Magnetic Separation

Magnetic Separation
See also Solid Solid Separation, Introduction
William J. Bronkala, Applied Magnetic Systems, Inc., Greenfield, Wisconsin 53 220, United States

1.

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.

Principles of Magnetic Separation .

3.

Types and Basic Application of Magnetic Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tramp Iron Removal . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.

1. History
In the mid-1800s, Faraday demonstrated in a
series of experiments that any substance placed
in a magnetic field will either increase or decrease, to a varying extent, the magnetic field
passing through it. This variation in the magnetic
susceptibilities of different materials makes possible the phenomenon of magnetic separation
(see Chap. 2).
Based on its magnetic susceptibility, a material can be classified as ferromagnetic (strongly
attracted magnetically), paramagnetic (attracted
magnetically to some degree), or diamagnetic
(repelled by a magnetic field).
All materials may be termed magnetic, although the relative value of the induced magnetism might be very small. Ferromagnetic materials have magnetic properties similar to iron,
and some ferromagnetic materials will retain
their magnetic properties in the absence of an
applied magnetic field. This phenomenon is
known as remanence. Paramagnetic materials
have a positive magnetic susceptibility (showing
a weak attraction to a magnet), and diamagnetic
materials have a negative magnetic susceptibility (showing a weak repulsion from a magnet).
Ferromagnetic materials are amenable to lowintensity separation and paramagnetic materials
to high-intensity separation.
Since the work of Faraday, numerous magnetic devices have been developed that utilize
differences in magnetic susceptibility to obtain
physical separation of mineral products. The
first successful commercial application of magnetic separators was the separation of iron from
c 2005 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

10.1002/14356007.b02 19

3.2.

Mineral Concentration and Product

Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1. Wet Magnetic Separators . . . . . . . .
3.2.2. Dry Magnetic Separators . . . . . . . .
4.
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6
7
10
11

brass in the late 1860s, followed by the separation and concentration of the ferromagnetic mineral magnetite.
Low-intensity electromagnetic separators
of various configurations were developed after
1880 for wet and dry magnetic separation of ferromagnetic materials; these were followed in the
early 1900s by high-intensity magnetic separators and permanent magnet separators. The first
permanent magnet material was an aluminum
nickel cobalt iron alloy designated ALNICO,
which was followed in the 1950s by ceramic
barium and strontium ferrite permanent magnets, and in the 1980s by rare-earth magnets
( Magnets and Magnetic Materials).
High-intensity magnetic separators of several types were developed to separate paramagnetic materials of lower positive magnetic susceptibility. The first high-intensity separators
were largely confined to dry separation, with
subsequent development of high-intensity wettype separators in the early 1960s and the high
gradient magnetic separator (HGMS) in the mid

2. Principles of Magnetic Separation

Magnetic separation is a physical separation of
discrete particles with different permeability or
susceptibility, based on a three-way competition
among tractive magnetic forces; gravitational,
frictional, and inertial forces; and attractive interparticle forces. The feed to magnetic separators is split into two or more components. If
the separator is to produce a magnetic concentrate, then a weakly paramagnetic or diamag-

Magnetic Separation

netic material in practice simply called nonmagnetic, constitutes the tailings (or reject) product.
If liberation is incomplete, a less magnetic (middling) product can result. Each product must be
transported into, through, and out of the magnetic separator. The magnetic and competing
forces (gravitational, frictional, hydrodynamic,
or inertial) tend to reduce the degree of separation.
Definitions (for a more comprehensive treatment, Magnets and Magnetic Materials). A
magnetic field is defined by its magnetic field
strength H (sometimes also called field intensity). The field strength of a homogeneous magnetic field in a solenoid with n turns per meter is
given by
H =nI

where I is the current per turn. (The SI unit for

magnetic field strength is A/m.)
The magnetic flux density B is a measurement
of the magnetic forces acting on particles in a
magnetic field. In a vacuum, magnetic flux density and magnetic field strength are related by
B0 =/A=0 H

where is the magnetic flux (SI unit weber,

1 Wb = 1 m2 kg s2 A1 ), A is the cross section
of the coil, and 0 is the permeability of the vacuum (0 = 4 107 N/A2 ). The SI unit for magnetic flux density is the tesla (T =kg s2 A1 ),
1 T = 1 Wb/m2 .
If a material is placed in a magnetic field, the
flux density of this material is given by

=M/H

(2)

Substitution in Equation (1) gives

B =0 H (1+)

The specific magnetic susceptibility is given

by
=/

where is the density of the material. Table 1

lists the magnetic susceptibility of various minerals.
Substances with a positive susceptibility (corresponding to > 1) are called paramagnetic;
substances with a negative susceptibility (corresponding to 0 < < 1) are called diamagnetic.
As can be shown in Equation (2), substances
with a positive susceptibility have a positive
magnetization and augment the flux density of a
magnetic field; substances with a negative susceptibility have a negative magnetization and
weaken the flux density.
A magnetic field exerts a force on each of
the two poles of a magnetic dipole, making it
align with the lines of the magnetic field. Because these forces are exerted in opposite directions, they are equal in a uniform magnetic
field. Therefore, the net force on the dipole is
zero. However, if the field has a gradient, i.e., it
varies in space, the force on the dipole will be
greater in the direction of the higher field and
will be proportional to the magnetic dipole moment and the magnitude of the magnetic field
gradient.

B =H

where (SI unit N/A2 ) is the permeability of the

material.
Another method of calculating B for a material is
B =0 (H +M )

(1)

where M (SI unit A/m) is the induced magnetization of the substance observed whenever it is
placed in a magnetic field.
The magnetic susceptibility of a material,
(volume susceptibility), is dimensionless and is
defined as the ratio of induced magnetization to
magnetic field strength:

Process of Magnetic Separation. Magnetic separation relies on the different behavior of individual mineral particles under the
influence of a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic or
paramagnetic materials are attracted along the
lines of the magnetic force from areas of lower
magnetic field strength to higher field strength.
Diamagnetic particles are repelled from areas of
higher magnetic field strength to those of lower
field strength.
The magnetization of various materials is directly dependent on their degree of magnetic susceptibility and the strength of the applied magnetic field (Eq. 2).

Magnetic Separation

Table 1. Magnetic susceptibility of minerals

Mineral

Susceptibility

Mineral

Susceptibility

Magnetite
Franklinite
Ilmenite
Magnetic pyrite
Siderite
Hematite
Zircon
Limonite
Corundum
Pyrolusite
Manganite
Garnet
Quartz
Rutile
Pyrite
Zincblende
Dolomite
Apatite
Willemite
Chalcopyrite
Spinel
Galena

0.12 3.07(a)
3.7103 (a)
1.5103 (a)
0.337 5.75103 (a)
8.4104
0.11 1.1103 (a)
1.7107
7 8104 (a)
3.4107 (b)
6.2 7104 (a)
4.9104 (a)
3.75104 (a)
1.75 4.38104 (a)
1.96106
0.2 1.5104 (a)
2.64107 (b)
1106 (b)
2.64106 (b)
1.9104 (a)
8.5107 (b)
0.2107 (b)
3.5107 (b)

Graphite
Fluorite
Aragonite
Calcite
Ruby
Topaz
Beryl

2.2106
2.85107 (b)
3.92107
3.63107
4.7107 (b)
4.2107 (b)
8.26107
3.86107 (b)
2.38105
2.66105
4.27107
3.84107
3.17107 (b)
8.8106 (b)
5.7106 (a)
5.8106 (a)
1.6106 (a)
6106 (a)
4.1105 (a)
3.5104 (a)
8.5107 (a)
0.8
1.2105 (a)

Halite
Celestine

5.0107 (b)
3.42107
3.14107
3.59107 (b)
1.12106 (b)

Tourmaline

Epidote
Augite
Adularia

Diopside
Sapphire
Cobaltite
Feldspar
Limestone
Red serpentine
Green serpentine
Antimonite
Mica, transparent

(a) Volume susceptibility; (b) specific susceptibility.

Ferromagnetic materials are quickly saturated magnetically, and increasing the magnetic
field strength will not increase the magnetization beyond a certain point. For paramagnetic
materials that are difficult to magnetize, the induced magnetization is proportional to the magnetic field strength applied, and some materials,
practically speaking, cannot be saturated.
The efficiency of magnetic separation may
be expressed by both the recovery (i.e., the ratio
of magnetic material in the magnetics relative to
that in the feed) and the grade (i.e., the fraction of
magnetic material in the magnetic concentrate).

3. Types and Basic Application of

Magnetic Separators
Magnetic separators are used in two basic areas:
1) tramp iron removalequipment protection,
and
2) mineral concentration and material purification.

3.1. Tramp Iron Removal

Tramp iron magnetic separators are used to protect material handling and process equipment
such as crushers, pulverizers, and screens. These
applications usually involve dry material or material with only surface moisture. Iron coarser
than 3 mm is usually defined as tramp iron.
The size and shape of the tramp iron, together
with the material handling system in use or proposed, must be considered in selecting magnetic
separators suitable for tramp iron removal.
Magnetic equipment that has been developed
for tramp iron removal includes
1) magnetic head pulleyspermanent and electromagnetic pulleys used as the head pulley
in belt conveyor systems;
2) suspended magnetsmagnetic units installed
over belt conveyors or feeders;

Magnetic Separation

3) plate magnets, which are used at the bottom

of chutes or launders; and
4) grate magnets employed in discharge hoppers.
Magnetic Pulleys. Magnetic pulleys are
elongated cylinders supported by a shaft, used as
the head pulley for conveyors that transport material in a plant. Magnetic pulleys have magnets
installed in them to provide a magnetic field of
the same strength around the pulley circumference, which removes any tramp iron contained in
the product. Magnetic pulleys are easy to install,
have low initial cost, and accomplish continuous
and automatic removal of tramp iron. A typical
installation is shown in Figure 1. Magnetic pulleys are available in diameters from 0.2 to 6.8 m
and in widths to match the conveyor belt width.

Figure 1. Operating principle of a magnetic pulley

Suspended Magnets. Suspended magnets

are rectangular steel boxes that contain permanent or electromagnets and provide a magnetic
field to remove tramp iron from material carried
on belt conveyors.

These magnets are suspended over conveyor

belts or feeders and develop a deep magnetic
field through which the material on the conveyor
must move. The term deep means that the magnetic field of a suspended magnet can extend to
760 mm (a pulleys effective magnetic field only
extends to 130 mm). Any tramp iron contained
in the material being transported will be intercepted and attracted to the suspended magnet
face.
Suspended magnets are available in both permanent and electromagnetic types, with the electromagnetic unit applied to the deeper loads carried on belt conveyors. The depth of material carried on the conveyor belt, the belt speed, and the
clearance required over the material on the belt
will determine the size of the suspended magnet.
Suspended magnets can be made self-cleaning
by installing a conveyor belt that runs over the
face of the magnet. A typical application of a
suspended magnet installation is shown in Figure 2.
Tramp Iron Magnetic Drums. Magnetic
drum separators are used for tramp iron removal
when installation of magnetic pulleys or suspended magnets is not feasible. The tramp iron
magnetic drum incorporates a magnet assembly
held in a fixed position inside a rotating drum
cylinder or a shell rotated around this magnet
assembly. The active separation zone (within
a few centimeters of the surface of the drum)
draws the ferromagnetic particles onto the surface of the drum; here, the motion of the drum
carries them to a region outside the influence
of the magnetic assembly. The ferromagnetic
particles then drop or are scraped off the edge
of the drum.

Figure 2. Two ways of mounting suspended magnets to remove core nails from foundry sand on a conveyor belt

Magnetic Separation

ure 3. Overfeed magnetic drums provide the

most complete magnetic removal because gravity is working with the magnetic field rather than
against it as in the underfeed arrangement.
Plate Magnets. Plate magnets (see Fig. 4)
are installed at the bottom of chutes or launders
carrying raw materials. They develop a magnetic
field which attracts and holds any tramp iron that
might be present. Tramp iron is attracted and
held on the face of the plate magnet from which
it must be removed periodically by hand.
A chute angle of 45 or less is recommended,
and the maximum depth of material flowing over
the face of the plate magnet is 115 mm. The plate
magnet should be installed as close to the feed
point as possible.

Figure 3. Feed arrangement for magnetic drums

A) Overfeed; B) Underfeed
a) Drum shell; b) Magnet; c) Adjustable nonmagnetic (diamagnetic) splitter

Grate Magnets. A grate magnet consists of

a set of magnetized tubes installed in a support
frame through which feed material is allowed
to flow. These tubes, containing the magnet elements, are installed on 25- or 37.5-mm centers,
and the feed material is directed through these
openings. The magnetic material collected on
the magnetized tubes must be cleaned periodically by hand to remove collected ferromagnetics. Grate magnets can also be used to remove
tramp iron from slurries or liquids. A typical
grate magnet installation is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4. Operating principle of a plate magnet

a) Plate magnet; b) Hinge; c) Latch

Feed material can be introduced on the top

vertical center line of the rotating shell (overfeed arrangement) or under the drum for clean
pickup of magnetic material (underfeed ). These
two feed arrangements are illustrated in Fig-

Figure 5. Operating principle of a grate magnet

Magnetic Separation

3.2. Mineral Concentration and Product

Purification
The magnetic responsiveness of minerals provides an effective means of concentrating naturally occurring ores.
Magnetic equipment used in wet mineral concentration includes
1) wet magnetic drum separators,
2) magnetic filters,
3) wet high-intensity magnetic separators
(WHIMS), and
4) high-gradient magnetic separators (HGMS).
Magnetic separators used in dry mineral concentration include
1) alternating polarity magnetic drum separators,
2) induced roll magnetic separators,
3) high-intensity crossbelt magnetic separators,
and
4) high-intensity disk-magnetic separators.

3.2.1. Wet Magnetic Separators

Wet magnetic drum separators incorporate a stationary electro- or permanent magnet assembly
held in a fixed position within a revolving drum
shell. The magnetic drum is mounted in a nonmagnetic tank arrangement.

Figure 6. Wet drum magnetic separator

a) Rotation drum; b) Stationary magnet assembly; c) Repulping box; d) Drum wash

The tank arrangement has a feed entry point

as well as collection hoppers for removal of
the weakly paramagnetic or diamagnetic (nonmagnetic) and ferromagnetic products of the
magnet assembly. A typical arrangement is
shown in Figure 6.
The feed to a wet drum separator is typically
a slurry in which the products to be separated
are carried, with water as a medium.
Wet drum separators have generally been
used to separate ferromagnetic particles such as
magnetite and ferrosilica from diamagnetic silica and coal fines.
Magnetic Filters. A magnetic filter is a simple device in which a direct-current electric coil
or permanent magnets are used to inductively
magnetize a steel grid. The steel grid is arranged
in such a way that the feed slurry or liquid passes
through it. The grid has a large number of magnetized edges that serve to collect any ferromagnetic particles present in the slurry or liquid feed.
Periodically, the filter assembly must be
cleaned of the ferromagnetic particles collected,
which means that the feed must be stopped or
bypassed to permit washing or back flushing of
the filter element. Magnetic filters are used to
clean oil, paint, clay slip, and other liquids or
slurries containing fine iron contamination.
Wet High-Intensity Magnetic Separators.
The WHIMS magnetic separator employs a rotating carousel in which a matrix of vertically
grooved plates, enclosed wedge-shaped bars, expanded metal mesh, or steel balls is fixed within
a ring. Figure 7 shows the operation of a carousel
WHIMS unit. At each feed point, the slurry to
be separated is introduced and the magnetics are
collected on the matrix with the diamagnetic
nonmagnetics passing into a nonmagnetic
collection hopper below the separator. As the
matrix rotates, it is washed to remove any physically entrapped nonmagnetics.
Continued rotation of the matrix brings the
collected ferro- and paramagnetics into an essentially unmagnetized zone where they are washed
off by a high-pressure water jet. These WHIMS
separators have high magnetic field strength (intensity) and high magnetic field gradient and can
separate very weakly paramagnetic particles.

Magnetic Separation

Figure 7. Wet high-intensity magnetic separator (WHIMS)

a) Feed pipe; b) Rotor; c) High-pressure water jet; d) Low-pressure water jet; e) Outer coil; f ) Matrix; g) Nonmagnetics
discharge; h) Magnetics discharge; i) Middlings discharge; j) Trough; k) Inner coil

High-Gradient Magnetic Separators. The

HGMS magnetic separator also has a high magnetic field strength and a high magnetic field
gradient, but it employs a static magnetized matrix canister through which the feed slurry is
passed.

weakly paramagnetic impurities. A typical application is in kaolin cleaning. The separation

of paramagnetic biomaterials is described elsewhere ( Biochemical Separations, Chap. 8.).
When the matrix is saturated with particles of
a positive magnetic susceptibility, water is introduced to wash the matrix of diamagnetics. The
magnet is then deenergized, and the matrix is
flushed with high-velocity water to remove the
paramagnetics. Processing of the slurry is resumed after reenergization of the magnet. Typical flow through an HGMS magnetic separator
is shown in Figure 8.
3.2.2. Dry Magnetic Separators

Figure 8. Typical flow through a high-gradient magnetic

separator (HGMS)
a) Coil; b) Mild steel circuit; c) Nonmagnetic stainless steel
matrix housing; d) Matrix area; e) Feed control for overfeed
or retention time control for underfeed operation

Typically, this canister has a matrix of packed

stainless steel wool which acts as a collecting element for the magnetic particles. Copper
coils which contain hollow conductors energize
the canister and are cooled by circulating water or liquid helium circulating through these
hollow conductors to permit the development
of magnetic flux densities as high as 5 T. This
extremely high flux density will extract very

Magnetic Drum Separators. Two types of

magnetic drum are used in mineral concentration or product purification. In the first type, as
illustrated in Figure 9, the poles of the stationary
magnet assembly alternate across the face width
of the drum. This presents a strong pattern for
holding the ferromagnetics to be removed and
permits use with coarse material (up to 305-mm
diameter).
The second type of magnetic drum, as illustrated in Figure 10, uses a magnet assembly in
which the magnetic poles alternate around the
circumference of the drum. This type of magnet
assembly usually has a greater length of magnet
arc (that part of the drum cylinderexpressed in
degreesunder which the magnet is located) and
develops considerable agitation and reorientation of the ferromagnetic particles as they are

Magnetic Separation

Figure 9. Magnetic drum separator with radial poles alternating across the face width of the drum
A) Arrangement of poles: a) Drum heads; b) Stationary shaft
B) Principle of operation: a) Revolving cylinder; b) Stationary magnet assembly

Figure 10. Magnetic drum separator with axial poles alternating around the circumference of the drum
A) Arrangement of poles; B) Principle of operation

carried from the feed to the magnetic discharge

point. A magnetic drum is usually fed by a vibrating or other type of spreading feeder on the
top vertical center line of the drum. Ferromagnetic particles are attracted and held to the drum
shell until they pass beyond the end of the magnet assembly, where they are discharged into a
magnetic product collection hopper.
In other applications where maximum purity
of the ferromagnetic product is desired, such as
in municipal waste treatment, an underfeed such
as illustrated in Figure 11 is used. In this application, the ferromagnetics must be picked up
against the influence of gravity to reach the magnetic drum face.

Induced Roll Magnetic Separators. The

induced roll magnet separator is a high-fieldstrength magnetic separator that achieves a high
field gradient and can remove paramagnetic
minerals from a dry granular feed. Because of
the narrow magnetic gaps used on this type of
separator, the feed is usually less than 3 mm in
diameter, and because of the surface activity of
very fine material, all particles 74 m (200
mesh) in diameter should be removed.
The induced roll separator has one or more
rotating rolls, made up of alternating steel and
diamagnetic disks that are inductively magnetized by an electro- or permanent magnet source.
The principle of operation is shown in Figure 12.

Magnetic Separation

Figure 11. Underfeed magnetic drum separator

a) Magnet; b) Belt conveyor

Various adjustments, such as air gap, roll

speed, splitter setting, feed rate, and field
strength, can be used to control induced roll separators.

Figure 12. Induced roll magnetic separator

a) Feeding hopper; b) Pole piece; c) Induced roll; d) Bridge
bar; e) Coil

Feed is introduced from a hopper or feeder

on the top vertical center line of the roll, and the
highly magnetized edges of the steel disks serve
to attract and hold the weakly magnetic mineral
to the roll surface. A change in polarity occurs as
the roll rotates, and the collected magnetics are
discharged after the roll reaches its null point.

High-Intensity Crossbelt Magnetic Separators. For very selective concentration of

weakly magnetic (paramagnetic) minerals, the
high-intensity crossbelt separator has been used.
This separator employs a feed belt on which a
thin layer of the feed material is introduced to a
high-strength magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials are lifted to the upper pole of this field and
transferred by a crossbelt to a collecting hopper.
To obtain the high field gradient required for separation of weakly magnetic minerals, the upper
pole is shaped to a point (or series of points) for
improved capacity, while the bottom pole is flat.
When various weakly magnetic minerals are to
be concentrated, a series of high-intensity poles
is used, with coil strength increasing at each
pole, or a variation in the field strength of the air
gap may be employed. The operating principle
of the high-intensity crossbelt magnetic separator is shown in Figure 13.
High-Intensity Disk-Type Magnetic Separators. The basic design and operation of a
high-intensity, disk-type, rotor separator are
shown in Figure 14. The induced magnet is a
steel ring arranged to rotate between the feed
belt and the primary magnet in such a way
as to discharge para- and ferromagnetic products to the sides of the belt. This separator is

10

Magnetic Separation

Figure 13. High-intensity crossbelt magnetic separator

A) Side view: a) Feeding hopper; b) Coil
B) Typical cross section and crossbelt arrangement: a) Parabolic curved nose of upper pole magnet; b) Flat lower pole; c) Feed
belt; d) Crossbelt

used to very selectively concentrate such weakly

paramagnetic materials as columbite, tantalite,
wolframite, monazite, uexenite, and other highvalue minerals. The use of a magnetized ring
permits narrower separating air gaps and develops magnetic fields with a high flux density at
each air gap.

4. Applications
The many types of magnetic separators result
in a wide range of applications for these units.
They are used in tramp iron removal, mineral
processing, and iron recovery:
Removal of tramp iron:
Chemicals
Pharmaceuticals
Cooling fluids
Scrap metals
Food processing
Miscellaneous materials
Minerals
(water, glass, cork, textiles)
Mineral beneficiation:
Aluminum
Molybdenum
Barium
Nickel
Chromium
Niobium
Clay
Rare earths
Diamond
Rhenium
Garnet
Talc
Germanium
Tantalum
Hafnium
Tin
Iron
Titanium
Kyanite
Tungsten
Manganese
Yttrium
Recovery of iron:
Solid waste
Heavy media (ferrosilicon)

The newer, high-intensity, high-gradient

magnetic separators open up other areas of magnetic treatment that have been pursued in varying
degrees to date. Some of these potential applications are indicated in the following material:
Mineral beneficiation in addition to those systems listed above:
Antimony
Arsenic
Asbestos
Beryllium
Bismuth
Cadmium
Coal
Cobalt
Copper
Feldspar
Gallium
Gold
Graphite
Indium
Lead
Lithium

Magnesium
Mercury
Mica
Platinum-group metals
Radium
Scandium
Silicon
Silver
Sulfur
Tellurium
Thallium
Thorium
Uranium
Vanadium
Zinc
Zirconium

Water treatment (magnetic filtration):

Diamagnetic suspended solids (by magnetic
seeding and flocculation)
Dissolved solids (by magnetic seeding and
flocculation)
Paramagnetic suspended solids
Oils
Waste treatment for recovery of ferromagnetic materials:
Coal and oil ash
Ore tailings
Smelter and furnace dust

Magnetic Separation

11

Figure 14. High-intensity disk-type magnetic separator

a) Disk-shaped induced magnet; b) Feed belt Enlargement: a) Coil; b) Pole; c) Ring; d) Belt

Removal of paramagnetic particulate impurities:

Chemicals
Fluids
Minerals
Pharmaceuticals

Chemical processing:
Recovery of paramagnetic fine precipitates:
deposition and recovery of substances on ferromagnetic particles.
The selection of a particular magnetic separator will be influenced by several factors such
as
1) size of feed material,
2) tonnage or capacity to be handled,
3) relative magnetic responsiveness (i.e., susceptibility) of the material to be separated
magnetically,

4) condition of feed material (wet, dry, or liquid

slurry),
5) purity required in the ferro- or paramagnetic
concentrate or the diamagnetic product,
6) temperature of the feed material and point of
application,
7) material handling system involved,
8) operating cost parameters, and
9) level of magnetic strength required.

5. References
1. J. D. Kraus: Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill,
New York 1953.
2. D. M. Hopstock: Fundamental Aspects of
Design and Performance of Low Density Dry
Magnetic Separators, Trans Soc. Min. Eng.
AIME 258 (1975) 222 227.

12

Magnetic Separation

3. Permanent Magnet Handbook, Crucible Steel

Company of America.
4. R. L. Sanford: Permanent Magnets, National
Bureau of Standards C448, 1944.
5. J. E. Lawver, D. M. Hopstock: Wet Magnetic
Separation of Weakly Magnetic Minerals,
Miner. Sci. Eng. 6 (1974) no. 3, 154 172.
6. R. S. Dean, C. W. Davis: Magnetic Separation
of Ores, Bulletin 425, US Bureau of Mines,
1942.
7. A. Nussbaum: Electronic and Magnetic
Behavior of Materials, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1967.
8. V. G. Derkatsch: Die magnetische Aufbereitung
schwachmagnetischer Erze, VEB Deutscher
Verlag fur Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1960.
9. J. A. Oberteuffer: Magnetic Separation: A
Review of Principles, Devices, and
Applications, IEEE Trans. Magn. MAG 10
(1974) no. 2, 223 238.
10. P. W. Selwood: Magnetochemistry, 2nd ed.,
Interscience, New York 1956.
11. J. E. Lawver, D. M. Hopstock: Electrostatic
and Magnetic Separation, SME Mineral
Processing Handbook, Sect. 6, Society of
Mining Engineers, New York 1985.
12. I. S. Wells: Wet Separation of Paramagnetic
Minerals, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, England),
1982.
13. G. Clark (ed.): Magnetic Separation, Ind.
Miner., 1985.
14. J. E. Forciea, L. G. Hendrickson, O. E.
Palasvirta: Magnetic Separation for Mesabi
Magnetite, Taconite, Min. Eng. (Littleton,
Colo.) 10 (1958) 339 345.
15. J. E. Forciea, R. W. Salmi: Primary Magnetic
Separation Specifications, Trans. Soc. Min.
Eng. AIME 232 (1965) 339 345.
16. B. Skold: Progress in Magnetic Separation,
Mineral Processing Meeting of Swedish
Mining Society, Skellerftea, January 1970.
17. G. H. Jones, Proc. Int. Miner. Process. Congr.,
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1960,
pp. 717 732.
18. J. Iannicelli, Clays Clay Miner. 24 (1976)
64 68.
19. E. J. Tenpas: Magnetic SeparatorsTypes and
Applications, Rock Prod. , 1971.
20. E. Laurilla: An Approach to the Theoretical
Treatment of Magnetic Concentration, ser. A,
vol. 6, Physica-Helsinki 1958.

21. H. W. Buus: How to Select Magnetic

Separation Equipment, Foundry, December
1960.
22. R. K. Singhal: Magnetic Separators for
Mineral Processing, Min. Mag., 113 (1965)
no. 5, 356 365.
23. E. J. Roberts, P. Stavenger, J. P. Bowersox,
A. K. Walton, M. Melita: Solids
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