174

Mr. J . G. Butcher on the Quaternion Forms of

[Dec. 14,

in which Z vanishes. (" Messenger of Mathematics," Vol. v., p. 156.)

In this case (y) reduces to
d?z
dz _ 0
dxdxj
dx
the solution of which is known to be
z= 2.(" Messenger of Mathematics," Vol. vi., p. 41).

On the Quaternion Forms of some General Propositmis in Fluid

Motion. By Mr. J. G. BUTCIIER, B.A., Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge.
. [Mead December Uth, 1876.]

1. I propose here to prove some general propositions on the pure

kinematics of a continuous medium by Quaternion methods.
Let V denote, as usual, Hamilton's operator i -=- + j -7- + h -?-
r
dx
dy
dz
Then, if a be any vector whatever, a small vector displacement of a
point (a;, 1/, 2), it is easily proved, as in Tait's " Quaternions," p. 216,
(SJTV) a = -Dw<r,

where D, denotes total differentiation in virtue of having passed from

one end to the other of the vector it.
Thus SirV is a scalar operation. If we perform it on a scalar function P, we can write (Sn-V) P or S. irVP indifferently ; for
= (SffV) p .

But of course (SJTV) n is not equal to S .

Let us consider a point P whose vector velocity is a. Take a point
Q in the' vicinity of P whose vector distance from P
is ir.

After a small time 8t, P will have come to P*,

Q to Q'; and if ax be the vector velocity of Q, we r
have
ax = a (SirV) a.
Now . .
-a alt = -, axlt.
Hence
nlir = (SJTV) aZt;
and we see that TTX is a linear and vector function of ?r. Call it' fn} and

1876.]

some General Propositions in Fluid Motion.

175

<f>J8 what we may call the "deformation-function" of the group of

points round P.
Decomposing <p by the usual methods, we have
<j>ir = 7 T ( S T T V ) ait

where 0 denotes a pure strain (a self-conjugate function), and Yev denotes a rotation of amount Te.
To find the values of 0 and e, we may use a method of Tait's (Edin.
Trans., Vol. xxvi., p. 79), and put
9

'

where 0' is the conjugate function to <b ; and then we know that .*

<t><t>'
represents the self-conjugate part, ^-~
the rotational part, of 0.
a

To find <p', we have

= Spjr(SrrV) Spa, V operating on a only,
= SirpS .

so that
Hence

<j>'p = pV. Spa.

0TT = v -^ [(Sn-V) <r + V . Sn-er] - - [(STTV)*V . STT*]
=

_ ^.[(STV)<r + V.Sir<7] V.wV.Vff

= ^7r-f-Veir,
where

<pw = TT

[(S7rV)ff+ V . Sira],

Thus c is the vector axis of rotation of the group of points round P ;

or, in Cartesians, if a = iu +jv + kw,

i _ dw\ . , /dv _ ^t\ )

\ds dxl
\dx dy) j '
the well-known results of Stokes and Helmholtz.
2. Thus the motion consists of two parts :
(1) A pure strain, given by (f>ir.
If we construct the quadric SirpTr = const., then <jnr is the direction
of the normal at the extremity of ir, and the instantaneous motion of

176

Mr; J. G. Butcher on the Quaternion Forms of

[Dec. 14,

the point Q due to this cause alone is in the direction of the normal to
this quadric, and its velocity

ocJ-oc

T 0 v perp. on tang, plane at Q

We may sketch the motion roughly
thus, where the arrow-heads indicate
the directions of motion.
' (2) A simple rotation round a line
instantaneously fixed at P, which line
is the vector V . V<r, the amount of rotation being TV. Vo.
We may examine two particular cases.
Oase I.Motion Non-rotational.

The criterion for this is V . V<r = 0, and in this case, if p be the

vector to P, we must have (Tait's " Quaternions," p. 174) S . adp a
perfect differential = d. F (p) say, where F is a scalar function.
But

dF = -T dx + -7 dy -\zdz.
dz
ay
dz

so that we must put

a = VF (p),
and F is what is ordinarily called the "velocity-potential." If the fluid
be in addition incompressible, we have of course
V'F = 0.
We may remark in passing, that if
be the equation of one of a family of surfaces, and
d. Fp = 0, or SdpVF = 0,
be the differential equation of the family, then for a consecutive surface
F p + 3 . Fp = F (/>)SSpVF = Fp-Serfy = C+SC,
S<rfy = SC.
From the differential equation, we see that a is perpendicular to do,
any tangent vector to the surface; hence a is a vector normal to the
surface.
Sincetip,the normal vector between two consecutive surfaces, is in
the direction of <r, we have Vaty = 0.
Hence, since
SaSp = SG,

1876.]

some General Propositions in Fluid Motion,

177

which shows that <r or VP (p), besides being normal to the surface, is
in length inversely proportional to the normal distance between two
consecutive surfaces (see Tait, "Quaternions," p. 215).
The physical interpretation of this is that the lines of flow are perpendicular to the surfaces
F (p) = C,
and the tensor of <r, the vector velocity, must of course vary inversely
as the normal distance between two consecutive surfaces.
It is to be observed that J Sadp is what Thomson and Tait (Nat.
Phil., p. 125) have called the " displacement-function," or the " entire
tangential displacement" along any curve from a fixed point up to P.
In the present case

j Sordp = F (p) F (0).

If the curve be closed, we can transform the expression I So dp into the

form (Tait, Edin. Trans., Vol. xxvi., p. 75)

where <Zc is the element of any surface bounded by the closed curve,
and v is the normal to dc. In the case of
J So dp = perfect differential,

as indeed is otherwise evident, since we have V . V<r = 0 at every point

of the surface. We might therefore have followed the reverse process,
viz., first transformed I S . adp to the double integral form, and thus
deduced that

| S . adp = 0,
S . adp = perfect differential.

or

Case II.Motion Rotational only.

Perhaps the easiest way to treat this is to revert to Cartesians,
and we find that
wx=0,
w=0,
u3 s=0,
uy = v,, u% = wx1 wy = v..
where the suffixes indicate differentiation with regard to that letter.
From these equations we deduce by differentiation
uyz = 0 ,
VOL. VIII. NO. 1 1 5 .

vM = 0,
N

wxy = 0.

178

Mr. J. G. Butcher on the Quaternion Forms of

[Dec. 14,

Hence, by the previous relations,

u = Ay B + D,
v = Bz '' Cx + E,

w = Cas Ay + F,
or the fluid moves as a rigid body.
3. By means of the preceding results, we may at once deduce Stokes'
well-known analysis of fluid motion given in Camb. Phil. Trans., Vol.
viii., p. 290 sqq.
We observe that what we have called aa is the "relative velocity"
of a point of the fluid about P ; and our analysis has shewn that this
relative motion is compounded of a motion of rotation about P given
by V . TT where e is known, and a pure strain given by the expression
<pirir. Taking this latter part only, and using known quaternion
results, we see that we may write
where i, j , h are unit-vectors, and are taken as the roots of the equation
V . 7T (p7T 7r) =

or of

0,

V . 7r07r = 0;

(see Tait, " Quaternions," p. 91) ; and further, 0 being self-conjugate,

', j , k form in general a real and definite rectangular system. In other
words, there are in general three directions at right angles to each
other in which the point Q may be taken, so as to leave the line PQ
unaltered in direction after the strain (fir IT) has taken place. The
quantities g1} git <78 are inversely proportional to the squares of the axes
SJT (<pirIT) = 1 .
We may, with Stokes, call theso three directions the axes of extension.
This mode of exhibiting the values of e and of the axes of extension
shows clearly the independence of these quantities of the axes of coordinates.
We might break up the quantity <pir into many different forms; and
in fact, in treating special cases of fluid motion, it would be important
to select a suitable mode of resolution. Tait gives, amongst other
forms, the following
-

or
or

(l - *) 9 7T + 2

= fir+V.

1876.]

some General Propositions in Fluid Motion,

179

all of which we may interpret easily by remembering that

en- denotes a simple contraction or dilatation;
/3Sa7r denotes the alteration in T due to a simple shear where
T a = l , T/3= amount of shear at unit distance, and Sa/3=0.
miSwr denotes an elongation of all lines parallel to i in the ratio m.
Stokes has chosen (for a reason to be noticed presently) a resolution,
which we may write
<pnir = cir+m (iSiir j&jir) + n (1S1V JfeSfor),

where c, m, n are scalar constants.

On comparing this expression with that written above, viz.,
(jt wit = gx i StVgj S/V<j8 h S icn,
we find (with him)
o = | (gl+g%+gt), m = (gr,+gt2&), - w = (ft +^8-2^,).
It is easy to see, by Cartesians, what this analysis means. It means
that the motion due to <j>vir is compounded of a motion of uniform
dilatation,and two elementary shearing motions in the plane of(xy), (xz),
omitting the rotational parts of the shears.
For a shear in the plane of (xy) may, omitting rotation, be represented by elongating all lines parallel to x in the ratio 1+m, and con*
tracting all lines parallel to y in the ratio r, or 1m if m be
X "f* HI

small. That is, the alteration in x due to the irrotational part of the
shear is mas, and the alteration in y is my; which is precisely what
has been written down above.
If we wish to deduce from the expression /3SOTT (the general expression for a shear in the plane of a and /3, as above explained) the actual
value of the alteration in TT, we must remember
(i.) The shear may be affected by elongating ^
lines in the direction parallel to 0 A in the ratio
1+m, and contracting lines in the direction
parallel to OC in the ratio 1TO, followed by a c
rotation. By means of the elongation and contraction the line GA comes into the position
C'A', where A and C are taken so that OA=00',
0 A ' = OC. To bring the body now into the
A
A
same position in space as it would have been had the shear been effected
by a sliding of parallel planes over each other,
,
/ A
as indicated in the annexed diagram (see
| ~7 f"
Thomson and Tait, p. 106), we must give the
/
j
body or element under consideration a rota'/
tiou as a rigid body through the angle CMC (in the iirst figure). If,
N 2

180

[Dec. 14,
*
then, we wish to find the irrotational part of ir+fiSav, we must rotate
the hody back through the angle CMC, i.e., we must substitute in the
expression ir+fiSair, fora, aYea; for /3, /3-Ve/3; for 7r, Yen ;
where e is the vector axis of rotation.
(ii.) /3 and a, in the expression /SSaTr, are the lines C'A' and ON respectively.
* Hence we have CC = mOA,
OA __ fflOA*
but

Mr. J. G. Butcher on the Quaternion Forms of

CA 8 =OA 8 {l + (l+m) 8 } *
= 2OA 9 (l+m),
Z CMC = 7w to a first approximation.

Now if we consider the plane (ij) as the plane of a and /3, we have

* since T a = l , T/3=2w= amount of shear at unit distance (see Thomson

andTait, p. 107), Sn/3 = 0.
Also, e = mh, and Yen- = mYk (iSw+ySjfw) = i(j'SiariSjV).
Thus the expression n-+/3Sax becomes
7T - Ven- + (/3 - Ve/3) S (a - Yea) (TT - V67r)
= ff+m O'SiV-iS/ir) + W-/2 (i-.;) S ^ [TT+W O'SMt'Spr)]
v
= 7r + m (jSiiriSjir) + m (t'SiV J'S/TT) -|- WI (I'SJV J'SOT)
= r+in (iSiir jSjir),
which gives the alteration in the value of it in the form before found.
4. Let us treat the case of an incompressible fluid when the vector
axis of rotation is supposed given at each point of the fluid.
We have to solve the equations
V . W = a, when a is given at each point of the fluid (1),
.S.V* = 0
(2).
We may assume
a = V A + V . V5t,
where A is a scalar function, 51 a vector that we desire to find.
By (2) we have, since S W . V 5 t = SV29l = 0 (V8 being a scalar
operator),
V8A = 0
(3).
By substitution for a in (1),
or

1876.]

some General Propositions in Fluid Motion.

181

To make the problem workable, we must suppose in addition that ,

S . V91 = 0,
and then
V2l = a
(4).
Equations (3) and (4) can be solved by means of potential properties,
and by the nature of the potential admit of only one solution. If then
p = vector joining the points (xyz) and (x'y'z), we have

~ dx'dy'dz = 0
Tp
if the space over which the integration takes place does not contain (xyz);

and

j j j Vs ^-dx'dy'dz = 4*-

if the space contains (xyz).

Consequently, if a' be the value of a at the point (x'y'z'), and m be a
scalar quantity to be determined by the boundary conditions,

A==

JJJ Ypdxdljdz'y

the limits being taken so that the integration extends over all space
exclusive of the space considered ;

s If{*'*'*'
the integration being extended over all the space considered.
To make the distribution of m definite, we may impose the condition
that m shall be distributed entirely on the surface of tho space considered. To show that it is possible for m to bo a superficial distribution, we proceed thus. Let v be the normal to the bounding surface;
then the problem is impossible, unless
V . av = 0 at the boundary,
or
S. ai\5v = 0 ;
or, putting for a its value
we have
S . VAUV = S . VQiUv = a known quantity.
Let A be the potential of matter distributed on the surfaco; it is
always possible to determine such a distribution that the normal component of the force shall have assigned values all over the surfaco;
that is, m may be a superficial distribution.
We may now show how it is that S . V$( = 0.
Lot us put
dx'dydz = dJ,
r
.d , . a , . d
ax
ay
dz

182

Mr. J. G. Butcher on the Quaternion Forms of

sothat

v'l = - v l

then

[Dec. 14,

S.V2l = -

But, by the Quaternion form of Green's Theorem (Tait, Edin. Trans.,

Vol. xxvi.), we have, if P, F be any two scalar functions,

f [[ S. VT V'FcZ*/ = [f FS . VPUv&'or, if VP = ,

F=i,

{[( S.aVi^ = (| 1 9. .C^'-jIfis.VW.

Evidently

S . a'UV = 0 over the boundary,

and S V a ' = S .v'(V. VV + S. vV) = S V(yfa)

= 0 everywhere.

S . V5t = 0.
Hence
Consequently we have, finally,

The result we have just arrived at, viz.,

where A and 51 are found as above, may be usefully interpreted as
follows:Call A the scalar velocity potential, 51 the vector velocity
potential; then the velocity at any point of a fluid in motion depends
partly on the scalar potential, partly on the vector potential. That
part depending on the scalar potential corresponds to the pure strain
in our previous analysis, and may be called the irrotational motion.
That part due to the vector potential (involving a) corresponds to the
motion of rotation, and may be called the vortex motion.
We thus see more clearly the meaning of the term " velocity potential " which is used in the ordinary treatment of fluid motion, viz., the
case in which 5t is supposed to vanish, giving V . V<r = 0 at every
point, or the motion irrotational. It is customary to speak of this
being the only case of motion in which a " velocity potential" exists.
It would seem more appropriate to say that in this case the vector
velocity potential vanishes, and we are left with the scalar velocity
potential alone, as in the case I have considered in the earlier part of
this paper.
.

1876.]

some General Propositions in Fluid Motion.

188

It may be interesting to trace some analogies here ; e. g. (Maxwell,

" Electricity," Vol. ii.) if 39 be the magnetic induction, and 33 = V51,
then 51 is called the vector potential.
We may bring out the nature of the two quantities, which Maxwell
there calls the scalar potential and the vector potential, thus:Let 3 be
the vector magnetisation, p be the vector joining the points {xyz),
(in Maxwell's notation), q the quaternion 3p'*; then
Scalar potential = I I I ^
Vector potential = I I I = ^ d z d y d z .
If here m be a superficial distribution, and such that we may write
m = S . Vat at the surface, while everywhere else S . V</ = 0, then
our previous results show us that
A (scalar potential) = 1 1

dxdy'dz',

51 (vector potential) = 1 1 ]

,j,

dx'dydz'.

Let us evaluate the part of the velocity at {xyz) due to the rotation
of the element at {x'y'z). Call it Sa; then, looking at the last term of
equation (5), we have

[we must here put in the V because it is only when we integrate over
the surface that S . V5t = 0],

but

Hence

S . a'Ba = 0,
S . p $a = 0;

or the direction of the velocity at any point due to the rotation of an

element at any other point is perpendicular to the plane containing
the first point and the element of the vortex line through the second
point.
Also, if 6 be the angle between p and a',
magnitude of velocity at {xyz) ") _
Ta'
.
due to rotation at {x'y'z') ) ~~ 4rr (Tp)8

fl

184

Prof. Cayley on the

[Feb. 8,

February 8th, 1877.

C. W. MERRIFIELD, Esq., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. G. W. Von Tunzelmann was admitted into the Society.
Mr. A. B. Kempe moved, and Mr. Roberts seconded, a vote of thanks
to Lord Rayleigh and Mr. Spottiswoode for the presents of their portraits to the Society.
The following communications were made::
" On the Area of the Quadrangle formed by the Four Points of Intersection of Two Conies:" Mr. Leudesdorf (read in part by Mr. Tucker).
" On a Certain Series:" Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher.
"On the Equation -%+-%

= 0:" Prof. Cayley.

" Classification of Loci, and a Theorem in Residuation:" Prof.

Clifford.
The following presents were made to the Society:
" Reprint from Educational Times," Vol. xxvi.
" Educational Times," Feb.
"Nautical Almanac" for 1880, presented by Lords Commissioners of
Admiralty.
" Haversines, Natural and Logarithmic, used in computing Lunar
Distances for the Nautical Almanac," edited by Major-General Hannyngton, F.R.A.S. 1876.
" Proceedings of the Royal Society," Vol. xxv., No. 177.
" Vorlesungen iiber Geometric," von Alfred Clebsch, bearbeitet und
herausgegeben von Dr. F. Lindemann, ersten Bandes zweiter Theil;
Leipzig, 1876 : from the Editor.
" Weitere Untersuchungen iiber das Dxosaeder II.," von F. Klein,
Erlangen (read Jan. 15,1877).

fjhy*

On the General

Differential

till

E q u a t i o n - ^ ^ ~ / y ~ > where

are the same Quartic Functions of a, y respectively.

CAYLEY, F.R.S.

X, Y

By Prof.

[Bead February 8A, 1877.]

Write G = a + 60+c02 + cZ08+e04, the general quartic function of 0 >

and let it be required to integrate by Abel's theorem the differential
equation

~7v + ~~

= 0