Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Case Study - Ethiopia
Case Study - Ethiopia
_______________SFFG 101______________
Principles and Concepts of Social Forestry
Submitted by:
Daniel, Dyanara
Del Rosario, Peter Jerome
Lapitan, Ezekiel
Laurente , Marc Simon
Pauig , Marc Vico
Ramos , James Edelbert
Submitted to:
Asst. Prof. Maricel A. Tapia
SFFG 101 Lecturer
March 16, 2012
Fast Facts
Capital: Addis Ababa; 2,723,000
Area:1,133,380 square kilometers
(437,600 square miles)
Language: Amharic, Tigrinya,
Orominga, Guaraginga, Somali, Arabic
Religion: Muslim, Ethiopian Orthodox,
animist
Currency: Birr
Life Expectancy: 42
GDP per Capita: U.S. $700
major
physiographic
features
are
massive
Literacy Percent: 43
areas of desert
Ethiopian Plateau are forests and woodland accounting for roughly a quarter of the total
land surface; however, have been diminishing in size due to fires and over-farming
Population
approximately 88 million residents by far and was the second most populous country in
Black Africa.
most are farmers and herders but deforestation, drought, and soil degradation caused crop
failures and famine during the past few decades seven million people face starvation
There has been phenomenal growth in the number of people living in EA drylands. This
growth is attributable to both advances in medical sciences as well as significant inmigration into drylands from higher potential land due to over-stretching of the
agricultural and land resources in those areas. The increased population occurs within the
context of static or even contracting natural resource base.
Culture
Ge'ez is one of the most ancient languages in the world and is still used today by the
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
The traditional view was men neither cook nor do shopping because housework tends to
be women's job
Parents are stricter with their daughters than their sons; often parents give more freedom
to males than females
Ethiopian men and women wear traditional costume called gabbi or Netella
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Christians do not eat meat and diary products (i.e. egg,
butter, milk, and cheese) on Wednesdays and Fridays except the 50 days between Easter
and Pentecost, the Fast of the Prophets, the fast of Nineveh, Lent, the Fast of the Apostles
and the fast of the Holy Virgin Mary.
Some tribes partially cover their body with leather but others do not wear any clothes at
all, merely decorating their faces and bodies with distinctive images.
Economy
Of non-petroleum producing countries of Africa, has the most rapidly growing gross
domestic product of any at 8%, the 5th fastest growing in the world but still having fairly
low GDP
expected to increase industrialized farming practices and better use of vast water
resources (does not utilize irrigation in any extensive manner)
Their current economy is still based on agriculture which suffers from frequent drought
and poor cultivation practices (Butler, 2006). Coffee was still critical in their economy
accounting for $ 156 million worth of exports in 2002 but there were low prices seen in their past
exports. Under their land tenure system, the government owns the land and provides long-term
leases to the tenants; in which this system hampered the growth in the industrial sectors as
entrepreneurs because they were not allowed to use the land as collateral for loans (Ibid).
But through time, even though this country has fertile woodlands, forest degradation
became inevitable due to certain factors. According to UNEP (1983) as cited by Bishaw (2001),
there has been a progressive deforestation which reduced Ethiopias forest area to 16 percent in
the 1950s and 3.1 percent in 1982. This was primarily caused by the past agricultural practices in
the country and intensive rainfall which led to soil erosion from the highlands (Bishaw, 2001).
Though surviving forest areas can be found in the southern and southwestern part of the
country and that efforts were done to preserve these areas, most of these areas were still prone to
exploitation such as coffee and tea cash cropping and logging (MOA, 1991 as cited by Bishaw,
2001). Futhermore, according to Getahun ang Hurni (1988, 1990) as cited by Bishaw (2001),
humans and domestic animals has altered both the vegetation and landscape of Ethiopias natural
high lands. There were many programs implemented to mitigate forest degradation. Bishaw
(2001) noted the establishment of 57 NFPAs or National Forest Priority Areas which covered
almost three percent of the countrys land area covering almost three percent of the countrys
land area but was considered dubious due to unsound policies. Bishaw (2001) also noted that
environmental sustainability programs also consider factors such as the concerned institutions
and organizations and not just the government. Bishaw (2001) also cited Uibrig & Gamachu
(1989 & 1988) who noted that success in tree planting has been limited which only resulted to
less than 20 percent tree survival on the average, in the national scope.
Therefore, it is indeed obvious that Ethiopias forests are now degraded and are in grave
need of rehabilitation and preservation in order to have sustainable production and ecological
stability in this country. According to Butler (2006), the total forest ares of Ethiopia was now
only 12, 296 ha. In total, between 1990 and 2010, Ethiopia had lost 18.6 percent of its forest
cover or around 2, 818, 000 ha (Ibid). Moreover, there has been decreasing trends in the total
forest cover in which the general change rate was 141 from 1990 to 2000, 2000 to 2005, and
2005 to 2010, indicating deforestation in the area (Butler, 2006). There were also other related
issues in the country today such as overgrazing, soil erosion, desertification, water shortages in
some areas from water-intensive farming, and poor management (Ibid). It was also found out that
the Great Rift Valley was still active and susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
frequent droughts (Ibid). Moreover, it was necessary to point out that the country has retained
very centralized natural resource management policies although there had been attempts towards
participatory forms of forest management (Roe, Nelson, and Sandbrook, 2009). Also, traditional
pastoralist land management regimes cover much of the southern half of the country but are not
formally recognized (Bassi, 2006; Tache and Irwin, 2003 as cited by Roe et al., 2009, page 33).
Roe et al. (2009) also noted that pastoralist lands continued facing threats of land loss and
encroachment, one example of which was a surge of allocating lands for bio fuel.
African drylands have faced soil erosion in which Ethiopia, for instance, had an estimated
1 billion tonnes of valuable topsoil lost annually coupled with massive exploitation of woodland
resources due to weed species (Jama and Zeila, 2005). Ethiopia had benefits in the forests in
forms of woods and income, but they were still suffering in land degradation which impaired
their forests in its productive capability (Bishaw, 2001). Increasing population also degraded
some of the forests lands where they used fodders for raising livestock which in turn caused
overexploitation of resources and desertification (Ibid). The amount or rate of forest degradation
in the country as stated in the preceding paragraphs resulted to massive environmental
degradation and constituted a serious threat to sustainable agriculture and forestry.
Rural afforestation and conservation programs had been practiced in Ethiopi in relation with
the problems they experienced. The Ministry of Agriculture in collaboration with international
agencies had made efforts in implementing agroforestry and community tree farming programs
(Ibid). According to FAO (1985) as cited by Bishaw (2001), United Nations has been helping
Ethiopia to promote tree planting and soil conservation programs having the following
objectives:
1. to meet the needs for fuel food, construction materials, and fodder from trees planted
outside forests;
2. to reduce degradation of soil resources and improve productivity of agricultural lands;
and
3. to reduce the pressure from the remaining natural forests and conserve biodiversity.
The International Center for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) also collaborated with
research institutions in the East African highlands (Nair, 1990; Hoekstra, Torquebiau, and
Bishae, 1990 as cited by Bishaw, 2001). Through a Diagnosis and Design Methodolody
developed by ICRAF, a blueprint entitled Agroforestry: Potential and Research Needs for the
Ethiopian Highlands was prepared by Technical Committee for Agrogoretry in Ethiopia
together with ICRAF scientists (Bishaw, 2001). Despite the large commitments in this
endeavour, tree planting and conservation has been limited (Ibid).
Social forestry programs in the Ethiopia also dated back in the 19th century but it was
implemented in the second half of the 1970s (Bishaw, 2001 as cited by Bielski, 2008). This
program emerged as a product of environmental activism and from the 1974 seizure of a now
defunct military-socialist government (Mekonnen, 2000 as cited by Bielski, 2008, page 3).
Various government agencies undertook social forestry projects. Jagger and Pender, 2003 as
cited by Bielski, 2008, noted that Ethiopia has different program levels for social forestry which
were tabias (community level), kushets (village level), and sub-kushets (sub-groups within a
village). Bielski (2008) added that social forestry plantations are typically managed on 70 to 100
hectares of land and that Ethiopian communities rely on these programs to sustain ecosystems.
The next was through Tenure in REDD+ Donor Agencies where wide range of donors
were included in wide range of channels on a multilateral, bilateral, and on a project level (Ibid).
The most important multilateral approach was UN-REDD, FCPF, and FIP. The Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility (FCPF) defined land tenure as one of the fundamental conditions for
sustainable use of forest resources. FCPF was subject to World Banks environmental and social
safeguard policies to support activities and establish a legal recognition of customary and
traditional land system tenures for indigenous people (World Bank, 2005 as cited by Westholm
et al., 2007). Ethiopia was one of the pilot countries under FCPF where an on-going program
under Participatory Forest Management will feed into the REDD+ readiness process.
There were also participatory forest management (PFM) efforts in Ethiopia. According to
Kelbessa and De Stoop in the 2007 Proceedings of the National Conference in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, the objective of PFM was to focus on using forest resources to create income and
promote development. They added that an effective implementation of PFM process requires
participation, negotiation, empowerment, and collective decision-making. Moreover, Diriba
Kurma in his welcoming speech in the national conference noted that PFM is very well-suited
with decentralization and rural development strategies of Ethiopia and Oromia which stipulate
the participation and empowerment of rural communities on forest resource management
(Kelbessa and De Stoop, 2007, page xiv).
PFM has been introduced to halt forest clearance which occurred through direct cutting,
subsistence use, urbanization, and forest fires and which was often rapidly followed by
settlement and cultivation (Kelbessa and De Stoop, 2007). Lastly, Zhu, Moller, De Lopez, and
Romero (2010) emphasized that well-defined rights and obligations over local forest resources
and providing incentives for sustainable forest management was imparted in the participatory
forest management project.
Land tenure security was also an issue in Ethiopia. As said earlier, their current policies
and regulations did not permit individual land ownership since tenures involved land
management in long-term perspective (Schnitzer, Rabitsch, Moll, and Steller, 2009). Federal
percolation 455 was issued for compensation of lands while 456 was issued for rural land
administration. Environmental Protection Authority was also set up 1995 for development and
implementation for environmental policies and assessments (Ibid).
Agroforestry was an old-age practice in Ethiopia whereby farmers maintain trees in their
croplands (Bishaw, 2001). The main goal of agroforestry and social forestry in Ethiopia was to
satisfy the basic needs of the rural people (Ibid). To achieve this goal, different technologies
were implemented to serve as baseline information for further development of agroforestry and
social forestry in the country. The following were the objectives:
1. to introduce alley cropping to improve soil fertility, produce fodder and fuel wood, and
aid in soil conservation (soil improvement);
2. to practice fodder tree planting to supplement the low quality and quantity feed sources
available for livestock (food supply for livestock);
3. to plant trees in home gardens and woodlands to provide fuel wood, construction poles,
serve as windbreaks and shelter belts for the people, and provide feed and shelter for
animals (security);
4. to plant trees as living fences on farm boundaries and roadsides to provide alternative
source of cash and supply fuel wood (generate income); and
5. to plant trees on contour structures and inside and along gullies to aid bench terraces and
gully stabilization (environmental conservation and improvement).
support and manage the sources rather than to fund the primary development activity as many
scholars argued (Ibid). Non-government agencies can also participate in promoting PFM in
Ethiopia through facilitation and technical support such as what FARM-Africa and SOS Sahel
Ethiopia did (Tadesse, 2007). Moreover, Tadesse (2007) noted that these close partnerships
under PFM have brought about the stabilizing and even reversal of deforestation and forest
degradation (page 115). In order to show a real organizational structure and partnership, an
implementation framework was shown below:
The figure above contained the proposed organizational structure for a REDD project in
Bale Ecoregion in Ethiopia where capacity-building and technical support to the Oromia Forest
and Wildlife Enterprise (OFWE) and the Forest Conservation Cooperatives (Ibid). OFWE who
had forest funds will have benefit sharing agreements with FCC; after which OFWE will contact
buyers and investors in their social forestry project and products.
In order to mobilize the people, social technologies were implemented by the local
government together with international organizations. It constitutes of discussing three sets of
questions. The first questions pertained to historical diagrams and timelines. Old people in the
community were asked to describe the time their mountains were still covered with forest and its
farming conditions. The next was identifying the problems wherein people were asked to
describe how the lack of trees affected them, their family, and their community. Finally people
were asked to think the outcome of reforesting the mountains. The above methods such as
seminars, forums, technical trainings, and timelines were all social technologies. These tactics
were repeated frequently, encouraging as many people as possible to respond each time. These in
turn helped to create positive attitudes towards reforestation and to culminate people's interest to
undertake the planting activities.
and environmental reasons. PFM contributed to organizing and involving the people in planning
forestry projects to utilize forest resources and avoid deforestation and forest degradation
(Winberg, 2010). In Farm Forestry Programs, farmers are encouraged to establish private
plantations which were usually various species of eucalyptus around their homes. ICRAFs
Agroforestry Systems Inventory Project also had identified traditional and experimental
farming systems in Ethiopia (Chew, 1989). In Community Forestry Programs, farmers are
encouraged to plant trees on community lands to provide technical and financial support in the
establishment of nurseries and the planting of seedlings.
In Ethiopia, under the Community Forestry and Soil Conservation Department of the
Ministry of Agriculture, the Soil Conservation unit is implementing terracing, irrigation canals
and other engineering technologies in an attempt to counter the effects induced by massive
destruction of their natural resources. Moreover, land scarcity is acute in densely populated
highlands which farmers utilized without proper soil conservation (Bishaw, 2001). Thus, tree
planting along contours and inside and along gullies were made to aid bench terraces and
gully stabilization to prevent runoff and soil erosion (Ibid).
SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Changes in income sources and levels
The households within the vicinity of Bonga forest depended mainly on forest products,
crop farming and to a limited extent on livestock (Gobeze, Bekele, Lemenih, and Kassa, 2009).
With the adoption of Participatory Forestry Management, major income sources of participant
households shifted from the predominantly forest based before PFM to agriculture based after
PFM (Gobeze et al., 2009). Majority of the households depended more on forest-based
livelihood activities before PFM and these households used to derive income from firewood,
followed by charcoal, crop farming, forest coffee, honey, and livestock (Gobeze et.al, 2009).
After participating in PFM activities, the majority of households that acquire their major
income from forest-based activities decreased (Ibid). Meanwhile after PFM the contribution from
crop and livestock increased while dependence for income shifted from forest products to the
type of forest products (Ibid). The amount of income generated from each of the livelihood
activities of the households also changed after the introduction of Participatory Forest
Management.
BIO-PHYSICAL IMPACTS
Forest structure (in Bonga, Ethiopia)
The individual distribution of individual trees/stands showed a normal population
structure, however, PFM sites showed a relatively higher percentage of seedling and sapling
individuals which indicated that PFM population was more stable, and that reproduction,
regeneration, and growth of woody species are better in the PFM than in the non-PFM forests
(Ibid).
The effects of the eucalypts on soils have been studied in several countries over many
years. Most of the concerns related to effects on soil quality dealt with the nutrients depletion
and allelopathy caused by the litter, which exerts an antibiotic effect on soil micro-organisms,
verified by research that showed a very low concentration of nitrifying bacteria in eucalypt
plantations litter (Florenzano, 1956 as cited by Bioenergy.ornl.gov, 2012). The effect often
depends on the management regime of the plantation. Erkossa and Dessie (2011) noted that other
studies indicated the various soil physical quality indicators which decreased with increasing age
of the plantations. Moreover, they noted that soil chemical properties, notably organic carbon,
and total N, P and K decreased as a result of reforestation with eucalyptus.
Goals and Steps Taken: At the end of the project, citizens should gain a positive attitude
towards reforestation and inculcating to the farmers minds the importance of planting trees and
being aware of their current environment. This was done through mobilisation tactics where
many people were gathered together to describe their current situation in relation with their
environment. This tactic was repeated frequently to invite more people as possible to participate
and in turn helped them generate positive attitudes towards reforestation. Another tactic was
increasing the knowledge of farmers regarding the major problems which affected their current
social status. Debates and local mass gathering were done throughout the country wherein the
findings were interpreted by the Department of Agriculture at the regional level. It was then
found out that the major problems experienced in their community were about soil and water
conservation.
Citizens were then offered to train elected village representatives in the skills needed to
grow trees successfully. After which, production cadre (local farmers elected by the people to act
as grass-roots extension agents) were also given training in raising tree seedlings. Two years
later, the technician surveyed possible planting sites and the community decided which ones to
use. They selected several gulleys and an exposed hilltop which was communal land. As the
demand for tree seedlings for private use had also grown enormously, the people decided that
they would need to grow 40,000 seedlings that year. To grow this number of seedlings they
decided to establish a communal tree nursery on a site close to the centre of the village and
nearby water supply.
Through training programmes, farmers' meetings, and farm visits, the peoples' technical
knowledge about trees and their effect on soil and water conservation increased greatly. This
technical knowledge reinforced and helped strengthen attitudes favouring reforestation and
convinced the people that they were able to grow the trees themselves. With these, they already
had their own way of living, making their life at stable.
Further Steps/Actions:
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
FORESTRY PROGRAM IN ETHIOPIA: SUCCESS AND FAILURE
It was observed that social forestry in Ethiopia has been successful only during the time it
was implemented in the country. Based from the data gathered for the countrys strategies and
commitments in promoting social forestry, it can be considered that they were successful in
making different projects for environmental conservation and meeting basic needs. However, it
was observed in their current forest status that there was still decreasing number of forest covers
and deforestations has been increasing in a consistent rate.
were ready to own the program. There was still a need for extension agents and development
communicators to facilitate them as a community managing their resources.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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forest status: the case of Bonga forest in Ethiopia Retrieved on March 5, 2012 from
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