ambient
temperature is 20 C.[15] Hence, the net radiative heat loss is about
.
The total energy radiated in one day is about 9 MJ (megajoules), or 2000
kcal (food calories). Basal metabolic rate for a 40-year-old male is about 35
kcal/(m2h),[16] which is equivalent to 1700 kcal per day assuming the same
2 m2 area. However, the mean metabolic rate of sedentary adults is about
50% to 70% greater than their basal rate.[17]
There are other important thermal loss mechanisms, including convection
and evaporation. Conduction is negligible since the Nusselt number is
much greater than unity. Evaporation (perspiration) is only required if
radiation and convection are insufficient to maintain a steady state
temperature. Free convection rates are comparable, albeit somewhat lower,
than radiative rates.[18] Thus, radiation accounts for about two-thirds of
thermal energy loss in cool, still air. Given the approximate nature of many

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of the assumptions, this can only be taken as a crude estimate. Ambient air
motion, causing forced convection, or evaporation reduces the relative
importance of radiation as a thermal loss mechanism.
Also, applying Wien's Law to humans, one finds that the peak wavelength
of light emitted by a person is
.
This is why thermal imaging devices designed for human subjects are most
sensitive to 700014000 nanometers wavelength.

Temperature relation between a planet and its

star
Here is an application of black-body laws to determine the black body
temperature of a planet. The surface may be warmer due to the greenhouse
effect.[19]

Factors
The temperature of a planet
depends on a few factors:
Incident radiation (from the
Sun, for example)
Emitted radiation (for example
Earth's infrared glow)
The albedo effect (the fraction
of light a planet reflects)
The greenhouse effect (for
planets with an atmosphere)
Earth's longwave thermal radiation
Energy generated internally by
intensity, from clouds, atmosphere and
ground
a planet itself (due to
radioactive decay, tidal heating
and adiabatic contraction due to cooling).

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For the inner planets, incident and emitted radiation have the most
significant impact on temperature. This derivation is concerned mainly with
that.

Assumptions
If we assume the following that the Sun and the Earth both radiate as
spherical black bodies, and that the Earth is in thermal equilibrium, then we
can derive a formula for the relationship between the Earth's temperature
and the Sun's surface temperature.

Derivation
To begin, we use the StefanBoltzmann law to find the total power
(energy/second) the Sun is emitting:

where
is the StefanBoltzmann constant,
is the surface temperature of the
Sun, and
is the radius of the Sun.
The Sun emits that power equally in all
directions. Because of this, the Earth is
hit with only a tiny fraction of it. This is
the power from the Sun that the Earth
absorbs:

The Earth only has an absorbing

area equal to a two dimensional
circle, rather than the surface of
a sphere.

where
is the radius of the Earth and
is the astronomical unit, the distance between the Sun and the Earth.
is the albedo of Earth.

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2

Even though the earth only absorbs as a circular area R , it emits equally
in all directions as a sphere:

where TE is the black body temperature of the earth.

Now, our second assumption was that the earth is in thermal equilibrium,
so the power absorbed must equal the power emitted:

So plug in equations 1, 2, and 3 into this and we get

Many factors cancel from both sides and this equation can be greatly
simplified.

The result
After canceling of factors, the final result is

where
is the blackbody temperature of the Earth.
is the surface temperature of the Sun,
is the radius of the Sun,
is the distance between the Sun and the Earth,

is the albedo of the Earth.

In other words, given the assumptions made, the temperature of Earth
depends only on the surface temperature of the Sun, the radius of the Sun,
the distance between Earth and the Sun and the albedo of Earth.

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Temperature of Earth
If we substitute in the measured values for the Sun,[20]

we'll find the effective temperature of the Earth to be

Expressed in Celsius:

This is the black body temperature that would cause the same amount of
energy emission, as measured from space, while the surface temperature is
higher due to the greenhouse effect.
Estimates of the Earth's average albedo vary in the range 0.30.4, resulting
in different estimated effective temperatures. Estimates are often based on
the solar constant (total insolation power density) rather than the
temperature, size, and distance of the sun. For example, using 0.4 for
albedo, and an insolation of 1400 W m2), one obtains an effective
temperature of about 245 K.[21] Similarly using albedo 0.3 and solar
constant of 1372 W m2), one obtains an effective temperature of 255 K.
[22][23]

Doppler effect for a moving black body

The Doppler effect is the well known phenomenon describing how
observed frequencies of light are "shifted" when a light source is moving
relative to the observer. If f is the emitted frequency of a monochromatic
light source, it will appear to have frequency f' if it is moving relative to the
observer:

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where v is the velocity of the source in the observer's rest frame, is the
angle between the velocity vector and the observer-source direction, and c
is the speed of light.[24] This is the fully relativistic formula, and can be
simplified for the special cases of objects moving directly towards ( = )
or away ( = 0) from the observer, and for speeds much less than c.
To calculate the spectrum of a moving black body, then, it seems
straightforward to simply apply this formula to each frequency of the
blackbody spectrum. However, simply scaling each frequency like this is
not enough. We also have to account for the finite size of the viewing
aperture, because the solid angle receiving the light also undergoes a
Lorentz transformation. (We can subsequently allow the aperture to be
arbitrarily small, and the source arbitrarily far, but this cannot be ignored at
the outset.) When this effect is included, it is found that a black body at
temperature T that is receding with velocity v appears to have a spectrum
identical to a stationary black body at temperature T' , given by:[25]

For the case of a source moving directly towards or away from the
observer, this reduces to

Here v > 0 indicates a receding source, and v < 0 indicates an approaching

source.
This is an important effect in astronomy, where the velocities of stars and
galaxies can reach significant fractions of c. An example is found in the
cosmic microwave background radiation, which exhibits a dipole
anisotropy from the Earth's motion relative to this blackbody radiation
field.

See also
Effective temperature
Color temperature
Infrared thermometer

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Photon polarization
Ultraviolet catastrophe
Rayleigh-Jeans law
Emissivity
Super black

Notes
1. ^ When used as a compound adjective, the term is typically
hyphenated, as in "black-body radiation", or combined into one word,
as in "blackbody radiation". The hyphenated and one-word forms
should not generally be used as nouns.
2. ^ There is a subtlety when the black body is small, so that its size is
comparable to the wavelength of light. In this case, the absorption is
modified, because a small object is not an efficient absorber of light of
long wavelength. But the principle of strict equality of emission and
absorption is always upheld.

References
1. ^ G. Kirchhoff (1896). On the relation between the Radiating and Absorbing
Powers of different Bodies for Light and Heat, translated by F. Guthrie in Phil.
Mag. Series 4, volume 20, number 130, pages 1-21, original in Poggendorff's
Annalen, vol. 109, pages 275 et seq.
2. ^ M. Planck (1914). The theory of heat radiation, second edition, translated by
M. Masius, Blackiston's Son & Co, Philadelphia.
3. ^ P.-M. Robitaille (2003). On the validity of Kirchhoff's Law of Thermal
Emission, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 31(6): 1263-1267.
4. ^ http://www.todayinsci.com/5/5_05.htm
5. ^ "Science: Draper's Memoirs (http://books.google.com/books?
id=hZINAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA408&dq=draper+point+red+1847&lr=&as_brr=
". The Academy (London: Robert Scott Walker) XIV (338): 408. Oct. 26,
1878. http://books.google.com/books?
id=hZINAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA408&dq=draper+point+red+1847&lr=&as_brr=
6. ^ J. R. Mahan (2002). Radiation heat transfer: a statistical approach
(http://books.google.com/books?id=y9zUEzA7iN0C&pg=PA58&dq=draperpoint+red&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0
(3rd ed.). Wiley-IEEE. p. 58. ISBN 9780471212706.
http://books.google.com/books?id=y9zUEzA7iN0C&pg=PA58&dq=draperpoint+red&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&
7. ^ Huang, Kerson (1967). Statistical Mechanics. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.

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8. ^ Planck, Max (1901). "On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal
Spectrum (http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Planck1901/Planck-1901.html) ". Annalen der Physik 4: 553.
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Planck-1901/Planck1901.html.
9. ^ Landau, L. D.; E. M. Lifshitz (1996). Statistical Physics (3rd Edition Part 1
ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
10. ^ Electro Optical Industries, Inc. (2008) What is a Black Body and Infrared
Radiation? In BB Radiation. http://www.electrooptical.com/html/bb_rad/bb_rad.asp
11. ^ Kohei Mizuno, Juntaro Ishii, Hideo Kishida, Yuhei Hayamizu, Satoshi
Yasuda, Don N. Futaba, Motoo Yumura, and (March 30, 2009). "A black body
absorber from vertically aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes.
(http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2009/03/31/0900155106.abstract) ".
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2009/03/31/0900155106.abstract.
12. ^ Infrared Services. "Emissivity Values for Common Materials (http://infrared
-thermography.com/material-1.htm) ". http://infraredthermography.com/material-1.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
13. ^ Omega Engineering. "Emissivity of Common Materials
(http://www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume1/emissivityb.html) ".
http://www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume1/emissivityb.html.
Retrieved 2007-06-24.
14. ^ Farzana, Abanty (2001). "Temperature of a Healthy Human (Skin
Temperature) (http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/AbantyFarzana.shtml) ".
The Physics Factbook.
http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/AbantyFarzana.shtml. Retrieved 2007-06
-24.
15. ^ Lee, B.. "Theoretical Prediction and Measurement of the Fabric Surface
Apparent Temperature in a Simulated Man/Fabric/Environment System
(http://www.dsto.defence.gov.au/publications/2135/DSTO-TR-0849.pdf) ".
http://www.dsto.defence.gov.au/publications/2135/DSTO-TR-0849.pdf.
Retrieved 2007-06-24.
16. ^ Harris J, Benedict F (1918). "A Biometric Study of Human Basal
Metabolism.". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 4 (12): 3703.
doi:10.1073/pnas.4.12.370 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.4.12.370) .
PMID 16576330.
17. ^ Levine, J (2004). "Nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT):
environment and biology
(http://ajpendo.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/286/5/E675) ". Am J Physiol
Endocrinol Metab 286: E675E685. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00562.2003
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1152%2Fajpendo.00562.2003) . PMID 15102614.
http://ajpendo.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/286/5/E675.
18. ^ DrPhysics.com. "Heat Transfer and the Human Body
(http://www.drphysics.com/convection/convection.html) ".
http://www.drphysics.com/convection/convection.html. Retrieved 2007-06-24.

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19. ^ Cole, George H. A.; Woolfson, Michael M. (2002). Planetary Science: The
Science of Planets Around Stars (1st ed.) (http://books.google.com/books?
id=Bgsy66mJ5mYC&pg=RA3-PA382&dq=blackbody+emissivity+greenhouse+intitle:PlanetaryScience+inauthor:cole&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=LrSOR9OYA4uotAP2ifyPBw&sig=
-_qnQWCuVZk) . Institute of Physics Publishing. pp. 3637, 380382. ISBN 0
-7503-0815-X. http://books.google.com/books?id=Bgsy66mJ5mYC&pg=RA3
-PA382&dq=black-body+emissivity+greenhouse+intitle:PlanetaryScience+inauthor:cole&lr=&as_brr=0&ei=LrSOR9OYA4uotAP2ifyPBw&sig=
-_qnQWCuVZk.
20. ^ http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html
21. ^ Michael D. Papagiannis (1972). Space physics and space astronomy
(http://books.google.com/books?
id=SpgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=earth+effectivetemperature+albedo+blackbody&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_
Taylor & Francis. pp. 1011. ISBN 9780677040004.
http://books.google.com/books?
id=SpgOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA10&dq=earth+effectivetemperature+albedo+blackbody&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_m
22. ^ Willem Jozef Meine Martens and Jan Rotmans (1999). Climate Change an
Integrated Perspective (http://books.google.com/books?
id=o1SELkgK6PcC&pg=RA1-PA53&dq=earth+effectivetemperature+albedo+blackbody+0.3&lr=&as_brr=3&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=TyDqSb_uOofmkATuyITyB
Springer. pp. 5255. ISBN 9780792359968. http://books.google.com/books?
id=o1SELkgK6PcC&pg=RA1-PA53&dq=earth+effectivetemperature+albedo+blackbody+0.3&lr=&as_brr=3&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=TyDqSb_uOofmkATuyITyB
23. ^ F. Selsis (2004). "The Prebiotic Atmosphere of the Earth
(http://books.google.com/books?
id=bA_uR3iwzQUC&pg=PA279&dq=earth+effectivetemperature+albedo+blackbody+0.3&lr=&as_brr=3&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=TyDqSb_uOofmkATuyITyB
". in Pascale Ehrenfreund et al.. Astrobiology: Future Perspectives. Springer.
pp. 279280. ISBN 9781402025877. http://books.google.com/books?
id=bA_uR3iwzQUC&pg=PA279&dq=earth+effectivetemperature+albedo+blackbody+0.3&lr=&as_brr=3&as_pt=ALLTYPES&ei=TyDqSb_uOofmkATuyITyB
24. ^ The Doppler Effect, T. P. Gill, Logos Press, 1965
25. ^ McKinley, John M., "Relativistic transformations of light power", Am. J.
Phys. 47 (7), Jul 1979

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body

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Black body - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Other textbooks
Kroemer, Herbert; Kittel, Charles (1980). Thermal Physics (2nd ed.).
W. H. Freeman Company. ISBN 0716710889.
Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.). W.
H. Freeman. ISBN 0716743450.

External links
Calculating Blackbody Radiation
(http://www.spectralcalc.com/blackbody/blackbody.html) Interactive
calculator with Doppler Effect. Includes most systems of units.
Cooling Mechanisms for Human Body (http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/Hbase/thermo/coobod.html#c1) - From Hyperphysics
Descriptions of radiation emitted by many different objects
(http://www.x20.org/library/thermal/blackbody.htm)
BlackBody Emission Applet
(http://webphysics.davidson.edu/Applets/java11_Archive.html)
"Blackbody
Spectrum" (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/BlackbodySpectrum/)
by Jeff Bryant, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body"
Categories: Heat transfer | Thermodynamics | Electromagnetic radiation |
Astrophysics
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body

2009/10/19