Linear Spaces

Linear spaces
Definition
Let K be a field, and (V , +) an abelian group. We call V a K−linear
space or K−vector space if V is endorsed with an external operation
with the operator domain K
· : K × V −→ V : (α, v ) 7−→ α · v ,
called scalar multiplication,
Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 1 / 28

Linear spaces
Definition
· : K × V −→ V : (α, v ) 7−→ α · v ,
called scalar multiplication, which verifies the following properties(of

compatibility with the internal operations in V and in K):
i) α · (v + w ) = α · v + α · w
ii) (α + β) · v = α · v + β · v
iii) (αβ) · v = α · (β · v )
iv ) 1K · v = v ,
for any α, β ∈ K, v , w ∈ V .

Linear spaces
Definition
· : K × V −→ V : (α, v ) 7−→ α · v ,
called scalar multiplication, which verifies the following properties(of

compatibility with the internal operations in V and in K):
i) α · (v + w ) = α · v + α · w
ii) (α + β) · v = α · v + β · v
iii) (αβ) · v = α · (β · v )
iv ) 1K · v = v ,
for any α, β ∈ K, v , w ∈ V .

Remark
The elements of the field K are called scalars, those of V vectors, and
the operation in V - vector addition.
Remark
In the sequel, we shall consider V to be a fixed K−linear space.

Remark
Remark
Proposition
Let α ∈ K and v ∈ V . Then α · v = 0V ⇐⇒ α = 0K ∨ v = 0V .

Remark
Remark
Proposition
Let α ∈ K and v ∈ V . Then α · v = 0V ⇐⇒ α = 0K ∨ v = 0V .

Definition
Let n ∈ N∗ be a positive integer, v1 , . . . , vn ∈ V n vectors, and
α1 , . . . , αn ∈ K n scalars. The expression
α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn
is called linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , vn , with the scalars(or

coefficients) α1 , . . . , αn .
Remark
If α1 = · · · = αn = 0K , then 0K · v1 + · · · + 0K · vn = 0V

Definition
α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn

Remark
Definition
A zero linear combination α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn = 0V in which at least
one coefficient is nonzero is called linear dependency relation between the
vectors v1 , . . . , vn .

Definition
α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn

Remark
Definition
A zero linear combination α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn = 0V in which at least
one coefficient is nonzero is called linear dependency relation between the
vectors v1 , . . . , vn .

Definition
Let S ⊆ V , S 6= ∅, be a nonempty set of vectors. We call S a vector
system linear dependent, and denote dep(S), if there are n ∈ N∗ and
v1 , . . . , vn ∈ S such that there is a linear dependency relation between
the vectors v1 , . . . , vn . Otherwise, the set S is called a linear independent
vector system, and we denote ind(S).

Definition
Remark
ind(S) ⇐⇒ (∀)n ∈ N∗ , α1 , . . . , αn ∈ K, v1 , . . . , vn ∈ S :
α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn = 0V =⇒ α1 = · · · = αn = 0K .

Definition
Remark
ind(S) ⇐⇒ (∀)n ∈ N∗ , α1 , . . . , αn ∈ K, v1 , . . . , vn ∈ S :
α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn = 0V =⇒ α1 = · · · = αn = 0K .

Proposition
Let S, S 0 ⊆ V , with S ⊆ S 0 . Then dep(S) =⇒ dep(S 0 ), resp.
ind(S 0 ) =⇒ ind(S).
Definition
If S ⊆ V is a vector system, the rank of the system S is
rank(S) = sup{|S 0 | | S 0 ⊆ S, ind(S 0 )}

Proposition
Definition
Remark
Thus the rank of a vector system is maximal number of vectors
contained in a linear independent subsystem of the given system.

Proposition
Definition
Remark
Thus the rank of a vector system is maximal number of vectors
contained in a linear independent subsystem of the given system.

Definition
A nonempty set of vectors W ⊆ V , W 6= ∅, is called linear subspace of
the K−linear space V , and denote W ≤ V , if it verifies the conditions:
i) w1 + w2 ∈ W , (∀)w1 , w2 ∈ W
ii) α · w ∈ W , (∀)α ∈ K, w ∈ W .
Proposition
For W ⊆ V , W 6= ∅, we have W ≤ V if and only if
α1 · w1 + α2 · w2 ∈ W , (∀)α1 , α2 ∈ K, w1 , w2 ∈ W .

Definition
A nonempty set of vectors W ⊆ V , W 6= ∅, is called linear subspace of
the K−linear space V , and denote W ≤ V , if it verifies the conditions:
i) w1 + w2 ∈ W , (∀)w1 , w2 ∈ W
ii) α · w ∈ W , (∀)α ∈ K, w ∈ W .
Proposition
For W ⊆ V , W 6= ∅, we have W ≤ V if and only if
α1 · w1 + α2 · w2 ∈ W , (∀)α1 , α2 ∈ K, w1 , w2 ∈ W .

Proposition
If {Wi }i∈I is a family of linear subspaces of the K− linear space V , then
\
Wi ≤ V .
i∈I

Definition
Let S ⊆ V . The linear subspace generated by S is
\
S := W
S⊆W ≤V
Remark
S is the smallest linear subspace of V which includes S.

Definition
\
S := W
S⊆W ≤V
Remark
Proposition
S = {α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn | n ∈ N, αi ∈ K, vi ∈ S}

Definition
\
S := W
S⊆W ≤V
Remark
Proposition
S = {α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn | n ∈ N, αi ∈ K, vi ∈ S}

Definition
A vector system S ⊆ V is called a generator system of the K−linear
space V if S = V .
Proposition
Let S, S 0 ⊆ V , with S ⊆ S 0 . If S = V , then S 0 = V .

Definition
A vector system S ⊆ V is called a generator system of the K−linear
space V if S = V .
Proposition
Let S, S 0 ⊆ V , with S ⊆ S 0 . If S = V , then S 0 = V .

Definition
A vector system B ⊆ V is called basis of the K−linear space V if it is a
linear independent generator system for the K−linear space V .
Proposition
If B = {v1 , . . . , vn is a basis of a K−linear space V , then for any vector
v ∈ V there are scalars α1 , . . . , αn ∈ K, uniquely determined such that
v = α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn .

Definition
Proposition
v = α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn .
Definition
The uniquely determined scalars such that
v = α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn ,
are called the coordinates of the vector v with respect to the basis
B = {v1 , . . . , vn }.

Definition
Proposition
v = α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn .
Definition
The uniquely determined scalars such that
v = α1 · v1 + · · · + αn · vn ,
are called the coordinates of the vector v with respect to the basis
B = {v1 , . . . , vn }.

Notation
The column matrix  
α1
[v ]B :=  ... 
 
αn
is the coordinates matrix of the vector v with respect to the the basis B.

Proposition
For a vector system B ⊆ V , the following statements are equivalent:
a) B is a basis of the K−linear space V .
b) B is a minimal generator system of the K−linear space V .

Proposition
c) B is a maximal linear independent vector system in the K−linear space
V.

Proposition
V.
Proposition
Any vector space contains at least one basis.

Proposition
V.
Proposition
Any vector space contains at least one basis.

Proposition
(The substitution lemma)
Let B = {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of the K−linear space V , and w ∈ V a
vector with [w ]B = [α1 . . . αn ]T such that αi 6= 0. Then
B 0 = {v1 , . . . , vi−1 , w , vi+1 , . . . , vn } is a basis for V .
Proposition
(Steinitz’s theorem)
Let B = {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of the K−linear space V and
S = {w1 , . . . , wm } a linear independent vector system. Then, after an
eventual relabelling {v10 , . . . , vn0 } of the base vectors of B, the vector
0 , . . . , v 0 } form bases for V , for any
systems Bi := {w1 , . . . , wi , vi+1 n
i = 0, m. In particular, m ≤ n. If S is also a basis of V , then m = n.

Proposition
(The substitution lemma)
Let B = {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of the K−linear space V , and w ∈ V a
vector with [w ]B = [α1 . . . αn ]T such that αi 6= 0. Then
B 0 = {v1 , . . . , vi−1 , w , vi+1 , . . . , vn } is a basis for V .
Proposition
(Steinitz’s theorem)
Let B = {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of the K−linear space V and
S = {w1 , . . . , wm } a linear independent vector system. Then, after an
eventual relabelling {v10 , . . . , vn0 } of the base vectors of B, the vector
0 , . . . , v 0 } form bases for V , for any
systems Bi := {w1 , . . . , wi , vi+1 n
i = 0, m. In particular, m ≤ n. If S is also a basis of V , then m = n.

Definition
The cardinal of a basis B of a K−linear space V (and thus of any basis
of V ) is called the dimension K−linear space V , denoted dimK (V ). A
linear space which has one finite basis is called finite dimensional linear
space.
Proposition
If S ⊆ V is a vector system, we have
rank(S) = dimK (S) .

Definition
The cardinal of a basis B of a K−linear space V (and thus of any basis
of V ) is called the dimension K−linear space V , denoted dimK (V ). A
linear space which has one finite basis is called finite dimensional linear
space.
Proposition
If S ⊆ V is a vector system, we have
rank(S) = dimK (S) .

Definition
If B = {v1 , . . . , vn }, B 0 = {v10 , . . . , vn0 } ⊆ V are two bases ale K−linear
space V , the quadratic matrix
0
TBB = [v10 ]B . . . [vn0 ]B (= [B 0 ]B )

is called the transition matrix from the basis B to the basis B 0 .
Proposition
If B, B 0 ⊆ V are two bases of a finite dimensional K− linear space V , then
for any vector v ∈ V the following equality holds:
0 −1
[v ]B 0 = TBB · [v ]B .

Definition
If B = {v1 , . . . , vn }, B 0 = {v10 , . . . , vn0 } ⊆ V are two bases ale K−linear
space V , the quadratic matrix
0
TBB = [v10 ]B . . . [vn0 ]B (= [B 0 ]B )

is called the transition matrix from the basis B to the basis B 0 .
Proposition
If B, B 0 ⊆ V are two bases of a finite dimensional K− linear space V , then
for any vector v ∈ V the following equality holds:
0 −1
[v ]B 0 = TBB · [v ]B .

Proposition
If W ≤ V is a linear subspace, then the relation
def
v1 ≡ v2 (mod W ) ⇐⇒ v1 − v2 ∈ W
is a congruence relation on V , i.e. an equivalence relation on V

compatible with the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication.
Definition
The equivalence classes(which coincide with the cosets with respect to
the subgroup W ≤ (V , +)) are called linear manifolds of direction W .

Proposition
def
v1 ≡ v2 (mod W ) ⇐⇒ v1 − v2 ∈ W

Definition
Proposition
If W ≤ V , the operations of V induce well defined operations on the factor
set V /W , which is a K−linear space with respect to these operations.

Proposition
def
v1 ≡ v2 (mod W ) ⇐⇒ v1 − v2 ∈ W

Definition
Proposition
If W ≤ V , the operations of V induce well defined operations on the factor
set V /W , which is a K−linear space with respect to these operations.

Proposition
(the codimension theorem)
Let V be a finite dimensional K−linear space, with dimK (V ) = n and
W ≤ V a subspace of V . If m = dimK (W ), then m ≤ n and
dimK (V /W ) = n − m .

Linear applications
Definition
Let V and W two K−linear spaces, and f : V −→ W : v 7−→ f (v ) a
function. f is called linear application if it verifies the conditions:
i) f (v1 + v2 ) = f (v1 ) + f (v2 ), (∀)v1 , v2 ∈ V (additivity )

ii) f (α · v ) = α · f (v ), (∀)α ∈ K, v ∈ V (homogenity ) .

Linear applications
Definition

Proposition
The application f : V −→ W is linear if and only if it verifies the condition
f (α1 v1 +α2 v2 ) = α1 f (v1 )+α2 f (v2 ), (∀)α1 , α2 ∈ K, v1 , v2 ∈ V (linearity ) .

Linear applications
Definition

Proposition
The application f : V −→ W is linear if and only if it verifies the condition
f (α1 v1 +α2 v2 ) = α1 f (v1 )+α2 f (v2 ), (∀)α1 , α2 ∈ K, v1 , v2 ∈ V (linearity ) .

Proposition
Let f : V −→ W and g : W −→ U be two linear applications. Then
g ◦ f : V −→ U is also a linear application.
Proposition
If f : V −→ W is a bijective linear application, then f −1 : W −→ V is a
linear application.

Proposition
Let f : V −→ W and g : W −→ U be two linear applications. Then
g ◦ f : V −→ U is also a linear application.
Proposition
If f : V −→ W is a bijective linear application, then f −1 : W −→ V is a
linear application.

Definition
A linear application f : V −→ W is called linear isomorphism if there is
a linear application g : W −→ V such that g ◦ f = idV and f ◦ g = idW .
If there is an isomorphism between two linear spaces V and W , we call
the two spaces isomorphic, and denote V ∼= W.
Proposition
O linear application is an isomorphism if and only if it is bijective.

Definition
A linear application f : V −→ W is called linear isomorphism if there is
a linear application g : W −→ V such that g ◦ f = idV and f ◦ g = idW .
If there is an isomorphism between two linear spaces V and W , we call
the two spaces isomorphic, and denote V ∼= W.
Proposition
O linear application is an isomorphism if and only if it is bijective.

Proposition
Let f : V −→ W be a linear application and S ⊆ V a vector system.
a) If f is injective, and ind(S), then ind(f (S)).
b) If f is surjective, and S = V , then f (S) = W .
Proposition
The necessary and sufficient condition for two linear spaces V and W to
be isomorphic is that dimK (V ) = dimK (W ).

Proposition
Proposition
Proposition
If f : V −→ W is a linear application, and S ≤ V and T ≤ W , then
f (S) ≤ W and f −1 (T ) ≤ V . În particular, Im(f ) = f (V ) ≤ W and
Ker (f ) = f −1 (0W ) ≤ V .

Proposition
Proposition
Proposition
If f : V −→ W is a linear application, and S ≤ V and T ≤ W , then
f (S) ≤ W and f −1 (T ) ≤ V . În particular, Im(f ) = f (V ) ≤ W and
Ker (f ) = f −1 (0W ) ≤ V .

Definition
Let f : V −→ W be a linear application. The rank of the linear
application f is rank(f ) := dimK (Im(f )). The defect of the linear
application f is def (f ) = dimK (Ker (f )).
Proposition
Let f : V −→ W be a linear application between two finite dimensional
linear spaces. Then f is injective if and only if def (f ) = 0, resp. f is
surjective if and only if rank(f ) = dimK (W ).

Definition
Let f : V −→ W be a linear application. The rank of the linear
application f is rank(f ) := dimK (Im(f )). The defect of the linear
application f is def (f ) = dimK (Ker (f )).
Proposition
linear spaces. Then f is injective if and only if def (f ) = 0, resp. f is
surjective if and only if rank(f ) = dimK (W ).

Proposition
(The fundamental isomorphism theorem for linear spaces)
Let f : V −→ W be a linear application. Then there is a linear
isomorphism f : V /Ker (f ) −→ Im(f ), unique such that
iIm(f ) ◦ f ◦ πKer (f ) = f . In particular, V /Ker (f ) ∼
= Im(f ).
Corollary
(The defect and rank theorem)
If f : V −→ W is a linear application, defined pe spaţiul linear
finit-dimensional V , then
def (f ) + rank(f ) = dimK (V ) .

Proposition
= Im(f ).
Corollary
Corollary
(The Ist isomorphism theorem)
If f : V −→ W is a surjective linear application, then W ∼
= V /Ker (f ).

Proposition
= Im(f ).
Corollary
Corollary
(The Ist isomorphism theorem)
If f : V −→ W is a surjective linear application, then W ∼
= V /Ker (f ).

Proposition
(The IInd isomorphism theorem)
Let U, W ≤ V . Then U/(U ∩ W ) ∼
= (U + W )/W .
Corollary
(Grassmann’s theorem) If U, W ≤ V are finite dimensional subspaces of
a K−linear space V , then
dimK (U + W ) = dimK (U) + dimK (W ) − dimK (U ∩ W ) .

Proposition
= (U + W )/W .
Corollary
Proposition
(The IIIrd isomorphism theorem)
Let U, W ≤ V , with U ≤ W . Then W /U ≤ V /U and
(V /U)/(W /U) ∼= V /W .

Proposition
= (U + W )/W .
Corollary
Proposition
(The IIIrd isomorphism theorem)
Let U, W ≤ V , with U ≤ W . Then W /U ≤ V /U and
(V /U)/(W /U) ∼= V /W .

Definition
K−linear spaces, BV = {v1 , . . . , vn } a basis in V , and
BW = {w1 , . . . , wm } a basis in W . The matrix of the application f with
respect to the bases BV and BW is the matrix
BV
[f ]B W
= [[f (v1 )]BW . . . [f (vn )]BW ] .
Proposition
If f : V −→ W is a linear application between two finite dimensional
K−linear spaces, and BV and BW are bases in the two spaces, then for
any v ∈ V the following equality holds:
[f (v )]BW = [f ]B
BW · [v ]BV .
V

Definition
K−linear spaces, BV = {v1 , . . . , vn } a basis in V , and
BW = {w1 , . . . , wm } a basis in W . The matrix of the application f with
respect to the bases BV and BW is the matrix
BV
[f ]B W
= [[f (v1 )]BW . . . [f (vn )]BW ] .
Proposition
K−linear spaces, and BV and BW are bases in the two spaces, then for
any v ∈ V the following equality holds:
[f (v )]BW = [f ]B
BW · [v ]BV .
V

Proposition
Let f : V −→ W and g : W −→ U be linear applications between finite
dimensional K−linear spaces, and BV , BW and BU are bases in the three
linear spaces.
a) [g ◦ f ]B BW BV
BU = [g ]BU · [f ]BW .
V
b) If f is bijective, then [f −1 ]B W BV −1
BV = ([f ]BW ) .
Proposition

K−linear spaces, BV and BV0 are bases in V , and BW and BW 0 are bases
in W , then
B0 B0 BV0
[f ]BV0 = (TBWW )−1 · [f ]B
BW · TBV .
V
W

Proposition
Let f : V −→ W and g : W −→ U be linear applications between finite
dimensional K−linear spaces, and BV , BW and BU are bases in the three
linear spaces.
a) [g ◦ f ]B BW BV
BU = [g ]BU · [f ]BW .
V
b) If f is bijective, then [f −1 ]B W BV −1
BV = ([f ]BW ) .
Proposition

K−linear spaces, BV and BV0 are bases in V , and BW and BW 0 are bases
in W , then
B0 B0 BV0
[f ]BV0 = (TBWW )−1 · [f ]B
BW · TBV .
V
W

Eigenvectors and eigenvalues
Definition
Let f : V −→ V be a linear application. A nonzero vector v ∈ V \ {0V }
is called an eigenvector of the linear application f if there is a scalar
λ ∈ K such that f (v ) = λ · v . The scalar λ is called in this case an
eigenvalue of the application f , and we call v an eigenvector associated
with the eigenvalue λ.

Definition
Proposition
If f : V −→ V is a linear application, and λ ∈ K an eigenvalue of f , then
Vλ := {v ∈ V | f (v ) = λ · v }
is a nonzero subspace of V , called the eigenspace associated with the

eigenvalue λ.

Definition
Proposition
If f : V −→ V is a linear application, and λ ∈ K an eigenvalue of f , then
Vλ := {v ∈ V | f (v ) = λ · v }
is a nonzero subspace of V , called the eigenspace associated with the

eigenvalue λ.

Proposition
Let V be a K−linear space of finite dimension n, BV a basis in V , and
f : V −→ V a linear application. A scalar λ ∈ K is an eigenvalue of the
linear application f if and only if
det(λ · In − [f ]BV
BV ) = 0 .
Definition
f : V −→ V a linear application. The polynomial pf ∈ K[X ],
pf = det(X · In − [f ]B V
BV )
is called the characteristic polynomial of the linear application f . The

equation
pf (x) = 0
is called the characteristic equation of the linear application f .

Proposition
f : V −→ V a linear application. A scalar λ ∈ K is an eigenvalue of the
linear application f if and only if
det(λ · In − [f ]BV
BV ) = 0 .
Definition
f : V −→ V a linear application. The polynomial pf ∈ K[X ],
pf = det(X · In − [f ]B V
BV )
is called the characteristic polynomial of the linear application f . The

equation
pf (x) = 0
is called the characteristic equation of the linear application f .

Linear Spaces

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Linear Spaces

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Linear spaces

called scalar multiplication,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 1 / 28

called scalar multiplication, which verifies the following properties(of

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 1 / 28

called scalar multiplication, which verifies the following properties(of

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 1 / 28

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 2 / 28

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 2 / 28

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 2 / 28

is called linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , vn , with the scalars(or

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 3 / 28

is called linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , vn , with the scalars(or

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 3 / 28

is called linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , vn , with the scalars(or

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 3 / 28

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 4 / 28

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 4 / 28

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 4 / 28

rank(S) = sup{|S 0 | | S 0 ⊆ S, ind(S 0 )}

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 5 / 28

rank(S) = sup{|S 0 | | S 0 ⊆ S, ind(S 0 )}

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 5 / 28

rank(S) = sup{|S 0 | | S 0 ⊆ S, ind(S 0 )}

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 5 / 28

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 6 / 28

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rank(S) = dimK (S) .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 14 / 28

rank(S) = dimK (S) .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 14 / 28

is called the transition matrix from the basis B to the basis B 0 .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 15 / 28

is called the transition matrix from the basis B to the basis B 0 .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 15 / 28

is a congruence relation on V , i.e. an equivalence relation on V

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 16 / 28

is a congruence relation on V , i.e. an equivalence relation on V

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 16 / 28

is a congruence relation on V , i.e. an equivalence relation on V

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 16 / 28

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 17 / 28

i) f (v1 + v2 ) = f (v1 ) + f (v2 ), (∀)v1 , v2 ∈ V (additivity )

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 18 / 28

i) f (v1 + v2 ) = f (v1 ) + f (v2 ), (∀)v1 , v2 ∈ V (additivity )

f (α1 v1 +α2 v2 ) = α1 f (v1 )+α2 f (v2 ), (∀)α1 , α2 ∈ K, v1 , v2 ∈ V (linearity ) .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 9 2009 18 / 28