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Aplicacion de La Espectometría Infrartoja
Aplicacion de La Espectometría Infrartoja
Aplicacion de La Espectometría Infrartoja
Meat Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci
Review
Sustainable Livestock Systems Group, Scottish Agricultural College, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
Instituto de Ganadera de Montaa (CSIC-Universidad de Len), Finca Marzanas, 24346 Grulleros, Len, Spain
c
The EH Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation (an alliance of NSW Department of Primary Industries and Charles Sturt University),
C/- Sea Spec Pty Ltd., P.O. Box 487, Woolgoolga, NSW 2456, Australia
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 31 December 2008
Received in revised form 25 April 2009
Accepted 28 April 2009
Keywords:
NIR spectroscopy
Meat
Meat products
Quality
Review
a b s t r a c t
Over the past three decades, near infrared reectance (NIR) spectroscopy has been proved to be one of the
most efcient and advanced tools for the estimation of quality attributes in meat and meat products. This
review focuses on the use of NIR spectroscopy to predict different meat properties, considering the literature published mainly in the last decade. Firstly, the potential of NIR to predict chemical composition
(crude protein, intramuscular fat, moisture/dry matter, ash, gross energy, myoglobin and collagen), technological parameters (pH value; L*, a*, b* colour values; water holding capacity; WarnerBratzler and
slice shear force) and sensory attributes (colour, shape, marbling, odour, avour, juiciness, tenderness
or rmness) are reviewed. Secondly, the usefulness of NIR for classication into meat quality grades is
presented and thirdly its potential application in the industry is shown. The review indicates that NIR
showed high potential to predict chemical meat properties and to categorize meat into quality classes.
In contrast, NIR showed limited ability for estimating technological and sensory attributes, which may
be mainly due to the heterogeneity of the meat samples and their preparation, the low precision of
the reference methods and the subjectivity of assessors in taste panels. Hence, future work to standardize
sample preparation and increase the accuracy of reference methods is recommended to improve NIR ability to predict those technological and sensory characteristics. In conclusion, the review shows that NIR
has a considerable potential to predict simultaneously numerous meat quality criteria.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Application of NIR spectroscopy to predict meat and meat products quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Technological parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Sensory attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
Classification into meat quality grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Application of NIR spectroscopy in the industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions and future outlook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
175
177
177
180
183
183
184
184
184
185
1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 131 535 3361; fax: +44 131 535 3121.
E-mail addresses: etcnpb00@estudiantes.unileon.es, Nuria.Prieto@sac.ac.uk
(N. Prieto).
0309-1740/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.04.016
176
Table 1
Prediction of chemical components in meat and meat products by NIR spectroscopy sorted by publication year (last decade).
References
Meat
Beef (M)
Beef/Pork (M)
Pork (I)
Lamb (I/M)
Beef (I)
Poultry (FD, M)
Pork (I)
Beef (I/M)
Lamb (I/M)
Poultry (I/M)
Beef (I/M)
Beef (M)
Beef (H)
Beef (M)
Poultry (H)
Poultry (FD, M)
Pork (I)
Poultry (FD, M)
Beef (M)
Pork (I/M)
Poultry (FD, M)
Pork (I/H)
Beef (H)
Pork (I)
Lamb (I)
Beef (FM/FD)
Parameter
1
Protein (g kg )
IMF (g kg 1)
Ash (g kg 1)
Protein (%)
IMF (%)
Moisture (%)
IMF (%)
Moisture (%)
Protein (g kg 1)
IMF (g kg 1)
Moisture (g kg 1)
IMF (%)
Protein (% DM)
IMF (% DM)
Moisture (%)
Ash (% DM)
Protein (%)
IMF (%)
Moisture (%)
Protein (g kg 1 DM)
IMF (g kg 1 DM)
Moisture (g kg 1 DM)
Protein (g kg 1 DM)
IMF (g kg 1 DM)
Moisture (g kg 1 DM)
Protein (g kg 1 DM)
IMF (g kg 1 DM)
Moisture (g kg 1 DM)
Protein (g kg 1)
IMF (g kg 1)
Moisture (g kg 1)
Ash (g kg 1)
IMF (%)
Protein (%)
IMF (%)
Dry matter (%)
Ash (%)
Collagen (%)
Protein (%)
IMF (%)
Moisture (%)
IMF (%)
Protein (% DM)
IMF (% DM)
Dry matter (%)
Ash (% DM)
IMF (g kg 1)
Protein (g kg 1)
IMF (g kg 1)
Ash (g kg 1)
IMF (%)
IMF (%)
Protein (% DM)
IMF (% DM)
Dry matter (% DM)
Ash (% DM)
IMF (g kg 1)
Moisture (g kg 1)
Protein (g kg 1 DM)
IMF (g kg 1 DM)
Energy (MJ kg 1DM)
Dry matter (g kg 1)
Ash (g kg 1 DM)
Myoglobin(g kg 1
DM)
Collagen (g kg 1 DM)
IMF (%)
IMF (%)
Moisture (%)
Protein (%)
IMF (%)
Dry matter (%)
Collagen (mg 100 g 1)
R2CAL
SECV
0.61
0.95
0.42
0.38/0.61
0.76/0.87
0.71/0.87
0.49
0.21
0.71/0.83
0.34/0.73
0.56/0.76
0.610.72
4.96
7.82
7.71
0.56/0.56
1.40/1.48
1.23/1.09
1.32
1.13
8.8/5.5
8.1/4.7
15.5/10.4
1.21.4
0.98
0.24
0.69
0.76
0.8
0.49/0.81
0.89/0.96
0.07/0.98
0.71/0.83
0.34/0.73
0.55/0.76
0.73/0.97
0.45/0.95
0.45/0.99
0.48/0.71
0.89/0.92
0.09/0.41
0.0042
0.0062
0.0058
23.9/21.8
46.9/44.8
15.2/33.1
8.8/5.5
8.1/4.7
15.5/10.3
6.9/2.4
9.0/5.4
15.9/6.9
23.9/20.5
46.9/43.4
15.6/16.1
0.96
0.82a
0.82a
0.77a
0.66a
0.18a
0.64
0.94
0.92
0.960.98
0.91
0.99
0.96
0.05
0.35
0.86
0.93
0.71
0.970.98
0.97/0.99
0.96
0.98
0.52
0.52
0.30/0.87
0.66/0.90
0.87
0.92
0.94
0.87
0.17
0.44
1.68
0.48
0.44
0.58
0.03
0.3
0.46
0.97
0.87
0.330.70
0.74
0.24
0.19
0.65
3.6
20.12
17.23
7.95
0.260.44
0.34/0.23
0.47
0.490.74
0.84
0.67
0.85/0.99
0.99/0.99
0.96/0.92
0.56/0.74
3.82
0.260.36
0.41
0.69
0.33/0.20
0.13/0.20
0.35/0.26
3.05/8.52
SEP
RPD
0.45/0.35
1.16/0.82
0.94/1.03
1.44
1.24
1.41/2.18
1.09/1.83
1.25/1.88
0.0042
0.0062
0.0063
1.16/1.91
2.21/2.67
0.99/2.81
1.41/2.18
1.09/1.81
1.25/1.89
1.86/5.4
1.16/3.63
1.11/4.80
2.28
0.320.84
0.64
0.18
0.75
0.23
4.0/1.8
3.1/1.1
20.33
16.22
0.29
6.75
5.15
3.45
0.370.40
2.33
2.36
2.04
1.67
1.1
1.67
4.17
3.62
3.8510.09
3.24
2.27
4.35
1.76
3.86.9
5.3/8.3
4.20
9.17
1.89
1.26
1.1/2.3
1.4/3.9
2.56
3.32
3.31
2.28
1.04
1.09
1.26
11.62
2.20
1.57
1.42/2.35
9.23/6.00
3.49/4.69
1.74/0.62
177
Meat
Parameter
R2CAL
Mutton (FD, M)
Pork (FD, H)
Protein (% DM)
IMF (% DM)
Dry matter (%)
Ash (% DM)
Protein (%)
IMF (%)
Moisture (%)
Protein (%)
IMF (%)
Moisture (%)
Moisture (%)
0.98
1.00
0.98
0.87
0.93/0.92
0.97/0.99
0.97/0.98
0.97/0.97
0.98/0.99
0.93/0.98
0.94
Protein (%)
IMF (%)
Moisture (%)
Myoglobin (mg g
0.11
0.75
0.86
0.9
Beef (H)
SECV
0.61/0.53
1.35/0.87
0.99/0.79
0.91/0.95
1.36/0.96
1.03/0.53
0.5
SEP
RPD
0.92
0.43
0.38
0.15
0.83/0.87
1.38/0.94
1.00/0.76
1.08/0.95
1.47/0.71
0.97/0.41
11.39
28.46
3.40
4.53
2.75/2.62
5.39/7.92
5.48/7.21
4.51/5.13
6.11/12.65
3.43/8.12
1.02
0.49
0.37
0.26
1.09
1
1.87
2.38
R2CAL :
Coefcient of determination of calibration, SECV: standard error of cross validation, SEP: standard error of prediction, RPD: ratio performance deviation calculated as SD/
SEP, M: minced, I: intact, H: homogenized, FM: fresh minced, FD: freeze-dried, IMF: intramuscular fat.
a
Coefcient of determination of cross validation.
b
Not reliable.
composition, technological and sensory attributes are highly inuenced by pre-slaughter (breed, sex, age, weight and environment)
and post-mortem factors (storage time, temperature) (Andrs
et al., 2007; Lawrie, 1985; Venel, Mullen, Downey, & Troy, 2001).
Therefore, the variability in quality characteristics of meat is the
main concern of the consumer (Dranseld, 1994; Leroy et al.,
2003; Warriss, 2004). Indeed, it must be noted that in most developed countries, where the purchasing power of the population
does not limit the acquisition of meat, some consumers are willing
to pay higher prices for meat and meat products that guarantee
homogeneity and certain quality characteristics (Boleman et al.,
1997; Hammond, 1955; Prieto, Andrs, Girldez, Mantecn, and
Lavn, 2008).
Traditionally meat was domestically prepared, while nowadays
it is increasingly consumed as part of ready-to-eat convenience
products such as hamburgers and sausages. In these products,
the opportunity is given for the fraudulent replacement of premium quality material by grades that are inferior, carrying with
it a number of legal sanctions (Downey & Beauchne, 1997). Consequently, consumers need to be guaranteed that they are getting
exactly the quality they pay for and not an inferior quality meat.
In order to keep the quality standards as close as possible to the
preference of the target consumer, control procedures must be carried out on meat. Thus, different techniques such as chemical procedures, instrumental methods, sensory analysis and screening
methods have been used to provide information about meat quality. However, those techniques are destructive, time consuming
and consequently unsuitable for on-line application (Liu, Lyon,
Windham, Lyon, & Savage, 2004). In contrast to conventional
methods for the determination of meat quality parameters, near
infrared reectance (NIR) spectroscopy is a sensitive, fast and
non-destructive analytical technique with simplicity in sample
preparation allowing a simultaneous assessment of numerous
meat properties (Osborne, Fearn, & Hindle, 1993).
NIR spectroscopy has been successfully applied to the quantitative determination of major constituents (moisture, fat and protein) in meat and meat products as has been indicated in the
review of Prevolnik, Candek-Potokar, and korjanc (2004) and in
many recent papers (Berzaghi, Dalla Zotte, Jansson, & Andrighetto,
2005; Gaitn-Jurado, Ortiz-Somovilla, Espaa-Espaa, Perez-Aparicio, & De Pedro-Sanz, 2008; Prieto, Andrs, Girldez, Mantecn, &
Lavn, 2006; Viljoen, Hoffman, & Brand, 2007). In fact, near infrared
in the transmittance mode has been approved by AOAC (Anderson,
2007) for the commercial analysis of moisture, fat and protein in
meat and meat products using FOSS articial neural network
178
O-H
O-H
1.80
Y group
1.60
Log (1/R)
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
2468
2392
2316
2240
2164
2088
2012
1936
1860
1784
1708
1632
1556
1480
1404
1328
1252
1100
0.00
1176
0.20
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 1. Average spectra [log (1/R)] corresponding to the meat samples obtained
from adult steers (A, n = 53) and young cattle (Y, n = 67) (Prieto, Andrs, Girldez,
Mantecn, & Lavn 2008b).
Fig. 2. Visible and near infrared mean spectrum of pork, beef, lamb and chicken
samples (Cozzolino & Murray, 2004).
179
Meat
Parameter
R2CAL
SECV
Beef (I)
Beef (I)
Pork (I/H)
Pork (I)
Pork (I)
Pork (I)
Beef (I) (Bull/Cow)
Poultry (FD,M)
Beef (I)
WBSF (kg)
WBSF (kg)
pH
WHC, Press loss (%)
WHC, Drip loss (%)
WHC, Drip loss (%)
pH
WBSF (kg/10 cm 2)
Colour L*, a*, b*
0.370.67
0.67
0.62/0.59
0.38
0.41
0.71
0.33
0.35/0.12
1.502.10
1.3
0.08/0.10
16.01
2.43
1.8
0.074
16.9/11.6
0.69
0.62
0.36
0.58
0.29
0.34
0.23
0.17
0.81/0.90
0.30/0.62
0.93/0.95
0.60/0.27
0.510.55
0.20
0.640.85a
0.190.49a
0.440.75a
0.380.54a
0.250.47a
0.120.41a
0.55
0.90
0.78
0.170.72
0.12a
0.62a
0.40a
0.38a
1.37
1.49
2.54
10.6
0.16
2.75
0.05
13.8
0.18/0.13
5.3/4.5
1.3/1.3
1.1/1.5
1.1
Beef (I)
Pork (I)
Beef (I/H)
Pork (I/H)
Pork (I)
Beef (I)
Beef (I)
Pork (H)
Pork (I)
Poultry (I)
Poultry (I)
Poultry (FD,M)
Beef (I)
Pork (I/H)
Pork (I)
Pork (I/M)
Lamb(I)
Beef
FM/FD
Beef (I) (0 min p.m./60 min p.m.)
WBSF (kg.cm 2)
2 days p.m.
9 days p.m.
21 days p.m.
WBSF (N)
pH
WHC, Press loss (cm2.g
WHC, Cooking loss (%)
WBSF (N)
pH
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
Drip loss (%)
WBSF (N)
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WHC, Drip loss (%)
WHC, Cooking loss (%)
WBSF (N)
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WBSF (kg)
pH
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WHC, Cooking loss (%)
WHC, Drip loss (%)
WBSF (N)
WHC, Drip loss (%)
pH
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WBSF (kg) (RM/CM)
WBSF (N)
Total shear energy (N.s)
pH (24 h/7 days)
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WHC, Drip loss (%)
WBSF (N.cm 1)
pH
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WHC, Drip loss (%)
pH
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WHC, Drip loss (%)
pH
WHC, Drip loss (%)
WBSF (kg.cm 2)
pH
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WHC, Cooking loss (%)
WBSF (kg.cm 2)
SEP
RPD
1.66/1.59
1.27
1.32
1.75
1.37
b
0.16
2.45
0.06
14.42
1.532.39
1.152.51
0.771.54
0.820.99
1.812.31
7.6811.19
1.48
1.23
1.40
1.07
2.11/1.92
1.06/1.24
1.62/1.62
1.36/1.07
1.632.55
1.081.39
1.301.95
1.241.46
1.131.40
1.061.30
0.09
2.53
1.22
1.18
0.08
4.74
1.87
1.34
1.25
1.08
1.07
1.12
b
0.54a
1.41
2.35
0.81
0.460.79
0.68
0.84
0.83
0.78
0.45/0.53
0.300.92
0.140.95
0.67/0.64
0.25
0.31
0.06
0.004
0.64/0.38
0.690.83
0.720.79
0.580.77
0.460.66
0.310.55
0.59/0.64
0.53/0.37
0.55/0.65
0.76/0.71
0.52/0.69
0.070.32
0.10/0.04
0.08/0.20
0.97
0.85/0.82
0.29/0.35
0.49/0.51
0.20
0.65
0.851.35
0.15
1.21
0.87
0.95
2.65/2.55
1.102.61
1.543.46
0.04/0.05
1
1.6
1
8.5/9.0
0.040.06
1.391.65
0.570.59
0.460.52
1.241.35
0.11/0.11
2.9/3.2
1.3/1.3
1.0/1.1
2.1/2.0
0.160.26
3.50/3.44
5.21/4.99
0.10
1.16/1.36
1.09/1.28
0.75/0.99
0.08
2.67
1.14
1.76
1.27
1.47
1.18/1.23
0.982.16
0.992.23
1.2/1.1
1.141.28
1.592.16
1.191.35
1.351.67
1.051.27
1.3/1.4
1.3/1.1
1.4/1.4
1.6/1.4
1.4/1.5
0.901.22
0.49/0.50
1.09/1.14
3.17
2.22/2.07
1.14/0.90
1.17/1.37
1.01
1.46
(continued on next page)
0.050.07
1.251.64
0.670.74
0.420.52
1.141.42
180
Table 2 (continued)
Reference
Meat
Parameter
R2CAL
SECV
Beef (H)
0.41/0.47
0.59/0.87
0.008/0.71
0.35/0.90
0.48/0.58
0.20/0.26
0.001/0.14
0.17/0.45
0.86
0.74
0.06/0.08
1.50/1.56
1.15/1.58
1.08/1.46
2.08/2.51
0.36/0.55
1.61/2.45
1.02/1.62
pH
Colour L*
Colour a*
Colour b*
WHC, Press loss (%)
WHC, Drip loss (%)
WHC, Cooking loss (%)
WBSF (kg)
WHC, Press loss (%)
WBSF (kg)
SEP
RPD
1.34
1.06
1.12/1.26
1.24/2.17
0.98/1.58
1.16/2.51
1.11/1.30
1.02/1.04
0.97/1.03
1.07/1.18
1.76
1.44
R2CAL : Coefcient of determination of calibration, SECV: standard error of cross validation, SEP: standard error of prediction, RPD: ratio performance deviation calculated as SD/
SEP, I: intact, H: homogenized, M: minced, FM: fresh minced, FD: freeze-dried, RM: raw meat; CM: cooked meat, p.m.: post-mortem, WBSF: WarnerBratzler shear force,
WHC: water holding capacity.
a
Coefcient of determination of cross validation.
b
Not reliable.
Mirisola, & Gallo, 2007; Prieto et al., 2006; Ripoll et al., 2008). Prieto et al. (2006) indicated the outstanding ability of this technique
to estimate GE content in beefbecause of the high correlation between IMF content and GE (r = 0.86, P < 0.001); however, they
could not successfully predict the myoglobin content by means
of NIR spectra. In contrast, Ripoll et al. (2008) accurately estimated
this pigment in beef samples using not only the infrared but also
the visible region of the spectra (R2 = 0.90, RPD = 2.38; Table 1).
Including data from the visible region might have led to more accurate predictions since different forms of myoglobin (oxymyoglobin,
deoxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin) give rise to colours (bright
red, purple and brown, respectively) which absorb in the visible region. However, as far as collagen content is concerned, all the studies cited showed poor NIR prediction ability in beef. This could be
due to the fact that the NIR spectrum of collagen does not differ
much from that of myobrillar proteins, which are present in muscle at 10 times higher concentrations (Downey, & Hildrum, 2004),
and a lack of variability in the collagen content of meat samples
(Alomar et al., 2003).
Different aspects related to the NIR spectroscopy process (spectral data pre-treatments and regression methods) also affect its
ability to predict; however, these factors are beyond the objectives
of the present review and the reader is referred to other literature
for a discussion on chemometrics (Cen & He, 2007; Murray & Williams, 1987).
In conclusion, although published results vary considerably,
they suggest that NIR spectroscopy is a suitable alternative to analytical methods to predict the chemical composition of meat and
meat products. In particular, under commercial conditions where
simultaneous measurements of different chemical components
are required, NIR spectroscopy is expected to be the method of
choice. However, as a secondary procedure, NIR spectroscopy is
not independent of the disadvantages arising from the reference
method used for calibration, thus the success of NIR will depend
on the reliability of the reference method and sample presentation.
Hence, the reference method must be carefully chosen depending
on the particular needs in each case. In addition, a wide range of
reference values is required to maximise the predictability of NIR
spectroscopy, so the calibration samples must be specically selected to avoid very narrow ranges for a given parameter.
2.2. Technological parameters
In relation to the prediction of pH value by means of NIR spectroscopy, most studies have found no satisfactory equations for
beef, lamb, pork and poultry meat (R2 = 0.070.68, RPD = 0.90
1.66; Table 2). Some authors (Andersen, Borggaard, Rasmussen, &
Houmller, 1999; Berzaghi et al., 2005; Meulemans, Dotreppe, Ler-
oy, Istase, & Clinquart, 2003; Prieto, Andrs, Girldez, Mantecn, &
Lavn, 2008a) have suggested that scanning the samples after
grinding could have reduced the precision of predictions due to a
lack of information about the muscle structure i.e. light scattering
properties in intact muscle tissue (Swatland & Barbut, 1995).
According to Meulemans et al. (2003) and Berzaghi et al. (2005),
a low variation of measured pH values (between 5.2 and 5.8) or
the different samples used for pH measurement and NIR scan
may have reduced NIR predictability in pork and poultry meat
samples. On the contrary, Savenije et al. (2006) suggested that
NIR spectroscopy might be a suitable alternative to the pH meter,
which is slow and of low precision under routine operation, since
84% of the samples were predicted within 0.1 pH unit using NIR.
In addition, Cozzolino and Murray (2002) and Andrs et al.
(2008) could accurately predict pH values in beef samples
(R2 = 0.81, 0.97; RPD = 2.11, 3.17; respectively; Table 2), probably
due to a wide range of pH reference data, a good repeatability of
the reference method and intact meat sample presentation to the
NIR instrument.
Meat L*, a* and b* colour values (CIE, 1978) have been measured
objectively by means of a Minolta colorimeter (Cozzolino, Barlocco,
Vadell, Ballesteros, & Gallieta, 2003; Liu et al., 2003; Prieto et al.,
2008a). Studies evaluating NIR spectroscopy to predict colour values have been carried out as it is sensitive, fast and non-destructive. As far as L*, a* and b* colour prediction using NIR
spectroscopy is concerned, the results in the literature are contradictory (see Table 2). On the one hand, there are some authors
(Andrs et al., 2008; Cozzolino et al., 2003; Leroy et al., 2003; Liu
et al., 2003; Prieto et al., 2008a) showing successful predictions
of L*, a* and/or b* colour values (R2 > 0.85, RPD > 2.17). Prieto
et al. (2008a) showed coefcients of correlation up to 0.8 between
absorbance data and L* and b* values at 12301400 and 1600
1710 nm, which correspond to CH second overtone and CH combination bands, and CH rst overtone, respectively (Murray,
1986; Murray & Williams, 1987; Shenk et al., 1992); these wavelengths being related to the absorbance of the CH bonds present
in the intramuscular fat. Thus, L* and b* values could be predicted
by means of NIR spectra insofar as they were correlated to intramuscular fat content. It is worth mentioning the study carried
out by Savenije et al. (2006) who assessed the prediction accuracy
for L* using a sample set different to that used for the calibration.
Although the prediction of L* was not as accurate as that obtained
by the previous authors using cross-validation, it still showed a relatively high R2 of 0.79 and the SEP was low enough to result in a
RPD value of 2.16, considered to be suitable for screening purposes
(Williams, 2001; Williams & Sobering, 1993; Williams, 2008). The
use of the visible together with NIR region could have enabled a*
prediction in the studies carried out by Cozzolino et al. (2003)
181
Meat
Parameter
R2CAL
SECV
Beef
Pork
0.060.26
0.280.52
0.280.50
0.180.50
0.0040.50
0.010.23
0.0030.881
0.69
0.350.39
0.710.88
0.380.45
0.460.56
Flavour
Tenderness
Texture
Acceptability
Flavour
Odour
Taste
Aftertaste
Juiciness
Tenderness
Chewiness
Flavour
Juiciness
Tenderness
Firmness
Texture
Chewiness
Acceptability
Colour
Marbling
Firmness
Juiciness
Chewiness
Flavour
Juiciness
Tenderness
Springiness
Cohesiveness
Chewiness
Afterfeel-Aftertaste
Pastiness
Colour
Flavour
Abnormal avour
Juiciness
Texture
Overall linking
Juiciness
Tenderness
Overall appraisal
0.26/0.14
0.19/0.12
0.08
0.66
0.96
1.13
0.33
1.06
0.26
0.10
0.14
0.16
0.21
0.45
0.32
0.32
0.50
0.58
0.020.35/0.100.46
0.21/0.11
0.21/0.22
0.27/0.14
0.30/0.11
0.28/0.37
0.040.24/0.070.14
0.94
0.67
0.34
0.13
0.38
0.16
0.27
0.54
0.98
0.56
0.78
0.63
0.59
0.33
0.43
0.33
0.75
0.36
1.17
1.05
1.07
1.09
1.09
Beef
Pork
Beef
Poultry (RM/CM)
Lamb
Beef
SEP
RPD
0.201.15
0.551.03
0.280.62
0.54
0.81.4
0.781.07
0.822.71
1.67
0.28
0.68
0.36
0.451.20/0.481.10
0.79/0.72
1.14/1.10
1.65/1.52
2.04/1.87
1.30/1.29
0.951.20/0.971.20
0.571.00/0.610.98
0.79/0.87
0.72/0.93
0.82/0.88
0.77/0.84
0.81/0.81
0.630.80/0.630.79
1.99
1.36
0.61
0.35
0.44
1.54
3.82
1.58
1.18
1.11
0.47
0.44
0.44
0.85
0.48
R2CAL : Coefcient of determination in calibration, SECV: standard error of cross validation, SEP: standard error of prediction, RPD: ratio performance deviation calculated as SD/
SEP, RM: raw meat, CM: cooked meat, PCR: principal component regression, PLSR: partial least-squares regression, MPLSR: modied partial least-squares regression, p:
number of factors used to perform the calibration models.
a
Not reliable.
and Liu et al. (2003). It is well known that a* is related not only to
the water content of meat but also to the concentration of myoglobin and the relative proportions of its three derivatives; therefore,
the rates of meat discoloration can be assayed by measuring reectance differences in the visible region of the spectra. On the other
hand, failure of NIR spectroscopy to estimate L*, a* and/or b* colour
values in beef, pork and poultry meat has been described by several authors (Abeni & Bergoglio, 2001; Hoving-Bolink et al., 2005;
ander-Potokar et al., 2006). The heterogeMeulemans et al., 2003; C
neous colour within the muscle, different slices for reference and
NIR analysis or the time elapsed between these two procedures
could have reduced the reliability of these NIR predictions. During
the time elapsed, the proportions of pigments determining a* value
might well have been modied, thus giving rise to changes in the
colour. In addition, in some of the previous studies the spectral
range did not contain the visible region, thus explaining the low
accuracy of prediction of the a* value.
With regard to water holding capacity (WHC) for meat and
meat products, most authors agree that NIR spectroscopy has limited capacity (R2 = 0.0010.58, RPD = 0.491.46; Table 2) to estimate water press (Brndum et al., 2000; Chan et al., 2002), drip
loss (De Marchi et al., 2007; Geesink et al., 2003; Hoving-Bolink
et al., 2005; Savenije et al., 2006) and cooking loss (Andrs et al.,
2008; Leroy et al., 2003; Prieto et al., 2008a). Only Forrest et al.
182
Table 4
Classication of meat and meat products by NIR spectroscopy sorted by publication year (last decade).
Reference
Meat
Research purpose
Method
(%) Correct
classication
Beef
Classication of beef according to tenderness (sensory tenderness, < 3.5 vs. 3.56.5 vs. >
6.5)
Beef
PCR, p 6
BC, p 3
DLPC, p 3
FDA, p 18
23
60
97
3464
Beef
90100
Beef
Beef,
Kangaroo
Poultry
Beef
Beef
Poultry
Pork
Beef
Beef
Beef
Beef
Pork
Beef
Categorisation of pork according to water holding capacity (drip loss, < 5% vs. > 7%)
Classication of beef into tender and tough classes (WBSF, < 6 kg vs. > 6 kg)
Beef
Poultry
Poultry
Poultry
Beef
Dry
cured
ham
Poultry
92100
8293
b
80100
96
b
6398
7982
7586
PLSR,
p 15/15/9
PLSR/MLR
PLSR p 14/
(SIMCA/PCA) p 11
PCR/PLSR
PLSR
SIMCA/PCA
PLSR
79/98/94
MPLSR, p 14
100
PLSR, p 2
87
KNN
94/76
PLSR
96/98/a
PLSR,
p 1112/1314
MPLSR, p 23
MPLSR
6073/8093
Pork
sausages
Beef
Pork
Lamb
Rabbit
Beef
CDA, p 13
MLR, PCR, PLSR,
MPLSR, p 17
CDA, KNN,
p 1011
PCA, p 2
PLSR, p 38
ANN, p 7
PCA, p 1
PLSR, p 47
PCA/ SIMCAa
PCR, MPLSRb
89
83100
100
83/96
94/94
74
70
8690
100
b
PCA, 34
PLSR, 9
98
PLSR, 4
100
FA: fatty acid, PCR: principal component regression, BC: Bayes classication, DLPC: distance-based discrimination for local principal components, FDA: factorial discriminant
analysis, PCA: principal component analysis, PLSR: partial least-squares regression, KNN: K nearest neighbour, MLR: multilinear regression, CDA: canonical discriminant
analysis, MPLSR: modied partial least-squares regression, ANN: articial neural network, SIMCA: soft independent modelling of class analogy, p: optimum number of
wavelengths or factors used in the regression equation.
a
Not reliable classication.
b
Acceptable categorisation.
2002; Geesink et al., 2003) and poultry meat (Liu et al., 2004); all
these studies showing R2 and RPD values lower than 0.74 and
1.48, respectively (Table 2). There are several reasons for the low
NIR prediction of WBSF. Firstly, a limited variation in the WBSF reference data, especially in pig meat samples, could have reduced the
predictability of shear force measures by NIR. For example, in the
study by Leroy et al. (2003), carcasses were randomly chosen and
not selected on WBSF values, so that the samples showed low variability in shear force. Meulemans et al. (2003) indicated that the
models could be improved by using a larger number of samples
to increase the range of reference values.
Secondly, Chan et al. (2002) found a large variation among subsample shear force measurements on a single meat chop, suggesting that NIR performance might be improved if lack of precision in
the reference data could be avoided. However, this seems very difcult when WBSF is used as the reference method (Barlocco et al.,
2006). An alternative to WBSF could be the measurement of slice
shear force (SSF). Shackelford, Wheeler, and Koohmaraie (1999)
showed that SSF was more repeatable and strongly correlated with
tenderness assessed by a trained taste panel than was WBSF. Unlike the WarnerBratzler method, SSF used only one slice instead
of eight cores and it is simpler to obtain one uniform sample slice
than eight small circular cores. In addition, the meat does not need
to be cooled before testing, so that the SSF measurements can be
taken more quickly, which has benets in commercial applications.
Furthermore, sample presentation to the instrument is a limiting factor to obtaining reliable NIR predictions of WBSF measurements. Meulemans et al. (2003), De Marchi et al. (2007), Prieto
et al. (2008a) and Ripoll et al. (2008) reported no reliable NIR predictions of WBSF measurements, probably because they used
homogenized samples, which is not adequate for the shear force
meat since the structure of the muscle and the bre arrangements
are severely altered. In contrast, Meullenet, Jonville, Grezes, and
Owens (2004) found good predictions for WBSF (R2 = 0.92,
RPD = 2.16, Table 2) in poultry meat samples, probably because
the meat samples were scanned in the intact form instead of being
homogenized. Geesink et al. (2003) indicated that scanning the
meat sample over a larger area to reduce the sampling error (Downey & Hildrum, 2004), could improve the prediction of tenderness
(WBSF) by NIR spectroscopy.
Based on published results, NIR spectroscopy shows only limited ability for assessing the technological quality of meat. From
our point of view, better control of all the factors inuencing the
spectral data and the precision of the reference method might improve the predictive performance of the NIR-models regarding
technological traits.
2.3. Sensory attributes
The most important sensory characteristics determining the
acceptability of meat are appearance (colour, shape and marbling),
odour, avour, juiciness, tenderness or rmness (Hofmann, 1993).
All these characteristics are related to the interactions of many
chemical and physical properties, even so their prediction by NIR
spectroscopy has been attempted. However, many problems have
been found in predicting sensory attributes (R2 = 0.0030.69,
RPD = 0.571.67; Table 3). Liu et al. (2003, 2004) and Andrs
et al. (2007) pointed out that a narrow range of intensity scores
for sensory attributes might have reduced the precision and accuracy of NIR predictions. All the lambs studied by Andrs et al.
(2007) were grazed on the same pastures, nished at a xed live
weight and condition score and all the samples were aged for the
same period of time. These factors may have resulted in high
homogeneity and thus low variability in the samples, so that assessors could not nd clear differences among samples. In addition,
scanned tissue samples (which were frozen pre-rigor before being
183
scanned) were not strictly the same samples tasted by the panelists (which were aged for seven days, then frozen). Another possible factor reducing NIR predictability of these parameters is the
assignment of colour and marbling scores based on the appearance
of the whole cut area of the samples, whereas the surface scanned
is much smaller (Chan et al., 2002). Byrne, Downey, Troy, and
Buckley (1998), Rdbotten et al. (2000) and Venel et al. (2001)
showed that the prediction of sensory characteristics could be improved if the samples of the group of animals to be tested were divided into more specic sub-groups according to criteria such as
breed and sex. In addition, Andrs et al. (2007) obtained an
improvement in R2 when the extreme samples for the sensory
characteristic overall liking were selected; however, the R2 values were still mostly below 0.8, a value that might be considered
as the lowest threshold for the accuracy of prediction. These ndings make it clear that the assessors could discriminate among the
most extreme samples whereas it seems improbable that they can
detect small changes in any of the sensory parameters.
Conversely to the previous studies, the calibration models described by Ripoll et al. (2008) for sensory tenderness in beef
(R2 = 0.98, RPD = 3.82), Brndum, Byrne, Bak, Bertelsen, and Engelsen (2000b) for taste in pork (R2 = 0.88, RPD = 2.71) and Garca-Rey,
Garca-Olmo, De Pedro, Quiles-Zafra, and De Castro (2005) for pastiness in ham (R2 = 0.94, RPD = 1.99) were satisfactory (Table 3). The
wide range of sensory data in these studies might have contributed
to the good calibration performances. In particular, Ripoll et al.
(2008) used many different breeds and cross-breeds with different
rates of maturity as well as a wide range of carcass conformations
and fatness grades, which resulted in high variability in sensory
characteristics.
In summary, sensory characteristics are complex traits affected
by the subjectivity of the assessors; even when they are well
trained (Warriss, 2004). Thus, the low predictability of NIR technique for sensory attributes is probably due to the subjective, inaccurate, or highly variable nature of the conventional noncontinuous measurements (scores) that are used as the basis for
developing the prediction equation. To account for non-continuous
measurements of sensory scores, Prevolnik et al. (2004) indicated
that different statistical approaches such as neural networks might
improve the predictability of NIR.
2.4. Classication into meat quality grades
As shown in Table 4, there are many studies in the last decade
indicating that NIR spectroscopy is a powerful tool for categorisation of meat and meat products on the basis of quality; percentages of samples classied correctly being between 80 and 100 in
most cases. The NIR technique has been able to classify successfully beef and poultry meat according to tenderness (Liu et al.,
2003, 2004; Meullenet et al., 2004; Naes & Hildrum, 1997; Park
et al., 1998; Rdbotten, Mevik, & Hildrum, 2001), pork according
to water holding capacity (Geesink et al., 2003; Savenije et al.,
2006) and ham according to texture/colour (Garca-Rey et al.,
2005).
Ding et al. (1999) and Fumire, Sinnaeve, and Dardenne (2000)
achieved a successful classication of broiler strains (slow-growing
and industrial), which was supported by physical (pH and chromatic values or surface characteristics of breast skin and muscle,
such as bre size) and chemical properties of meat samples (collagen and fat contents). Moreover, McDevitt et al. (2005) reported
that scattering effects due to variations in fat content of different
genotypes or dietary treatments could have provided the basis to
classify chicken carcasses according to genotype or dietary treatment. However, discrimination between male and female birds
was not so clear, probably because all the birds used in the study
were sexually immature.
184
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