177

The Magnetic Storm of August

By

C.

Chree, Sc.D., LL.D.,

F.K.S.,

22, 1916.

Superintendent of

Kew

Observatory.

(Received January 31, 1917.)

While the ultimate cause

S 1.

magnetic storms has been a fruitful

of

phenomena presented by

source of speculation, detailed enquiries into the

individual storms have been comparatively few.
is

to be regretted, because, without accurate

This distribution of effort

knowledge

way

phenomena,

of the

A difficulty in

theoretical investigations are apt to be barren of results.

the

the great complexity of the magnetic changes which take place, even

is

Some

at a single station, in the course of the ordinary magnetic storm.

of

these changes are undoubtedly

more

local

than others, but the difficulty

to see

anything but accident in the sequence

is

and

of less general significance

of events.

Of

late years

limited

number

an international scheme has existed

of

for the selection of a

magnetic storms annually, co-operating stations publishing

magnetograms obtained on these particular days.

copies of the

consider-

number of records have accumulated, but few serious attempts have

been made to utilise them. The most hopeful course is, I think, to start

able

with the study of those magnetic disturbances of considerable amplitude

which appear

of the simplest kind.

The simplest type

result

of disturbance

magnetic element from

through a

or

maximum

The changes

minimum
The

of

an

that which would

is

electric current in a fixed

In such a case we should expect to see a gradual departure in each

circuit.

value.

one can imagine

from the gradual waxing and waning

or

its

undisturbed or normal value, the element passing

minimum, and returning gradually

in the several elements

magnetogram

undisturbed

would be in phase, the

value occurring simultaneously in

trace in a

to its

maximum

all.

in such a case

would resemble

fig.

1,

the

portions

AB,

DE

element,

BD

being greater or less according to the time taken by the

of the

trace corresponding to the

magnetic change and the openness

oscillation,

we might have

of the

time

scale.

a double oscillation as in

normal value of the

Instead of a single

fig. 2,

or a succession of

178

Dr. C. Chree.

them.

The movement in

fixed circuit,

On
of

fig.

2 might arise from an electric current in a

whose direction reversed in passing through a zero value.

the hypothesis mentioned, the departures at one and the same instant

time of any two magnetic elements from their normal values would stand

which obviously implies constancy

to one another in a constant ratio,

of

direction in the disturbance vector.

2.

Now,

there are occasions

when the magnetic curves show

But supposing a source

approach to this state of matters.

an

at least

of disturbance

equivalent to the fluctuations of an electric current in a fixed circuit to come

into operation, one

action

magnetic

other

of

would hardly anticipate the

changes,

such,

constitute the regular diurnal variation.

total suspension

for

those

as

instance,

Also the presence

during

of

its

which

any second

source of magnetic change would interfere more or less with the regularity
it would naturally affect the different
The turning points might be accelerated in one
element and retarded in another, so that the movements in. the curves for
different elements at a single station would no longer appear strictly in

of

shape

of the

elements

magnetic curves, and

differently.

phase.

In the ordinary magnetogram, the length

only from

|-

to

-A-

mm., while the dot

of trace

per minute of tim.e

Thus, even under the most favourable conditions,

size.

the time of any

movement

to nearer

is

of light producing the trace is of finite

it is difficult to fix

than half a minute, and as the trace at

a turning point has generally a finite curvature, the accuracy with which the

time of reversal of a movement can be fixed

it is

is

usually less than this.

Thus

usually impossible to affirm with certainty that two magnetic elements

at the

same

station are absolutely in phase, and, conversely, the existence of

a small difference of phase

is

apt to be rather a matter of belief than of

exact demonstration.

When

discussing the

magnetograms obtained in 1902-4 by the National

Antarctic Expedition,* along with corresponding curves from co-operating

stations, I

short

came across some

movements

were generally

in the traces

oscillatory,

i.e.,

original undisturbed value.

if

ever,

cases of simultaneous, or nearly simultaneous,

absolutely

equal,

from

the element tended to return towards the

But the to-and-fro movements were seldom,

and I preferred to regard them as separate

movements distinguished by the letters A and

the A movements had a more or less common
and the average directions
opposite to one another.

These movements

different stations.

for the

In such a

B.

At

a particular station

direction,

and

two types were not

so

far

had the B,

from being

case, as suggested above, the departure

* 'National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4, Magnetic Observations,' pp. 176

et seq.

The Magnetic Storm of August

from direct opposition in the to-and-fro movements

action of an independent source of disturbance.

179

22, 1916.

may

arise

from the

our best course would

If so,

probably be to treat the two movements as the two halves of an oscillation

due

we might

to a simple source, as

in considerable

measure the

way

reasonably hope in this

effects

to eliminate

the second scarce of disturbance.

of

But, on the other hand, the departure from exact opposition between the two

movements may be an

essential,

not an accidental, feature, and

may

conception of a to-and-fro oscillation in a given azimuth

if so,

the

be the reverse

of helpful.

In dealing with the Eskdalemuir curves for 1913 and 1914, Mr. L. F.
Eichardson* came across a number of cases which he believed to represent
oscillation in a fixed azimuth.

These he called disturbances of class K.

other disturbances, which he called class L, he found the

movements

In

in the

different elements to differ in phase.

Personally, I

am

inclined to think that

at least highly exceptional for

it is

the movements in the different elements to remain absolutely in phase for

any appreciable length

of

time.

However

may

this

be, there

can be no

doubt that differences in phase between the different elements are

more

some cases than

in evidence in

phase between the two components

When

others.

there

is

much

a difference of

the horizontal plane, the azimuth

in, say,

The

of the disturbance vector in that plane continually alters.

fact that the

vector diagram often represents a rotation which proceeds in one direction

for a considerable time, it

or counter-clockwise,

with the copies

found no

of

was

may
first

be hours, the rotation being either clockwise

pointed out by Mr. E. B. Sangster.f

than 70 examples of the phenomenon.

less

Dealing

disturbed curves, published annually at Greenwich, he

Analysing them, he

found the direction of rotation to be largely dependent on the hour

He

day.

clockwise)

(or

morning
3.

rotation

this direction

between 4

p.m.

and

was the more common

The disturbance

am

rotation in the disturbance vector diagram

It

ment," especially prominent as usual

6 h. 30 m. P.M. on
^^

August

Meteorological Office,

p.m.,

22, 1916,

is

while in

the

early

one.

now^ about to describe

regular as to invite special study.

Section

of the

observed no single instance of what he called a "positive"

so

is

one in which the

remarkably pronounced and

began with a "sudden commencethe

horizontal

at

about

and continued until the morning

of the

in

British Meteorological and Magnetic

force,

Year Book,' Part IV,

2, p. 78, 1913.

Roy. See.

A,

Note.

Mr.

Sangster really considered the

But the directions of
and in the horizontal plane are usually the same. The latter depend

Proc.,'

vol. 84, p. 85.

vector diagram in the plane normal to the dipping needle.

rotation seen in

it

only on variations of the horizontal components, which are usually the most reliable.

180

Dr. C. Chree.

As

become really quiet for a considerable

movements took place after 5 a.m. on the 23rd, and at Kew
Observatory the specially conspicuous movements took place between 7 p.m.
and 11 P.M. on the 22nd. Attention is restricted here to these hours, and
23rd.

usual, the curves did not

time, but no large

more

especially to the interval 7.48 p.m. to 9.24 p.m.

the evening of the 22nd was reported from one

station

Stornowaybut

naturally interfere

of

with the

seem

not

does

it

The duration

outstanding.

meteorological

Scottish

have been in any way

however, at that season would

twilight,
of

visibility

to

display of aurora on

aurora in Scotland during the

earlier part of the raagnetic storm.

The

artificial

suffer render

Kew

disturbances from which the

them unsuitable

disturbances, but, on

August

for the study of

minor

magnetic curves now

most natural

details of

was

22, 1916, the natural disturbance

(horizontal force and declination) traces were not serious.

measurements at
graphic

copies

Kew
the

of

are

much more

exposed to

Eskdalemuir

were

curves

and

W,

at

kindly

Eskdalemuir are not, as usual,

fig.

H and D

common

time

scale, so that points

The horizontal
and D, but

p.m. to 9.30 p.m.

Kew

on August 22,

on the same ordinate refer

1007
"

H D

7Z0

bZQi

HOUR

Fm.

2
3.

HOUR

2 HOURS

set to a

to the

represents

&^0

way

horizontal force

SCALEVAWeS,
fac/i Length

Z30

by

two observatories.

are copies, reduced to half, of the

and declination traces from 7.30

Photo-

supplied

This stands somewhat in the

the north and west components.

of optical intercomparison of the curves at the

In

and

Vertical force (V)

uncertainty.

Dr. Crichton Mitchell, Superintendent of the Observatory.

components recorded

so large

that the uncertainties connected with the measurement of the

A I

same

The Magnetic Storm of August

N and W are

instant of time.

at the

two observatories are

about 15*3

mm.

the Eskdalemuir north and west component

and reduced,

traces, similarly set

The

181

22, 1916.

for the

same

closely alike, one

The time

interval.

scales

hour being represented by

ordinates' scale values were as follows

mm.

equals

D, 5*0 7 in N, and 5-3 7 in W.

H' and J)' are
7
identical with
and D, only D' has been moved to the left relatively to

7 in H,

6-1

4-6

(or O'S?') in

H' by the equivalent

In other words,

10 minutes of time.

of

if

be the

time in minutes to which a point on a given ordinate in the D' curve

H' curve answers

answers, the point on the same ordinate in the

time

2^

10.

N' and

Similarly,

same

are the

relative displacement corresponding to about 10

Declination at
the

and

Kew

Observatory

is

as

minutes

to the

but for a

of time.

We may

W.

about 15*1

W,

and

thus regard

curves as showing the changes of force in two rectangular

directions, the first inclined 15*1 west of north, the other 15*1 south of

west.

Again, while the

difference in

phase

between the curves.

and

curves in

not large, and there

is

Hence,

if

and

fig.

is

3 are not in phase,, the

a considerable resemblance

component magnetographs had

been in operation at Kew, the resemblance between the

W curve and the D curve would

curve and between the

close.

much

Eskdalemuir

larger

between the North

far

from

the

English

border,

Scotland and the South of England

of

Kew.

than the corresponding variation at

not very

is

curve and the

the N" component at Eskdalemuir

It follows that the variation in

was very

have been pretty

been twice as great as between Eskdalemuir and Kew.

As

'

the

difference

may

well have

To

arrive at

an

adequate conception of the variations of magnetic force during a disturbance

'

of this type,

even in such a limited area as the British

Isles,

obviously

requires the co-operation of at least four or five well distributed stations.

It is obvious at a glance that
is

equally clear that,

and between

and

if

W, we

showing a close approach

two hours.

At

is

not in phase with H, nor

W with N.

It

no time difference had existed between D' and H'^

should have regarded either pair of curves as

to identity of

phase throughout the greater part of

the same time, the ratio of the amplitudes of the successive

oscillations is not the

same

for the

two elements,

had been simultaneous, the azimuth

so that,

even

if

of the disturbance vector

the records

would have

undergone change.
4.

To study

nearly 1

Kew

mm.)

details,

the curves were

measured at 4-minute

intervals, and, to facilite comparison, the changes in

W.

(or

very

H and D

The values of the

elements immediately before the sudden commencement at 6.30 p.m. were
accepted as normal, and it is the differences from these normal values, AN,
at

were converted into changes in

and

182

AW,

Dr. C. Chree.
and AY, that appear in Table

The inclination

I.

AW,

the vector, whose rectangular components are AN",

calculated only for

the interval 7.48 p.m. to 9.24

to the horizon i^ of

AV,

and

(was

which special

to

p.m.,

ai4(-rj
'

o
/8.i6(^-6T

240

.oai2(-s*'j

22a'
200
180

*y^/^

S.20(+29jp'

o>**>*****<*o

8.i2.(-a'')

i.26(+20)

20

\756(+!0')

4p

80

60

.^8.4(^5')

8.48^66J'*--.,^

fl.36(+40)

60
'oB.0(+6'')

80

\a44(H:52'')

P9.20

o<5.28(-*-47)

100

120

>8.40(+39)

140

^ai6

a32(+4oyo..^^^
!20.

^160

'*9.I2

140

180

"*"A36(+35T

S
Fig.

and the values

interest attaches,
interval.

fair idea

sign in

-f

extreme values

of

of the

^}r

relative

AV

means

AN, AW, and

size

of

of

4.

at

Kew

inclination

are confined to the

same

above the horizon.

AV

are distinguished by heavy type.

the

disturbance at the

The

two stations

A
is

<

11

The Magnetic Storm of August 22, 1916.

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184

Dr. C. Chree.

shown

derivable from the ranges* of the elements, as

Kew

AiSr= 211

AW ==

199

7,

The range

7,

AW = 226 AV =
7,

AV =

in

is

179

80

7,

and

at

in the Table,

Eskdalemuir AN"

at

viz.,

441

7,

ranges in N" and

7.

slightly larger at

Kew

Kew, but the

Eanges

600 7 in magnetic
storms have been recorded, though very rarely, at Kew, but a range of
are barely half those at Eskdalemuir.

441 7 in

course

the

at

by the

22 minutes, as presented

of

Eskdalemuir, would be very notable,

any element

as large as

if

N"

trace

at

not absolutely unprecedented, in

Kew.

The extreme steepness

of the curves, especially the

rendered the measurements more

difficult,

and the

Eskdalemuir

N" curve,

results less certain than

usual, because a very small error in the time, or a very small tilt in the

measuring

scale,

Exception

would have unusually large

may

effects.

be taken to the normal values accepted.

Perhaps the most approved plan

a difficulty.

value at any hour the arithmetic

quieter days of the

month

mean

This

generally

to accept as the

is

of the values at that

The

or a selection of them.

is

object

hour on
is to

normal
all

the

eliminate

the regular diurnal variation, the contribution from which varies from hour

This method

to hour.

to be, because

is,

however, not so satisfactory as

we now know

it

was once supposed

that the amplitude and character of the regular

diurnal variation are considerably affected by the presence of disturbance.

Also the

method

strict application of this

to a case

where measurements are

taken at intervals not of one hour but of four minutes would entail so
labour as to be justifiable only

one

of the course adopted, it

In favour
least

if

were practically quiet up

felt

may

to the

assured of

its

marked

be urged that the

time of the

"

much

superiority.

Kew

curves at

sudden commencement,"

and that the ordinary diurnal variation during the evening hours covered by
the Table

that

it is

5.

shown

is

so small

compared with the changes which actually occurred

practically immaterial

The

how we

as vector diagrams in

7.48 P.M. to 8.48 P.M.

and 8.44

fig.

p.m.

4.

is

it.

between 7.48

p.m.

and 9.24

p.m. are

To prevent confusion the intervals

by separate
The overlap of four

to 9.24 p.m. are illustrated

diagrams, with distinct origins and axes

minutes

treat

results in the horizontal plane

of co-ordinates.

intended to assist the eye in passing from consideration of the one

The full line curves with observational points indicated

Kew, the dotted curves with observational points indicated
Unity in the forces marked on the coto Eskdalemuir.

interval to the other.

by

crosses refer to

by

circles

refer

ordinate axes represents 1

'^

The ranges

as

7.

shown on

The times

the

Kew

to

which the observational points

curves are

AH

='225

7,

AD =

42'.

The Magnetic Storm of August

refer are shown,

and alongside from 7.48

values of the inclination

A thing to

be noticed

from the origin

we

p.m. to 8.48 p.m. are the

corresponding

i^.

is

that the length and direction of the vector drawn

any observational point are dependent on the values

to

accepted as normals for N" and

however,

185

22, 1916.

W, and

some extent

so ai:e to

arbitrary.

If,

treat the normals as constants, a change in the values accepted

has no influence on the shape of the curve obtained by connecting up the

observational points, or on the direction in which
travelling continuously along

it.

A change in

it

is

described by a point

the normal values accepted

really equivalent to a transfer of the origin of co-ordinates

another.

and

for

If,

from one point

is

to

we had taken normal values for IST larger by 60 %

by 40 7, we should have had an origin nearly central for

for instance,

larger

both the diagrams relating to the interval 7.48

P.M. to 8.48 p.m.

The diagrams are obviously described counter-clockwise throughout, and so

in the direction which Mr. Sangster found to be characteristic of the evening
hours at Greenwich.

The outstanding feature

the regularity of outline in

is

the diagrams for the interval 7.48 p.m. to 8.48 p.m.

If corresponding points are joined in the
it will

Eskdalemuir and

be found that in most cases the connecting line

-N'.N'.W. (or S.S.E.).

is

Kew

diagrams,

oriented roughly

Departures from this direction are seldom marked, unless

the two corresponding points

lie close

together,

when

a small error in the

time or in the curve measurement for either station w.ould exert an unusually
large influence on the azimuth.

This suggests that the disturbance

field at

Eskdalemuir might be obtained by superposing on the disturbance

field at

Kew

a field the vector in which shows but small departures from a

fi^xed

direction, this direction being roughly that of the line connecting the

two

stations.

6. The magnetic changes constituting the regular diurnal inequality are

almost certainly due in the main to electrical currents in the upper atmosphere.

These changes show a clear dependence on local time, and so are presumably
ultimately due to the sun.

The

solar influence

a flight of electrons, or largely thermal.

may

If it

is

be purely electrical,
thermal, the

e.g.,

difference

between the diurnal variations on quiet and disturbed days, and between the
diurnal variations in years of

the strength of the currents

many and

is

of

few sunspots, seems to prove that

not determined solely by the intensity of the

thermal action, but partly by other causes.

The most natural hypothesis

is

that these other causes reduce the electrical resistance of the upper atmosphere

and
is

so increase the

due.

The

magnitude

of the currents to

which the diurnal variation

facts that the character of the diurnal inequality

dependence on the latitude, and

that, the

phase

is

shows a marked

determined by local time,

186

Dr. C. Chree.
throughout the whole of the

suggest that electrical currents are present

upper atmosphere, and that the phenomena are chiefly dependent on the
current existing within a moderate distance of the zenith of the place.

The influence
disturbance.

of local time is also recognisable

For instance, the main features

Kew

the vertical force at

by reference
Britain

is

in the case of magnetic

phenomena presented by

during a magnetic storm can generally be foretold

hour

to the

of the

But

the day.

of

large magnetic disturbance in

usually accompanied by aurora, as was the case on August 22, and

aurora, at least in England,

is

usually comparatively low

Of course, the

northern horizon.

electrical discharges causing aurora

not be confined to the regions of the sky where aurora

may be invisible and, if

mean latitudes may be mainly due

certain intensity they

in low or
zenith,

and only

The

fact

in a

that

the

Eskdalemuir than

was mainly due

minor degree

at

currents

siderably nearer to Eskdalemuir than to

all

may

Below a

is visible.

the disturbance at a station

to invisible currents near the

August

of

the

where aurora

was

22

much

is

seen.

larger

at

might mean that the disturbance at both places

to electrical

currents present in

so,

to currents existing

disturbance

Kew

down towards

restricted to

Kew,

or it

much

latitudes were

a limited area, con-

might mean that

electrical

the latitude

of

Scotland, especially the Korth

of

stronger in

Eskdalemuir than in that of Kew.

Aurora

is

much more

in evidence in

Scotland, than in the South of England

thus,

if

the disturbing currents

are limited to the regions of the atmosphere where aurora

would
to

in the ordinary course

The magnetic

Kew.

visible,

is

they

be some 300 miles nearer to Eskdalemuir than

force

due

a very long straight current varies

to

inversely as the distance from the current, while the strength of the field

due

to a closed electrical

largest diameter

Thus,

circuit

at a

distance large compared with the

of the circuit varies as the inverse

cube of the distance.

the disturbance of August 22 were due to currents restricted to a

if

definite limited portion of the

atmosphere we must suppose that portion

atmosphere to have been a few hundred miles north of Eskdalemuir.

however,

difficult to

imagine

how

electrical currents situated a

miles north of Eskdalemuir could produce the changes of

fig.

4.

change in the sign of

would naturally

field

It

of
is.

few hundred
exhibited in

arise if

the nearer

portions of current were oriented east-west, and the centre of the current

area

moved

across the meridian of the station,

and would thus naturally

present itself nearly at the same time at Eskdalemuir and

indeed the case.

But we should expect the range

nearer station, while the reverse occurred.

tinued

of

If a current of

to flow in a straight horizontal circuit, a

Kew,

as

was

to be greater at the

given sign con-

change would naturally

The Magnetic Storm of August

occur in the sign of

But such

transit

negative,

both

was

the circuit crossed the zenith of the place.

The change from

to

I,

that

component

AV, while

in

AV

occurred nearly,

with a corresponding change of sign in

reverted to the minus sign some minutes before AN" did.

of sign

from minus

to plus also took place in

These changes

in the other elements.

on the hypothesis

of

current.

electrical

mere change

of

generally

time, a little after 8 p.m. at

distinctly positive for a short

stations.

of the horizontal

seen, on consulting Table

quite, simultaneously

AV

when

would not change the direction

It will be

of force.

AV

187

22, 1916.

AW,

sign

not

though

change

but decidedly later than

seem

difficult to

account for

of position in the circuit of a

They suggest changes

if

N",

definite

in the direction of the current

as well.
If the disturbance
to Profs.

were due

to electrons

from the sun, these, according

Birkeland and Stormer, should describe spirals round the lines of

force of the earth's magnetic field,

and

so should be approximately equivalent

to a current following the lines of force, but not extending below the

regions of the

atmosphere.

Storrner's observations

and estimates

however, in years of sunspot minimum, when the electrons

stopped^

put the lower limit

One would expect

to

of aurora as usually a little less

may

upper

made,

be easier

than 100 kilom.

the horizontal component of force due to such a discharge

have an east-west rather than north-south azimuth, while the vertical

component would naturally be small except near the margin

of the area

which had the discharge overhead.

In view of the

many

possibilities,

speculations based on the

seen at two stations only are unlikely to hit the mark.

phenomena

In cases such as

the present, a third station in the North of Scotland, preferably in the

Orkneys or Shetlands, would undoubtedly be more helpful than any station

in central or southern Europe.

It is

hoped that the present paper, besides

encouraging investigations at other observatories into this particular storm,

may

secure increased attention to the interesting

Mr. Sangster.

phenomenon discovered by

study of the diurnal variation in the direction of rotation

of the disturbance vector in different parts of the

world should lead to results

of interest.

VOL. XCIII.