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    British Raj in India

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    The British Raj was the period of British rule over India between 1858 and 1947. Britain established control over India through the British East India Company starting in the 1600s, and fully took control in 1858 after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The region under British control included both territories that were directly administered by Britain, called British India, as well as princely states that were nominally independent but acknowledged British authority. The British Raj lasted until 1947 when India gained independence and was partitioned into India and Pakistan.

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    British Raj in India

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    The British Raj was the period of British rule over India between 1858 and 1947. Britain established control over India through the British East India Company starting in the 1600s, and fully took control in 1858 after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The region under British control included both territories that were directly administered by Britain, called British India, as well as princely states that were nominally independent but acknowledged British authority. The British Raj lasted until 1947 when India gained independence and was partitioned into India and Pakistan.

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    India HIstory

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    The British Raj was the period of British rule over India between 1858 and 1947. Britain established control over India through the British East India Company starting in the 1600s, and fully took control in 1858 after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The region under British control included both territories that were directly administered by Britain, called British India, as well as princely states that were nominally independent but acknowledged British authority. The British Raj lasted until 1947 when India gained independence and was partitioned into India and Pakistan.

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    315 views45 pages

    British Raj in India

    Uploaded by

    abhi1648665
    The British Raj was the period of British rule over India between 1858 and 1947. Britain established control over India through the British East India Company starting in the 1600s, and fully took control in 1858 after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The region under British control included both territories that were directly administered by Britain, called British India, as well as princely states that were nominally independent but acknowledged British authority. The British Raj lasted until 1947 when India gained independence and was partitioned into India and Pakistan.

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    of 45

    BritishRaj

    FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

    TheBritishRaj(rj,meaning"rule"in
    Hindi)[2]wastheBritishruleovertheIndian
    subcontinentbetween1858and1947.[3]The
    termcanalsorefertotheperiodof
    dominion.[3][4]TheregionunderBritishcontrol
    commonlycalled"India"intheBritish
    periodincludedareasdirectlyadministered
    bytheUnitedKingdom(contemporaneously,
    "BritishIndia")aswellastheprincelystates
    ruledbyindividualrulersunderthe
    paramountcyoftheBritishCrown.Theregion
    waslesscommonlyalsocalledtheIndian
    Empire.[5]AsIndia,itwasafoundingmember
    oftheLeagueofNations,aparticipatingnation
    intheSummerOlympicsin1900,1920,1928,
    1932,and1936,andafoundingmemberofthe
    UnitedNationsinSanFranciscoin1945.[6]

    India
    IndianEmpire
    BritishRaj
    Imperialpoliticalstructure
    comprising
    (a)BritishIndia(aCrowncolony
    presidenciesandprovincesdirectlygovernedbythe
    BritishCrownthrough
    theViceroyandGovernorGeneralofIndia)
    (b)PrincelyStates,governedbyIndianrulers,underthe
    suzeraintyoftheBritishCrownexercisedthroughthe
    ViceroyandGovernorGeneralofIndia[1]

    18581947

    2Economicextent
    3BritishIndiaandtheNativeStates
    3.1Majorprovinces

    Flag

    StarofIndia

    Anthem
    GodSavetheKing/Queen

    TheBritishIndianEmpirein1936.

    Capital

    1Geographicalextent

    Thesystemofgovernancewasinstitutedin
    1858,whentheruleoftheBritishEastIndia
    CompanywastransferredtotheCrowninthe
    personofQueenVictoria[7](andwho,in1876,
    wasproclaimedEmpressofIndia),andlasted
    until1947,whentheBritishIndianEmpirewas
    partitionedintotwosovereigndominionstates,
    theUnionofIndia(latertheRepublicofIndia)
    andtheDominionofPakistan(latertheIslamic
    RepublicofPakistan,theeasternhalfofwhich,
    stilllater,becamethePeople'sRepublicof
    Bangladesh).AttheinceptionoftheRajin
    1858,LowerBurmawasalreadyapartof
    BritishIndiaUpperBurmawasaddedin1886,
    andtheresultingunion,Burma,was
    administeredasaprovinceuntil1937,whenit
    becameaseparateBritishcolony,gainingits
    ownindependencein1948.

    Contents

    18581912Calcutta
    19121947NewDelhi

    Languages

    EnglishHindustani
    Manylocallanguages

    Government

    Empire

    Empress/Emperora
    18581901
    19011910

    Victoriab
    EdwardVII

    3.2Minorprovinces

    19101936

    GeorgeV

    3.3Princelystates

    EdwardVIII
    GeorgeVI

    4.2Legalmodernisation

    1936
    19361947
    ViceroyandGovernor
    Generalc
    18581862
    1947
    SecretaryofState
    18581859
    1947

    4.3Education

    Legislature

    CentralLegislative
    Assembly

    3.4Organization
    418581914
    4.1AftermathoftheRebellion
    of1857:Indiancritiques,British
    response

    4.4Economichistory
    4.4.1Industry
    4.4.2Railways
    4.4.3Policies
    4.51860s1890s:Newmiddle
    class,IndianNationalCongress

    History
    IndianRebellion
    GovernmentofIndia
    Act
    IndianIndependenceAct
    PartitionofIndia

    4.61870s1907:Social

    Area

    reformers,moderatesvs.

    1937

    extremists

    1947

    4.7PartitionofBengal(1905
    1911)

    Currency

    4.819061909:MuslimLeague,

    Todaypartof

    MintoMorleyreforms
    519141947
    5.119141918:FirstWorld

    (first)CharlesCanning
    (last)LouisMountbatten
    (first)EdwardStanley
    (last)WilliamHare

    10May1857
    2August1858
    15August1947
    15August1947
    4,903,312km
    (1,893,179sqmi)
    4,226,734km
    (1,631,951sqmi)
    BritishIndianrupee
    India
    Bangladesh
    Burma
    Pakistan
    Yemen

    War,LucknowPact

    a. Titleexisted18761947.

    5.219171919:Satyagraha,

    b. RuledasQueenoftheUnitedKingdombetween1858and1May
    1876.
    c. Fulltitlewas"ViceroyandGovernorGeneralofIndia".

    MontaguChelmsfordreforms,
    JallianwallaBagh
    5.31920s:Noncooperation,
    Khilafat,SimonCommission,
    Jinnah'sfourteenpoints
    5.419291937:RoundTable
    conferences,Governmentof
    IndiaAct
    5.519381941:WorldWarII,
    MuslimLeague'sLahore
    Resolution
    5.619421945:Crippsmission,
    QuitIndiaResolution,INA

    5.71946:Elections,Cabinet
    mission,DirectActionDay
    5.81947:Planningforpartition
    5.91947:Violence,partition,
    independence
    6Ideologicalimpact
    7Famines,epidemics,publichealth
    8Seealso
    9Notesandreferences
    10Bibliography
    10.1Surveys
    10.2Specialisedtopics
    10.3Economichistory
    10.4Gazetteers,statisticsand
    primarysources

    Geographicalextent
    TheBritishRajextendedoveralmostallpresentdayIndia,Pakistan,andBangladesh,withexceptions
    suchasGoaandPondicherry.[8]Inaddition,atvarioustimes,itincludedAden(from1858to1937),[9]
    LowerBurma(from1858to1937),UpperBurma(from1886to1937),BritishSomaliland(brieflyfrom
    1884to1898),andSingapore(brieflyfrom1858to1867).BurmawasseparatedfromIndiaanddirectly
    administeredbytheBritishCrownfrom1937untilitsindependencein1948.TheTrucialStatesofthe
    PersianGulfweretheoreticallyprincelystatesaswellasPresidenciesandprovincesofBritishIndia
    until1946andusedtherupeeastheirunitofcurrency.[10]
    Amongothercountriesintheregion,Ceylon(nowSriLanka)wascededtoBritainin1802underthe
    TreatyofAmiens.CeylonwaspartofMadrasPresidencybetween1793and1798.[11]Thekingdomsof
    NepalandBhutan,havingfoughtwarswiththeBritish,subsequentlysignedtreatieswiththemandwere
    recognisedbytheBritishasindependentstates.[12][13]TheKingdomofSikkimwasestablishedasa
    princelystateaftertheAngloSikkimeseTreatyof1861however,theissueofsovereigntywasleft
    undefined.[14]TheMaldiveIslandswereaBritishprotectoratefrom1887to1965butnotpartofBritish
    India.

    Economicextent
    In1780,theconservativeBritishpoliticianEdmundBurkeraisedtheissueofIndia'sposition:he
    vehementlyattackedtheEastIndiaCompany,claimingthatWarrenHastingsandothertopofficialshad
    ruinedtheIndianeconomyandsociety.IndianhistorianRajatKantaRay(1998)continuesthislineof
    attack,sayingtheneweconomybroughtbytheBritishinthe18thcenturywasaformof"plunder"anda
    catastropheforthetraditionaleconomyofMughalIndia.[15]RayaccusestheBritishofdepletingthe
    foodandmoneystocksandofimposinghightaxesthathelpedcausetheterribleBengalfamineof1770,
    whichkilledathirdofthepeopleofBengal.[16]

    P.J.Marshallshowsthatrecentscholarshiphasreinterpretedtheviewthattheprosperityoftheformerly
    benignMughalrulegavewaytopovertyandanarchy.[17]HearguestheBritishtakeoverdidnotmake
    anysharpbreakwiththepast,whichlargelydelegatedcontroltoregionalMughalrulersandsustaineda
    generallyprosperouseconomyfortherestofthe18thcentury.MarshallnotestheBritishwentinto
    partnershipwithIndianbankersandraisedrevenuethroughlocaltaxadministratorsandkepttheold
    Mughalratesoftaxation.
    ManyhistoriansagreethattheEastIndiaCompanyinheritedanoneroustaxationsystemthattookone
    thirdoftheproduceofIndiancultivators.[15]InsteadoftheIndiannationalistaccountoftheBritishas
    alienaggressors,seizingpowerbybruteforceandimpoverishingallofIndia,Marshallpresentsthe
    interpretation(supportedbymanyscholarsinIndiaandtheWest)thattheBritishwerenotinfullcontrol
    butinsteadwereplayersinwhatwasprimarilyanIndianplayandinwhichtheirrisetopowerdepended
    uponexcellentcooperationwithIndianelites.[17]Marshalladmitsthatmuchofhisinterpretationisstill
    highlycontroversialamongmanyhistorians.[18]

    BritishIndiaandtheNativeStates
    IndiaduringtheBritishRajwasmadeupoftwotypesofterritory:BritishIndiaandtheNativeStates(or
    PrincelyStates).[19]InitsInterpretationAct1889,theBritishParliamentadoptedthefollowing
    definitions:
    (1.)Theexpression"BritishIndia"shallmeanallterritoriesandplaceswithinHerMajesty's
    dominionswhichareforthetimebeinggovernedbyHerMajestythroughtheGovernor
    GeneralofIndiaorthroughanygovernororotherofficersubordinatetotheGovernor
    GeneralofIndia.
    (2.)Theexpression"India"shallmeanBritishIndiatogetherwithanyterritoriesofany
    nativeprinceorchiefunderthesuzeraintyofHerMajestyexercisedthroughtheGovernor
    GeneralofIndia,orthroughanygovernororotherofficersubordinatetotheGovernor
    GeneralofIndia.[1]
    Ingeneral,theterm"BritishIndia"hadbeenused(andisstillused)toreferalsototheregionsunderthe
    ruleoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanyinIndiafrom1600to1858.[20]Thetermhasalsobeenusedto
    refertothe"BritishinIndia".[21]
    Theterms"IndianEmpire"and"EmpireofIndia"(liketheterm"BritishEmpire")werenotusedin
    legislation.ThemonarchwasknownasEmpressorEmperorofIndiaandthetermwasoftenusedin
    QueenVictoria'sQueen'sSpeechesandProrogationSpeeches.ThepassportsissuedbytheBritishIndian
    governmenthadthewords"IndianEmpire"onthecoverand"EmpireofIndia"ontheinside.[22]In
    addition,anorderofknighthood,theMostEminentOrderoftheIndianEmpire,wassetupin1878.
    Suzeraintyover175princelystates,someofthelargestandmostimportant,wasexercised(inthename
    oftheBritishCrown)bythecentralgovernmentofBritishIndiaundertheViceroytheremaining
    approximately500statesweredependentsoftheprovincialgovernmentsofBritishIndiaundera
    Governor,LieutenantGovernor,orChiefCommissioner(asthecasemighthavebeen).[23]Aclear
    distinctionbetween"dominion"and"suzerainty"wassuppliedbythejurisdictionofthecourtsoflaw:

    thelawofBritishIndiaresteduponthelawspassedbytheBritishParliamentandthelegislativepowers
    thoselawsvestedinthevariousgovernmentsofBritishIndia,bothcentralandlocalincontrast,the
    courtsofthePrincelyStatesexistedundertheauthorityoftherespectiverulersofthosestates.[23]

    Majorprovinces
    Attheturnofthe20thcentury,BritishIndiaconsisted
    ofeightprovincesthatwereadministeredeitherbya
    GovernororaLieutenantGovernor.

    ColonialIndia

    ImperialentitiesofIndia
    DutchIndia

    16051825

    DanishIndia

    16201869

    FrenchIndia

    17691954
    PortugueseIndia
    (15051961)

    Casadandia

    14341833

    PortugueseEastIndiaCompany

    16281633

    BritishIndia
    (16121947)

    EastIndiaCompany

    16121757

    CompanyruleinIndia

    17571858

    BritishRaj

    18581947

    BritishruleinBurma

    18241948

    Princelystates

    17211949

    PartitionofIndia

    1947

    Areasandpopulations(excludingdependentNativeStates)circa1907[24]
    ProvinceofBritishIndia
    Total
    Population
    Chief
    (andpresentdayterritories)
    areain
    in1901(in
    administrative
    km(sq
    millions)
    officer
    mi)
    Assam

    130,000
    (50,000)

    Chief
    Commissioner

    390,000
    (150,000)

    75

    Lieutenant
    Governor

    320,000
    (120,000)

    19

    Governorin
    Council

    440,000
    (170,000)

    Lieutenant
    Governor

    270,000
    (100,000)

    13

    Chief
    Commissioner

    370,000
    (140,000)

    38

    Governorin
    Council

    (PunjabProvince,IslamabadCapitalTerritory,Punjab,
    Haryana,HimachalPradesh,ChandigarhandtheNational
    CapitalTerritoryofDelhi)

    250,000
    (97,000)

    20

    Lieutenant
    Governor

    UnitedProvinces

    280,000
    (110,000)

    48

    Lieutenant
    Governor

    (Assam)

    Bengal
    (Bangladesh,WestBengal,Bihar,JharkhandandOrissa)

    Bombay
    (SindhandpartsofMaharashtra,GujaratandKarnataka)

    Burma
    (Burma)

    CentralProvinces
    (MadhyaPradeshandChhattisgarh)

    Madras
    (TamilNaduandpartsofAndhraPradesh,Keralaand
    Karnataka)

    Punjab

    (UttarPradeshandUttarakhand)

    DuringthepartitionofBengal(19051911),thenewprovincesofAssamandEastBengalwerecreated
    asaLieutenantGovernorship.In1911,EastBengalwasreunitedwithBengal,andthenewprovincesin
    theeastbecame:Assam,Bengal,BiharandOrissa.[24]

    Minorprovinces
    Inaddition,therewereafewminorprovincesthatwereadministeredbyaChiefCommissioner:[25]

    MinorProvinceof
    BritishIndia
    (andpresentday
    territories)

    AjmerMerwara
    (partsofRajasthan)

    AndamanandNicobar
    Islands
    (AndamanandNicobar
    Islands)

    BritishBaluchistan
    (Balochistan)

    Coorg
    (Kodagudistrict)

    NorthWestFrontier
    Province
    (KhyberPakhtunkhwa)

    TotalAreain
    km(sqmi)

    Populationin1901(in
    thousands)

    Chief
    Administrative
    Officer

    7,000
    (2,700)

    477

    exofficioChief
    Commissioner

    78,000
    (30,000)

    25

    ChiefCommissioner

    120,000
    (46,000)

    308

    exofficioChief
    Commissioner

    4,100
    (1,600)

    181

    exofficioChief
    Commissioner

    41,000
    (16,000)

    2,125

    ChiefCommissioner

    Princelystates
    APrincelyState,alsocalledaNativeStateoran
    IndianState,wasanominallysovereignentitywith
    anindigenousIndianruler,subjecttoasubsidiary
    alliance.[26]Therewere565princelystateswhen
    IndiaandPakistanbecameindependentfromBritain
    inAugust1947.Theprincelystatesdidnotforma
    partofBritishIndia(i.e.thepresidenciesand
    provinces),astheywerenotdirectlyunderBritish
    rule.ThelargeroneshadtreatieswithBritainthat
    specifiedwhichrightstheprinceshadinthesmaller
    onestheprinceshadfewrights.Withintheprincely
    statesexternalaffairs,defenceandmost
    communicationswereunderBritishcontrol.[27]The
    Britishalsoexercisedageneralinfluenceoverthe
    1909MapoftheBritishIndianEmpire,showing
    states'internalpolitics,inpartthroughthegranting
    BritishIndiaintwoshadesofpinkandtheprincely
    orwithholdingofrecognitionofindividualrulers.
    statesinyellow,exceptNepalandBhutan.
    Althoughtherewerenearly600princelystates,the
    greatmajoritywereverysmallandcontractedout
    thebusinessofgovernmenttotheBritish.Sometwohundredofthestateshadanareaoflessthan25
    squarekilometres(10squaremiles).[26]

    Organization

    SirCharlesWood(1800
    LordCanning,thelast
    LordSalisburywasSecretary
    1885)wasPresidentofthe
    GovernorGeneralofIndia
    ofStateforIndia187478.
    BoardofControlofthe
    underCompanyruleand
    EastIndiaCompanyfrom
    thefirstViceroyofIndia
    1852to1855heshaped
    underCrownrule.
    Britisheducationpolicyin
    India,andwasSecretaryof
    FollowingtheIndianRebellionof1857(usuallycalledtheIndianMutinybytheBritish),the
    StateforIndia185966.
    GovernmentofIndiaAct1858madechangesinthegovernanceofIndiaatthreelevels:

    1. intheimperialgovernmentinLondon,
    2. inthecentralgovernmentinCalcutta,and
    3. intheprovincialgovernmentsinthepresidencies(andlaterintheprovinces).[28]
    InLondon,itprovidedforacabinetlevelSecretaryofStateforIndiaandafifteenmemberCouncilof
    India,whosememberswererequired,asoneprerequisiteofmembership,tohavespentatleasttenyears
    inIndiaandtohavedonesonomorethantenyearsbefore.[29]AlthoughtheSecretaryofState
    formulatedthepolicyinstructionstobecommunicatedtoIndia,hewasrequiredinmostinstancesto
    consulttheCouncil,butespeciallysoinmattersrelatingtospendingofIndianrevenues.TheAct
    envisagedasystemof"doublegovernment"inwhichtheCouncilideallyservedbothasacheckon
    excessesinimperialpolicymakingandasabodyofuptodateexpertiseonIndia.However,the
    SecretaryofStatealsohadspecialemergencypowersthatallowedhimtomakeunilateraldecisions,
    and,inreality,theCouncil'sexpertisewassometimesoutdated.[30]From1858until1947,twentyseven
    individualsservedasSecretaryofStateforIndiaanddirectedtheIndiaOfficetheseincluded:Sir
    CharlesWood(18591866),MarquessofSalisbury(18741878laterPrimeMinisterofBritain),John
    Morley(19051910initiatoroftheMintoMorleyReforms),E.S.Montagu(19171922anarchitectof
    theMontaguChelmsfordreforms),andFrederickPethickLawrence(19451947headofthe1946
    CabinetMissiontoIndia).ThesizeoftheadvisoryCouncilwasreducedoverthenexthalfcentury,but
    itspowersremainedunchanged.In1907,forthefirsttime,twoIndianswereappointedtothe
    Council.[31]TheywereK.G.GuptaandSyedHussainBilgrami.
    InCalcutta,theGovernorGeneralremainedheadoftheGovernmentofIndiaandnowwasmore
    commonlycalledtheViceroyonaccountofhissecondaryroleastheCrown'srepresentativetothe
    nominallysovereignprincelystateshewas,however,nowresponsibletotheSecretaryofStatein
    LondonandthroughhimtoParliament.Asystemof"doublegovernment"hadalreadybeeninplace
    duringtheCompany'sruleinIndiafromthetimeofPitt'sIndiaActof1784.TheGovernorGeneralin
    thecapital,Calcutta,andtheGovernorinasubordinatepresidency(MadrasorBombay)waseach
    requiredtoconsulthisadvisorycouncilexecutiveordersinCalcutta,forexample,wereissuedinthe
    nameof"GovernorGeneralinCouncil"(i.e.theGovernorGeneralwiththeadviceoftheCouncil).The
    Company'ssystemof"doublegovernment"haditscritics,since,fromthetimeofthesystem'sinception,
    therehadbeenintermittentfeudingbetweentheGovernorGeneralandhisCouncilstill,theActof1858

    madenomajorchangesingovernance.[32]However,intheyearsimmediatelythereafter,whichwere
    alsotheyearsofpostrebellionreconstruction,ViceroyLordCanningfoundthecollectivedecision
    makingoftheCounciltobetootimeconsumingforthepressingtasksahead,soherequestedthe
    "portfoliosystem"ofanExecutiveCouncilinwhichthebusinessofeachgovernmentdepartment(the
    "portfolio")wasassignedtoandbecametheresponsibilityofasinglecouncilmember.[31]Routine
    departmentaldecisionsweremadeexclusivelybythemember,butimportantdecisionsrequiredthe
    consentoftheGovernorGeneraland,intheabsenceofsuchconsent,requireddiscussionbytheentire
    ExecutiveCouncil.ThisinnovationinIndiangovernancewaspromulgatedintheIndianCouncilsAct
    1861.
    IftheGovernmentofIndianeededtoenactnewlaws,theCouncilsActallowedforaLegislative
    CouncilanexpansionoftheExecutiveCouncilbyuptotwelveadditionalmembers,eachappointedto
    atwoyeartermwithhalfthemembersconsistingofBritishofficialsofthegovernment(termed
    official)andallowedtovote,andtheotherhalf,comprisingIndiansanddomiciledBritonsinIndia
    (termednonofficial)andservingonlyinanadvisorycapacity.[33]AlllawsenactedbyLegislative
    CouncilsinIndia,whetherbytheImperialLegislativeCouncilinCalcuttaorbytheprovincialonesin
    MadrasandBombay,requiredthefinalassentoftheSecretaryofStateinLondonthispromptedSir
    CharlesWood,thesecondSecretaryofState,todescribetheGovernmentofIndiaas"adespotism
    controlledfromhome".[31]Moreover,althoughtheappointmentofIndianstotheLegislativeCouncil
    wasaresponsetocallsafterthe1857rebellion,mostnotablybySirSayyidAhmadKhan,formore
    consultationwithIndians,theIndianssoappointedwerefromthelandedaristocracy,oftenchosenfor
    theirloyalty,andfarfromrepresentative.[34]Evenso,the"...tinyadvancesinthepracticeof
    representativegovernmentwereintendedtoprovidesafetyvalvesfortheexpressionofpublicopinion,
    whichhadbeensobadlymisjudgedbeforetherebellion".[35]Indianaffairsnowalsocametobemore
    closelyexaminedintheBritishParliamentandmorewidelydiscussedintheBritishpress.[36]

    18581914
    AftermathoftheRebellionof1857:Indiancritiques,Britishresponse

    Lakshmibai,TheRani
    ofJhansi,oneofthe
    principalleadersofthe
    GreatUprisingof
    1857,whoearlierhad
    lostherkingdomasa
    resultofLord
    Dalhousie'sDoctrineof
    Lapse.

    SirSyedAhmedKhan
    founderofthe
    MuhammedanAnglo
    OrientalCollege,later
    theAligarhMuslim
    University,wroteone
    oftheearlycritiques,
    TheCausesofthe
    IndianMutiny.

    An1887souvenir
    portraitofQueen
    VictoriaasEmpressof
    India,afull30years
    aftertheGreat
    Uprising.

    AlthoughtheGreatUprisingof1857hadshakentheBritishenterpriseinIndia,ithadnotderailedit.
    Aftertherebellion,theBritishbecamemorecircumspect.Muchthoughtwasdevotedtothecausesofthe
    rebellion,andfromitthreemainlessonsweredrawn.Atamorepracticallevel,itwasfeltthatthere
    neededtobemorecommunicationandcamaraderiebetweentheBritishandIndiansnotjustbetween
    BritisharmyofficersandtheirIndianstaffbutincivilianlifeaswell.TheIndianarmywascompletely
    reorganised:unitscomposedoftheMuslimsandBrahminsoftheUnitedProvincesofAgraandOudh,
    whohadformedthecoreoftherebellion,weredisbanded.[37]Newregiments,liketheSikhsand
    Baluchis,composedofIndianswho,inBritishestimation,haddemonstratedsteadfastness,wereformed.
    Fromthenon,theIndianarmywastoremainunchangedinitsorganisationuntil1947.[38]The1861
    CensushadrevealedthattheEnglishpopulationinIndiawas125,945.Oftheseonlyabout41,862were
    civiliansascomparedwithabout84,083EuropeanofficersandmenoftheArmy.[39]In1880,the
    standingIndianArmyconsistedof66,000Britishsoldiers,130,000Natives,and350,000soldiersinthe
    princelyarmies.[40]
    Itwasalsofeltthatboththeprincesandthelargelandholders,bynotjoiningtherebellion,hadproved
    tobe,inLordCanning'swords,"breakwatersinastorm".[37]TheytoowererewardedinthenewBritish
    RajbybeingofficiallyrecognisedinthetreatieseachstatenowsignedwiththeCrown.[38]Atthesame
    time,itwasfeltthatthepeasants,forwhosebenefitthelargelandreformsoftheUnitedProvinceshad
    beenundertaken,hadshowndisloyalty,by,inmanycases,fightingfortheirformerlandlordsagainstthe
    British.Consequently,nomorelandreformswereimplementedforthenext90years:BengalandBihar
    weretoremaintherealmsoflargelandholdings(unlikethePunjabandUttarPradesh).[38]
    Lastly,theBritishfeltdisenchantedwithIndianreactiontosocialchange.Untiltherebellion,theyhad
    enthusiasticallypushedthroughsocialreform,likethebanonsutteebyLordWilliamBentinck.[37]It
    wasnowfeltthattraditionsandcustomsinIndiaweretoostrongandtoorigidtobechangedeasily
    consequently,nomoreBritishsocialinterventionsweremade,especiallyinmattersdealingwith
    religion,evenwhentheBritishfeltverystronglyabouttheissue(asintheinstanceoftheremarriageof
    Hinduchildwidows).[38]

    Legalmodernisation
    Singhaarguesthatafter1857thecolonialgovernmentstrengthenedandexpandeditsinfrastructurevia
    thecourtsystem,legalprocedures,andstatutes.NewlegislationmergedtheCrownandtheoldEast
    IndiaCompanycourtsandintroducedanewpenalcodeaswellasnewcodesofcivilandcriminal
    procedure,basedlargelyonEnglishlaw.Inthe1860s1880stheRajsetupcompulsoryregistrationof
    births,deaths,andmarriages,aswellasadoptions,propertydeeds,andwills.Thegoalwastocreatea
    stable,usablepublicrecordandverifiableidentities.HowevertherewasoppositionfrombothMuslim
    andHinduelementswhocomplainedthatthenewproceduresforcensustakingandregistration
    threatenedtouncoverfemaleprivacy.Purdahrulesprohibitedwomenfromsayingtheirhusband'sname
    orhavingtheirphotographtaken.AnallIndiacensuswasconductedbetween1868and1871,often
    usingtotalnumbersoffemalesinahouseholdratherthanindividualnames.SelectgroupswhichtheRaj
    reformerswantedtomonitorstatisticallyincludedthosereputedtopracticefemaleinfanticide,
    prostitutes,lepers,andeunuchs.[41]
    IncreasinglyofficialsdiscoveredthattraditionsandcustomsinIndiaweretoostrongandtoorigidtobe
    changedeasily.Therewerefewnewsocialinterventions,especiallynotinmattersdealingwithreligion,
    evenwhentheBritishfeltverystronglyabouttheissue(asintheinstanceoftheremarriageofHindu
    childwidows).[38]Indeed,Murshidarguesthatwomenwereinsomewaysmorerestrictedbythe
    modernisationofthelaws.Theyremainedtiedtothestricturesoftheirreligion,caste,andcustoms,but

    nowwithanoverlayofBritishVictorianattitudes.Theirinheritancerightstoownandmanageproperty
    werecurtailedthenewEnglishlawsweresomewhatharsher.Courtrulingsrestrictedtherightsof
    secondwivesandtheirchildrenregardinginheritance.Awomanhadtobelongtoeitherafatherora
    husbandtohaveanyrights.[42]

    Education
    DuringthetimeoftheEastIndiaCompany,ThomasBabingtonMacaulayhadmadeschoolingapriority
    fortheRajinhisfamousminuteofFebruary1835andsucceededinimplementingideaspreviouslyput
    forwardbyLordWilliamBentinck(thegovernorgeneralbetween1828and1835).Bentinckfavoured
    thereplacementofPersianbyEnglishastheofficiallanguage,theuseofEnglishasthemediumof
    instruction,andthetrainingofEnglishspeakingIndiansasteachers.Hewasinspiredbyutilitarianideas
    andcalledfor"usefullearning."However,Bentinck'sproposalswererejectedbyLondonofficials.[43][44]
    UnderMacaulay,thousandsofelementaryandsecondaryschoolswereopenedthoughtheyusuallyhad
    anallmalestudentbody.UniversitiesinCalcutta,Bombay,andMadraswereestablishedin1857,just
    beforetheRebellion.By1890some60,000Indianshadmatriculated,chieflyintheliberalartsorlaw.
    Aboutathirdenteredpublicadministration,andanotherthirdbecamelawyers.Theresultwasavery
    welleducatedprofessionalstatebureaucracy.By1887of21,000midlevelcivilserviceappointments,
    45%wereheldbyHindus,7%byMuslims,19%byEurasians(EuropeanfatherandIndianmother),and
    29%byEuropeans.Ofthe1000toplevelpositions,almostallwereheldbyBritons,typicallywithan
    Oxbridgedegree.[45]Thegovernment,oftenworkingwithlocalphilanthropists,opened186universities
    andcollegesofhighereducationby1911theyenrolled36,000students(over90%men).By1939the
    numberofinstitutionshaddoubledandenrolmentreached145,000.Thecurriculumfollowedclassical
    BritishstandardsofthesortsetbyOxfordandCambridgeandstressedEnglishliteratureandEuropean
    history.Neverthelessbythe1920sthestudentbodieshadbecomehotbedsofIndiannationalism.[46]

    Economichistory
    TheIndianeconomygrewatabout1%peryearfrom1880to1920,andthepopulationalsogrewat
    1%.[47]Theresultwas,onaverage,nolongtermchangeinpercapitaincomelevels,thoughcostof
    livinghadgrownhigher.Agriculturewasstilldominant,withmostpeasantsatthesubsistencelevel.
    Extensiveirrigationsystemswerebuilt,providinganimpetusforswitchingtocashcropsforexportand
    forrawmaterialsforIndianindustry,especiallyjute,cotton,sugarcane,coffeeandtea.[48]India'sglobal
    shareofGDPfelldrasticallyfromabove20%tolessthan5%inthecolonialperiod.[49]Historianshave
    beenbitterlydividedonissuesofeconomichistory,withtheNationalistschool(followingNehru)
    arguingthatIndiawaspoorerattheendofBritishrulethanatthebeginningandthatimpoverishment
    occurredbecauseoftheBritish.[50]
    Industry
    TheentrepreneurJamsetjiTata(18391904)beganhisindustrialcareerin1877withtheCentralIndia
    Spinning,Weaving,andManufacturingCompanyinBombay.WhileotherIndianmillsproducedcheap
    coarseyarn(andlatercloth)usinglocalshortstaplecottonandcheapmachineryimportedfromBritain,
    TatadidmuchbetterbyimportingexpensivelongerstapledcottonfromEgyptandbuyingmore
    complexringspindlemachineryfromtheUnitedStatestospinfineryarnthatcouldcompetewith
    importsfromBritain.[51]

    Inthe1890s,helaunchedplanstomoveintoheavyindustryusingIndianfunding.TheRajdidnot
    providecapital,but,awareofBritain'sdecliningpositionagainsttheUSandGermanyinthesteel
    industry,itwantedsteelmillsinIndia.ItpromisedtopurchaseanysurplussteelTatacouldnot
    otherwisesell.[52]TheTataIronandSteelCompany(TISCO),nowheadedbyhissonDorabjiTata
    (18591932),openeditsplantatJamshedpurinBiharin1908.ItusedAmericantechnology,not
    British[53]andbecametheleadingironandsteelproducerinIndia,with120,000employeesin1945.
    TISCObecameIndia'sproudsymboloftechnicalskill,managerialcompetence,entrepreneurialflair,
    andhighpayforindustrialworkers.[54]TheTatafamily,likemostofIndia'sbigbusinessmen,were
    IndiannationalistsbutdidnottrusttheCongressbecauseitseemedtooaggressivelyhostiletotheRaj,
    toosocialist,andtoosupportiveoftradeunions.[55]
    Railways

    Indiabuiltamodernrailwaysysteminthelate19thcentury
    whichwasthefourthlargestintheworld.Therailwaysatfirst
    wereprivatelyownedandoperated.ItwasrunbyBritish
    administrators,engineersandcraftsmen.Atfirst,onlythe
    unskilledworkerswereIndians.[56]
    TheEastIndiaCompany(andlaterthecolonialgovernment)
    encouragednewrailwaycompaniesbackedbyprivateinvestors
    underaschemethatwouldprovidelandandguaranteeanannual
    returnofuptofivepercentduringtheinitialyearsofoperation.
    Thecompaniesweretobuildandoperatethelinesundera99
    yearlease,withthegovernmenthavingtheoptiontobuythem
    earlier.[57]
    Twonewrailwaycompanies,GreatIndianPeninsularRailway
    (GIPR)andEastIndianRailway(EIR)beganin185354to
    constructandoperatelinesnearBombayandCalcutta.Thefirst
    passengerrailwaylineinNorthIndiabetweenAllahabadand
    Kanpuropenedin1859.
    In1854,GovernorGeneralLordDalhousieformulatedaplanto
    constructanetworkoftrunklinesconnectingtheprincipal
    regionsofIndia.Encouragedbythegovernmentguarantees,
    investmentflowedinandaseriesofnewrailcompanieswere
    established,leadingtorapidexpansionoftherailsystemin
    India.[58]Soonseverallargeprincelystatesbuilttheirownrail
    systemsandthenetworkspreadtotheregionsthatbecamethe
    moderndaystatesofAssam,RajasthanandAndhraPradesh.The
    routemileageofthisnetworkincreasedfrom1,349kilometres
    (838mi)in1860to25,495kilometres(15,842mi)in1880,
    mostlyradiatinginlandfromthethreemajorportcitiesof
    Bombay,Madras,andCalcutta.[59]

    ExtentofGreatIndianPeninsular
    Railwaynetworkin1870.TheGIPR
    wasoneofthelargestrailcompanies
    atthattime.

    Therailwaynetworkin1909,whenit
    wasthefourthlargestrailway
    networkintheworld.

    MostoftherailwayconstructionwasdonebyIndiancompaniessupervisedbyBritishengineers.[60]The
    systemwasheavilybuilt,usingawidegauge,sturdytracksandstrongbridges.By1900Indiahadafull
    rangeofrailserviceswithdiverseownershipandmanagement,operatingonbroad,metreandnarrow

    gaugenetworks.In1900,thegovernmenttookovertheGIPRnetwork,whilethecompanycontinuedto
    manageit.[60]DuringtheFirstWorldWar,therailwayswereusedtotransporttroopsandgrainstothe
    portsofBombayandKarachienroutetoBritain,Mesopotamia,andEastAfrica.Withshipmentsof
    equipmentandpartsfromBritaincurtailed,maintenancebecamemuchmoredifficultcriticalworkers
    enteredthearmyworkshopswereconvertedtomakingartillerysomelocomotivesandcarswere
    shippedtotheMiddleEast.Therailwayscouldbarelykeepup
    withtheincreaseddemand.[61]Bytheendofthewar,the
    railwayshaddeterioratedforlackofmaintenanceandwerenot
    profitable.In1923,bothGIPRandEIRwerenationalised.[62][63]
    Headrickshowsthatuntilthe1930s,boththeRajlinesandthe
    privatecompanieshiredonlyEuropeansupervisors,civil
    "Themostmagnificentrailway
    engineers,andevenoperatingpersonnel,suchaslocomotive
    stationintheworld."saysthecaption
    engineers.Thegovernment'sStoresPolicyrequiredthatbidson
    ofthestereographictouristpictureof
    railwaycontractsbemadetotheIndiaOfficeinLondon,shutting
    VictoriaTerminus,Bombay,which
    outmostIndianfirms.[63]Therailwaycompaniespurchasedmost
    wascompletedin1888.
    oftheirhardwareandpartsinBritain.Therewererailway
    maintenanceworkshopsinIndia,buttheywererarelyallowedto
    manufactureorrepairlocomotives.TISCOsteelcouldnotobtainordersforrailsuntilthewar
    emergency.[64]
    TheSecondWorldWarseverelycrippledtherailwaysasrollingstockwasdivertedtotheMiddleEast,
    andtherailwayworkshopswereconvertedintomunitionsworkshops.[65]Afterindependencein1947,
    fortytwoseparaterailwaysystems,includingthirtytwolinesownedbytheformerIndianprincely
    states,wereamalgamatedtoformasinglenationalisedunitnamedtheIndianRailways.
    IndiaprovidesanexampleoftheBritishEmpirepouringitsmoneyandexpertiseintoaverywellbuilt
    systemdesignedformilitaryreasons(aftertheMutinyof1857),withthehopethatitwouldstimulate
    industry.Thesystemwasoverbuiltandtooexpensiveforthesmallamountoffreighttrafficitcarried.
    However,itdidcapturetheimaginationoftheIndians,whosawtheirrailwaysasthesymbolofan
    industrialmodernitybutonethatwasnotrealiseduntilafterIndependence.Christensen(1996),who
    lookedatcolonialpurpose,localneeds,capital,service,andprivateversuspublicinterests,concluded
    thatmakingtherailwaysacreatureofthestatehinderedsuccessbecauserailwayexpenseshadtogo
    throughthesametimeconsumingandpoliticalbudgetingprocessasdidallotherstateexpenses.
    Railwaycostscouldthereforenotbetailoredtothetimelyneedsoftherailwaysortheirpassengers.[66]
    Policies
    Inthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,boththedirectadministrationofIndiabytheBritishCrownand
    thetechnologicalchangeusheredinbytheindustrialrevolutionhadtheeffectofcloselyintertwiningthe
    economiesofIndiaandGreatBritain.[67]Infactmanyofthemajorchangesintransportand
    communications(thataretypicallyassociatedwithCrownRuleofIndia)hadalreadybegunbeforethe
    Mutiny.SinceDalhousiehadembracedthetechnologicalrevolutionunderwayinBritain,Indiatoosaw
    rapiddevelopmentofallthosetechnologies.Railways,roads,canals,andbridgeswererapidlybuiltin
    Indiaandtelegraphlinksequallyrapidlyestablishedinorderthatrawmaterials,suchascotton,from
    India'shinterlandcouldbetransportedmoreefficientlytoports,suchasBombay,forsubsequentexport
    toEngland.[68]Likewise,finishedgoodsfromEngland,weretransportedback,justasefficiently,for
    saleintheburgeoningIndianmarkets.Massiverailwayprojectswerebeguninearnestandgovernment
    railwayjobsandpensionsattractedalargenumberofuppercasteHindusintothecivilserviceforthe

    firsttime.TheIndianCivilServicewasprestigiousandpaidwell,butitremainedpoliticallyneutral.[69]
    ImportsofBritishcottoncovered55%oftheIndianmarketby1875.[70]Industrialproductionasit
    developedinEuropeanfactorieswasunknownuntilthe1850swhenthefirstcottonmillswereopenedin
    Bombay,posingachallengetothecottagebasedhomeproductionsystembasedonfamilylabour.[71]
    TaxesinIndiadecreasedduringthecolonialperiodformostofIndia'spopulationwiththelandtax
    revenueclaiming15%ofIndia'snationalincomeduringMogultimescomparedwith1%attheendof
    thecolonialperiod.Thepercentageofnationalincomeforthevillageeconomyincreasedfrom44%
    duringMogultimesto54%bytheendofcolonialperiod.India'spercapitaGDPdecreasedfrom$550in
    1700to$520by1857,althoughitlaterincreasedto$618,by1947.[72]

    1860s1890s:Newmiddleclass,IndianNationalCongress
    By1880,anewmiddleclasshadariseninIndiaandspreadthinlyacrossthecountry.[73]Moreover,there
    wasagrowingsolidarityamongitsmembers,createdbythe"jointstimuliofencouragementand
    irritation."[73]Theencouragementfeltbythisclasscamefromitssuccessineducationanditsabilityto
    availitselfofthebenefitsofthateducationsuchasemploymentintheIndianCivilService.[74]Itcame
    toofromQueenVictoria'sproclamationof1858inwhichshehaddeclared,"Weholdourselvesboundto
    thenativesofourIndianterritoriesbythesameobligationofdutywhichbindustoallourother
    subjects."[75]IndianswereespeciallyencouragedwhenCanadawasgranteddominionstatusin1867and
    establishedanautonomousdemocraticconstitution.[75]Lastly,theencouragementcamefromthework
    ofcontemporaneousOrientalscholarslikeMonierMonierWilliamsandMaxMller,whointheir
    workshadbeenpresentingancientIndiaasagreatcivilisation.[73]Irritation,ontheotherhand,camenot
    justfromincidentsofracialdiscriminationatthehandsoftheBritishinIndia,butalsofrom
    governmentalactionsliketheuseofIndiantroopsinimperialcampaigns(e.g.intheSecondAnglo
    AfghanWar)andtheattemptstocontrolthevernacularpress(e.g.intheVernacularPressActof
    1878).[73]
    Itwas,however,ViceroyLordRipon'spartialreversaloftheIlbertBill(1883),alegislativemeasurethat
    hadproposedputtingIndianjudgesintheBengalPresidencyonequalfootingwithBritishones,that
    transformedthediscontentintopoliticalaction.[74]On28December1885,professionalsand
    intellectualsfromthismiddleclassmanyeducatedatthenewBritishfoundeduniversitiesinBombay,
    Calcutta,andMadras,andfamiliarwiththeideasofBritishpoliticalphilosophers,especiallythe
    utilitariansassembledinBombay.TheseventymenfoundedtheIndianNationalCongressWomesh
    ChandraBonerjeewaselectedthefirstpresident.Themembershipcomprisedawesternisedelite,andno
    effortwasmadeatthistimetobroadenthebase.
    Duringitsfirsttwentyyears,theCongressprimarilydebatedBritishpolicytowardIndiahowever,its
    debatescreatedanewIndianoutlookthatheldGreatBritainresponsiblefordrainingIndiaofitswealth.
    Britaindidthis,thenationalistsclaimed,byunfairtrade,bytherestraintonindigenousIndianindustry,
    andbytheuseofIndiantaxestopaythehighsalariesoftheBritishcivilservantsinIndia.[76]

    1870s1907:Socialreformers,moderatesvs.extremists
    ThomasBaringwasappointedbyPrimeMinisterWilliamE.GladstoneasViceroyofIndia18721876.
    Baring'smajoraccomplishmentscameasanenergeticreformerwhowasdedicatedtoupgradingthe
    qualityofgovernmentintheBritishRaj.Hebeganlargescalefaminerelief,reducedtaxes,and
    overcamebureaucraticobstaclesinanefforttoreducebothstarvationandwidespreadsocialunrest.[77]

    GopalKrishnaGokhale,a
    Congress"extremist"Bal
    constitutionalsocial
    GangadharTilakspeaking
    reformerandmoderate
    in1907asthepartysplit
    nationalist,waselected
    intotheModeratesandthe
    presidentoftheIndian
    Extremists.Seatedatthe
    NationalCongressin
    tableisAurobindoGhosh
    1905..
    andtohisright(inthe
    Socialreformwasintheairbythe1880s.Forexample,PanditaRamabai,poet,Sanskritscholar,anda
    chair)isLalaLajpatRai,
    championoftheemancipationofIndianwomen,tookupthecauseofwidowremarriage,especiallyof
    [78] bothalliesofTilak.

    Brahaminwidows,laterconvertedtoChristianity. By1900reformmovementshadtakenrootwithin
    theIndianNationalCongress.CongressmemberGopalKrishnaGokhalefoundedtheServantsofIndia
    Society,whichlobbiedforlegislativereform(forexample,foralawtopermittheremarriageofHindu
    childwidows),andwhosememberstookvowsofpoverty,andworkedamongtheuntouchable
    community.[79]
    By1905,adeepgulfopenedbetweenthemoderates,ledbyGokhale,whodownplayedpublicagitation,
    andthenew"extremists"whonotonlyadvocatedagitation,butalsoregardedthepursuitofsocial
    reformasadistractionfromnationalism.ProminentamongtheextremistswasBalGangadharTilak,
    whoattemptedtomobiliseIndiansbyappealingtoanexplicitlyHindupoliticalidentity,displayed,for
    example,intheannualpublicGanapatifestivalsthatheinauguratedinwesternIndia.[80]

    PartitionofBengal(19051911)

    ViceroyCurzon(1899
    1905).Hepromotedmany
    reformsbuthispartitioning
    ofBengalintoMuslimand
    Hinduprovincesoutraged
    Hindus.

    SurendranathBanerjee,a
    Congressmoderate,who
    ledtheoppositiontothe
    partitionofBengalwith
    theSwadeshimovementto
    buyIndianmadecloth.

    Coverofa1909issueof
    theTamilmagazineVijaya
    showing"MotherIndia"
    withherdiverseprogeny
    andtherallyingcry
    "VandeMataram".

    ThethenViceroy,LordCurzon(18991905)wasunusuallyenergeticinpursuitofefficiencyand
    reform.[81]HisagendaincludedthecreationoftheNorthWestFrontierProvincesmallchangesinthe
    CivilServicespeedinguptheoperationsofthesecretariatsettingupagoldstandardtoensureastable
    currencycreationofaRailwayBoardirrigationreformreductionofpeasantdebtsloweringthecostof
    telegramsarchaeologicalresearchandthepreservationofantiquitiesimprovementsintheuniversities
    policereformsupgradingtherolesoftheNativeStatesanewCommerceandIndustryDepartment
    promotionofindustryrevisedlandrevenuepoliciesloweringtaxessettingupagriculturalbanks
    creatinganAgriculturalDepartmentsponsoringagriculturalresearchestablishinganImperialLibrary
    creatinganImperialCadetCorpsnewfaminecodesand,indeed,reducingthesmokenuisancein
    Calcutta.[82]
    TroubleemergedforCurzonwhenhedividedthelargestadministrativesubdivisioninBritishIndia,the
    BengalPresidency,intotheMuslimmajorityprovinceofEastBengalandAssamandtheHindu
    majorityprovinceofWestBengal(presentdayIndianstatesofWestBengal,Bihr,andOrissa).
    Curzon'sact,thePartitionofBengalwhichsomeconsideredadministrativelyfelicitous,communally
    charged,sowedtheseedsofdivisionamongIndiansinBengaland,whichhadbeencontemplatedby
    variouscolonialadministrationssincethetimeofLordWilliamBentinck,butneveracteduponwasto
    transformnationalistpoliticsasnothingelsebeforeit.TheHindueliteofBengal,amongthemmany
    whoownedlandinEastBengalthatwasleasedouttoMuslimpeasants,protestedfervidly.[83]
    ThelargeBengaliHindumiddleclass(theBhadralok),upsetattheprospectofBengalisbeing
    outnumberedinthenewBengalprovincebyBiharisandOriyas,feltthatCurzon'sactwaspunishment
    fortheirpoliticalassertiveness.ThepervasiveprotestsagainstCurzon'sdecisiontooktheform
    predominantlyoftheSwadeshi("buyIndian")campaignledbytwotimeCongresspresident,
    SurendranathBanerjee,andinvolvedboycottofBritishgoods.[84]
    TherallyingcryforbothtypesofprotestwasthesloganBandeMataram("HailtotheMother"),which
    invokedamothergoddess,whostoodvariouslyforBengal,India,andtheHindugoddessKali.Sri
    AurobindoneverwentbeyondthelawwhenheeditedtheBandeMatarammagazineitpreached
    independencebutwithintheboundsofpeaceasfaraspossible.ItsgoalwasPassiveResistance.[85]The
    unrestspreadfromCalcuttatothesurroundingregionsofBengalwhenstudentsreturnedhometotheir
    villagesandtowns.Someengagedinrobberytofundterroristactivitiessuchasbombingpublic
    buildings,buttheconspiraciesgenerallyfailedinthefaceofintensepolicework.[86]TheSwadeshi
    boycottmovementcutimportsofBritishtextilesby25%.Theswadeshicloth,althoughmoreexpensive
    andsomewhatlesscomfortablethanitsLancashirecompetitor,waswornasamarkofnationalprideby
    peoplealloverIndia.[87]

    19061909:MuslimLeague,MintoMorleyreforms

    1909PrevailingReligions,
    MapofBritishIndia,1909,
    showingtheprevailing
    majorityreligionsbasedon
    theCensusof1901.

    HakimAjmalKhan,a
    founderoftheMuslim
    League,becamethe
    presidentoftheIndian
    NationalCongressin
    1921.

    LordMinto,the
    Conservativeviceroymet
    withtheMuslimdelegation
    inJune1906.TheMinto
    MorleyReformsof1909
    calledforseparateMuslim
    electorates.
    TheHinduprotestsagainstthepartitionofBengalledtheMuslimeliteinIndiatoorganisein1906the

    AllIndiaMuslimLeague.TheLeaguefavouredthepartitionofBengal,sinceitgavethemaMuslim
    majorityintheeasternhalf.In1905,whenTilakandLajpatRaiattemptedtorisetoleadershippositions
    intheCongress,andtheCongressitselfralliedaroundsymbolismofKali,Muslimfearsincreased.The
    Muslimelite,includingDaccaNawabandKhwajaSalimullah,expectedthatanewprovincewitha
    MuslimmajoritywoulddirectlybenefitMuslimsaspiringtopoliticalpower.[88]
    ThefirststepsweretakentowardselfgovernmentinBritishIndiainthelate19thcenturywiththe
    appointmentofIndiancounsellorstoadvisetheBritishviceroyandtheestablishmentofprovincial
    councilswithIndianmemberstheBritishsubsequentlywidenedparticipationinlegislativecouncils
    withtheIndianCouncilsActof1892.MunicipalCorporationsandDistrictBoardswerecreatedforlocal
    administrationtheyincludedelectedIndianmembers.
    TheIndianCouncilsAct1909,knownastheMorleyMintoReforms(JohnMorleywasthesecretaryof
    stateforIndia,andMintowasviceroy)gaveIndianslimitedrolesinthecentralandprovincial
    legislatures.UpperclassIndians,richlandownersandbusinessmenwerefavoured.TheMuslim
    communitywasmadeaseparateelectorateandgranteddoublerepresentation.Thegoalswerequite
    conservativebuttheydidadvancetheelectiveprinciple.[89]
    ThepartitionofBengalwasrescindedin1911andannouncedattheDelhiDurbaratwhichKingGeorge
    VcameinpersonandwascrownedEmperorofIndia.Heannouncedthecapitalwouldbemovedfrom
    CalcuttatoDelhi,aMoslemstronghold.Morleywasespeciallyvigilantincrushingrevolutionary
    groups.[90]

    19141947
    19141918:FirstWorldWar,LucknowPact

    Indianmedicalorderlies
    attendingtowounded
    soldierswiththe
    Mesopotamian
    ExpeditionaryForcein
    Mesopotamiaduring

    SepoyKhudadadKhan,
    thefirstIndiantobe
    awardedtheVictoria
    Cross,theBritishEmpire's
    highestwartimemedalfor
    gallantry.Khan,from

    MohandasKaramchand
    Gandhi(seatedincarriage,
    ontheright,eyes
    downcast,withblackflat
    tophat)receivesabig
    welcomeinKarachiin

    MuhammadAliJinnah,
    seated,thirdfromtheleft,
    wasasupporterofthe
    LucknowPact,which,in
    1916,endedthethreeway
    riftbetweentheExtremists,
    theModeratesandthe
    TheFirstWorldWarwouldprovetobeawatershedintheimperialrelationshipbetweenBritainand
    League.
    India.Shortlypriortotheoutbreakofwar,theGovernmentofIndiahadindicatedthattheycouldfurnish

    twodivisionsplusacavalrybrigade,withafurtherdivisionincaseofemergency.[91]Some1.4million
    IndianandBritishsoldiersoftheBritishIndianArmytookpartinthewar,primarilyinIraqandthe
    MiddleEast.Theirparticipationhadawiderculturalfalloutasnewsspreadhowbravelysoldiersfought
    anddiedalongsideBritishsoldiers,aswellassoldiersfromdominionslikeCanadaandAustralia.[92]
    India'sinternationalprofileroseduringthe1920s,asitbecameafoundingmemberoftheLeagueof
    Nationsin1920andparticipated,underthename,"LesIndesAnglaises"(BritishIndia),inthe1920
    SummerOlympicsinAntwerp.[93]BackinIndia,especiallyamongtheleadersoftheIndianNational
    Congress,thewarledtocallsforgreaterselfgovernmentforIndians.[92]
    Afterthe1906splitbetweenthemoderatesandtheextremists,organisedpoliticalactivitybythe
    Congresshadremainedfragmenteduntil1914,whenBalGangadharTilakwasreleasedfromprisonand
    begantosoundoutotherCongressleadersaboutpossiblereunification.That,however,hadtowaituntil
    thedemiseofTilak'sprincipalmoderateopponents,GopalKrishnaGokhaleandPherozeshahMehta,in
    1915,whereuponanagreementwasreachedforTilak'soustedgrouptoreentertheCongress.[92]Inthe
    1916LucknowsessionoftheCongress,Tilak'ssupporterswereabletopushthroughamoreradical
    resolutionwhichaskedfortheBritishtodeclarethatitwastheir,"aimandintention...toconferself
    governmentonIndiaatanearlydate."[92]Soon,othersuchrumblingsbegantoappearinpublic
    pronouncements:in1917,intheImperialLegislativeCouncil,MadanMohanMalaviyaspokeofthe
    expectationsthewarhadgeneratedinIndia,"Iventuretosaythatthewarhasputtheclock...fiftyyears
    forward...(The)reformsafterthewarwillhavetobesuch,...aswillsatisfytheaspirationsofher
    (India's)peopletotaketheirlegitimatepartintheadministrationoftheirowncountry."[92]
    The1916LucknowSessionoftheCongresswasalsothevenueofanunanticipatedmutualeffortbythe
    CongressandtheMuslimLeague,theoccasionforwhichwasprovidedbythewartimepartnership
    betweenGermanyandTurkey.SincetheTurkishSultan,orKhalifah,hadalsosporadicallyclaimed
    guardianshipoftheIslamicholysitesofMecca,Medina,andJerusalem,andsincetheBritishandtheir

    allieswerenowinconflictwithTurkey,doubtsbegantoincreaseamongsomeIndianMuslimsaboutthe
    "religiousneutrality"oftheBritish,doubtsthathadalreadysurfacedasaresultofthereunificationof
    Bengalin1911,adecisionthatwasseenasilldisposedtoMuslims.[94]IntheLucknowPact,theLeague
    joinedtheCongressintheproposalforgreaterselfgovernmentthatwascampaignedforbyTilakand
    hissupportersinreturn,theCongressacceptedseparateelectoratesforMuslimsintheprovincial
    legislaturesaswellastheImperialLegislativeCouncil.In1916,theMuslimLeaguehadanywhere
    between500and800membersanddidnotyethaveitswiderfollowingamongIndianMuslimsoflater
    yearsintheLeagueitself,thepactdidnothaveunanimousbacking,havinglargelybeennegotiatedbya
    groupof"YoungParty"MuslimsfromtheUnitedProvinces(UP),mostprominently,twobrothers
    MohammadandShaukatAli,whohadembracedthePanIslamiccause[94]however,itdidhavethe
    supportofayounglawyerfromBombay,MuhammadAliJinnah,whowaslatertorisetoleadership
    rolesinboththeLeagueandtheIndianindependencemovement.Inlateryears,asthefullramifications
    ofthepactunfolded,itwasseenasbenefitingtheMuslimminoritylitesofprovinceslikeUPandBihar
    morethantheMuslimmajoritiesofPunjabandBengal,nonetheless,atthetime,the"LucknowPact",
    wasanimportantmilestoneinnationalisticagitationandwasseensobytheBritish.[94]
    During1916,twoHomeRuleLeagueswerefoundedwithintheIndianNationalCongressbyTilakand
    AnnieBesant,respectively,topromoteHomeRuleamongIndians,andalsotoelevatethestatureofthe
    founderswithintheCongressitself.[95]Mrs.Besant,forherpart,wasalsokeentodemonstratethe
    superiorityofthisnewformoforganisedagitation,whichhadachievedsomesuccessintheIrishhome
    rulemovement,tothepoliticalviolencethathadintermittentlyplaguedthesubcontinentduringtheyears
    19071914.[95]ThetwoLeaguesfocusedtheirattentiononcomplementarygeographicalregions:Tilak's
    inwesternIndia,inthesouthernBombaypresidency,andMrs.Besant'sintherestofthecountry,but
    especiallyintheMadrasPresidencyandinregionslikeSindandGujaratthathadhithertobeen
    consideredpoliticallydormantbytheCongress.[95]Bothleaguesrapidlyacquirednewmembers
    approximatelythirtythousandeachinalittleoverayearandbegantopublishinexpensive
    newspapers.Theirpropagandaalsoturnedtoposters,pamphlets,andpoliticalreligioussongs,andlater
    tomassmeetings,whichnotonlyattractedgreaternumbersthaninearlierCongresssessions,butalso
    entirelynewsocialgroupssuchasnonBrahmins,traders,farmers,students,andlowerlevelgovernment
    workers.[95]Althoughtheydidnotachievethemagnitudeorcharacterofanationwidemassmovement,
    theHomeRuleleaguesbothdeepenedandwidenedorganisedpoliticalagitationforselfruleinIndia.
    TheBritishauthoritiesreactedbyimposingrestrictionsontheLeagues,includingshuttingoutstudents
    frommeetingsandbanningthetwoleadersfromtravellingtocertainprovinces.[95]
    Theyear1915alsosawthereturnofMohandasKaramchandGandhitoIndia.AlreadyknowninIndiaas
    aresultofhiscivillibertiesprotestsonbehalfoftheIndiansinSouthAfrica,Gandhifollowedtheadvice
    ofhismentorGopalKrishnaGokhaleandchosenottomakeanypublicpronouncementsduringthefirst
    yearofhisreturn,butinsteadspenttheyeartravelling,observingthecountryfirsthand,andwriting.[96]
    Earlier,duringhisSouthAfricasojourn,Gandhi,alawyerbyprofession,hadrepresentedanIndian
    community,which,althoughsmall,wassufficientlydiversetobeamicrocosmofIndiaitself.Intackling
    thechallengeofholdingthiscommunitytogetherandsimultaneouslyconfrontingthecolonialauthority,
    hehadcreatedatechniqueofnonviolentresistance,whichhelabelledSatyagraha(or,Strivingfor
    Truth).[97]ForGandhi,Satyagrahawasdifferentfrom"passiveresistance",bythenafamiliartechnique
    ofsocialprotest,whichheregardedasapracticalstrategyadoptedbytheweakinthefaceofsuperior
    forceSatyagraha,ontheotherhand,wasforhimthe"lastresortofthosestrongenoughintheir
    commitmenttotruthtoundergosufferinginitscause."[97]Ahimsaor"nonviolence",whichformedthe
    underpinningofSatyagraha,cametorepresentthetwinpillar,withTruth,ofGandhi'sunorthodox

    religiousoutlookonlife.[97]Duringtheyears19071914,GandhitestedthetechniqueofSatyagrahain
    anumberofprotestsonbehalfoftheIndiancommunityinSouthAfricaagainsttheunjustracial
    laws.[97]
    Also,duringhistimeinSouthAfrica,inhisessay,HindSwaraj,(1909),Gandhiformulatedhisvisionof
    Swaraj,or"selfrule"forIndiabasedonthreevitalingredients:solidaritybetweenIndiansofdifferent
    faiths,butmostofallbetweenHindusandMuslimstheremovalofuntouchabilityfromIndiansociety
    andtheexerciseofswadeshitheboycottofmanufacturedforeigngoodsandtherevivalofIndian
    cottageindustry.[96]Thefirsttwo,hefelt,wereessentialforIndiatobeanegalitarianandtolerant
    society,onebefittingtheprinciplesofTruthandAhimsa,whilethelast,bymakingIndiansmoreself
    reliant,wouldbreakthecycleofdependencethatwasnotonlyperpetratingthedirectionandtenorofthe
    BritishruleinIndia,butalsotheBritishcommitmenttoit.[96]Atleastuntil1920,theBritishpresence
    itself,wasnotastumblingblockinGandhi'sconceptionofswarajrather,itwastheinabilityofIndians
    tocreateamodernsociety.[96]

    19171919:Satyagraha,MontaguChelmsfordreforms,JallianwallaBagh
    GandhimadehispoliticaldebutinIndiain1917inChamparan
    districtinBihar,neartheNepalborder,wherehewasinvitedby
    agroupofdisgruntledtenantfarmerswho,formanyyears,had
    beenforcedintoplantingindigo(fordyes)onaportionoftheir
    landandthensellingitatbelowmarketpricestotheBritish
    planterswhohadleasedthemtheland.[99]Uponhisarrivalinthe
    district,Gandhiwasjoinedbyotheragitators,includingayoung
    Congressleader,RajendraPrasad,fromBihar,whowould
    becomealoyalsupporterofGandhiandgoontoplaya
    prominentroleintheIndianindependencemovement.When
    GandhiwasorderedtoleavebythelocalBritishauthorities,he
    refusedonmoralgrounds,settinguphisrefusalasaformof
    individualSatyagraha.Soon,underpressurefromtheViceroyin
    Delhiwhowasanxioustomaintaindomesticpeaceduringwar
    time,theprovincialgovernmentrescindedGandhi'sexpulsion
    order,andlateragreedtoanofficialenquiryintothecase.
    Although,theBritishplanterseventuallygavein,theywerenot
    wonovertothefarmers'cause,andtherebydidnotproducethe
    optimaloutcomeofaSatyagrahathatGandhihadhopedfor
    GandhiatthetimeoftheKheda
    similarly,thefarmersthemselves,althoughpleasedatthe
    Satyagraha,1918
    resolution,respondedlessthanenthusiasticallytotheconcurrent
    projectsofruralempowermentandeducationthatGandhihad
    inauguratedinkeepingwithhisidealofswaraj.ThefollowingyearGandhilaunchedtwomore
    SatyagrahasbothinhisnativeGujaratoneintheruralKairadistrictwherelandowningfarmers
    wereprotestingincreasedlandrevenueandtheotherinthecityofAhmedabad,whereworkersinan
    Indianownedtextilemillweredistressedabouttheirlowwages.ThesatyagrahainAhmedabadtookthe
    formofGandhifastingandsupportingtheworkersinastrike,whicheventuallyledtoasettlement.In
    Kaira,incontrast,althoughthefarmers'causereceivedpublicityfromGandhi'spresence,thesatyagraha
    itself,whichconsistedofthefarmers'collectivedecisiontowithholdpayment,wasnotimmediately
    successful,astheBritishauthoritiesrefusedtobackdown.TheagitationinKairagainedforGandhi
    anotherlifelonglieutenantinSardarVallabhbhaiPatel,whohadorganisedthefarmers,andwhotoo
    wouldgoontoplayaleadershiproleintheIndianindependencemovement.[100]Champaran,Kaira,and
    AhmedabadwereimportantmilestonesinthehistoryofGandhi'snewmethodsofsocialprotestinIndia.

    In1916,inthefaceofnewstrengthdemonstratedbythenationalistswiththesigningoftheLucknow
    PactandthefoundingoftheHomeRuleleagues,andtherealisation,afterthedisasterinthe
    Mesopotamiancampaign,thatthewarwouldlikelylastlonger,thenewViceroy,LordChelmsford,
    cautionedthattheGovernmentofIndianeededtobemoreresponsivetoIndianopinion.[101]Towards
    theendoftheyear,afterdiscussionswiththegovernmentinLondon,hesuggestedthattheBritish
    demonstratetheirgoodfaithinlightoftheIndianwarrolethroughanumberofpublicactions,
    includingawardsoftitlesandhonourstoprinces,grantingofcommissionsinthearmytoIndians,and
    removalofthemuchreviledcottonexciseduty,but,mostimportantly,anannouncementofBritain's
    futureplansforIndiaandanindicationofsomeconcretesteps.Aftermorediscussion,inAugust1917,
    thenewLiberalSecretaryofStateforIndia,EdwinMontagu,announcedtheBritishaimof"increasing
    associationofIndiansineverybranchoftheadministration,and
    thegradualdevelopmentofselfgoverninginstitutions,witha
    viewtotheprogressiverealisationofresponsiblegovernmentin
    IndiaasanintegralpartoftheBritishEmpire."[101]Althoughthe
    planenvisionedlimitedselfgovernmentatfirstonlyinthe
    provinceswithIndiaemphaticallywithintheBritishEmpire
    itrepresentedthefirstBritishproposalforanyformof
    representativegovernmentinanonwhitecolony.
    Earlier,attheonsetofWorldWarI,thereassignmentofmostof
    theBritisharmyinIndiatoEuropeandMesopotamia,hadledthe
    previousViceroy,LordHarding,toworryaboutthe"risks
    involvedindenudingIndiaoftroops."[92]Revolutionaryviolence
    hadalreadybeenaconcerninBritishIndiaconsequently,in
    1915,tostrengthenitspowersduringwhatitsawwasatimeof
    increasedvulnerability,theGovernmentofIndiapassedthe
    DefenceofIndiaAct,whichallowedittointernpolitically
    dangerousdissidentswithoutdueprocess,andaddedtothe
    poweritalreadyhadunderthe1910PressActbothto
    imprisonjournalistswithouttrialandtocensorthepress.[102]It
    wasundertheDefenceofIndiaactthattheAlibrotherswere
    imprisonedin1916,andAnnieBesant,aEuropeanwoman,and
    ordinarilymoreproblematictoimprison,in1917.[102]Now,as
    EdwinMontagu,left,theSecretary
    constitutionalreformbegantobediscussedinearnest,theBritish
    ofStateforIndia,whosereport,led
    begantoconsiderhownewmoderateIndianscouldbebrought
    totheGovernmentofIndiaAct1919,
    intothefoldofconstitutionalpoliticsand,simultaneously,how
    alsoknownastheMontfordReforms
    thehandofestablishedconstitutionalistscouldbestrengthened.
    ortheMontaguChelmsfordReforms
    However,sincetheGovernmentofIndiawantedtoensure
    againstanysabotageofthereformprocessbyextremists,and
    sinceitsreformplanwasdevisedduringatimewhenextremistviolencehadebbedasaresultof
    increasedgovernmentalcontrol,italsobegantoconsiderhowsomeofitswartimepowerscouldbe
    extendedintopeacetime.[102]
    Consequently,in1917,evenasEdwinMontagu,announcedthenewconstitutionalreforms,acommittee
    chairedbyaBritishjudge,Mr.S.A.T.Rowlatt,wastaskedwithinvestigating"revolutionary
    conspiracies",withtheunstatedgoalofextendingthegovernment'swartimepowers.[101]TheRowlatt
    committeepresenteditsreportinJuly1918andidentifiedthreeregionsofconspiratorialinsurgency:
    Bengal,theBombaypresidency,andthePunjab.[101]Tocombatsubversiveactsintheseregions,the
    committeerecommendedthatthegovernmentuseemergencypowersakintoitswartimeauthority,
    whichincludedtheabilitytotrycasesofseditionbyapanelofthreejudgesandwithoutjuries,exaction

    ofsecuritiesfromsuspects,governmentaloverseeingof
    residencesofsuspects,[101]andthepowerforprovincial
    governmentstoarrestanddetainsuspectsinshorttermdetention
    facilitiesandwithouttrial.[98]
    WiththeendofWorldWarI,therewasalsoachangeinthe
    economicclimate.Bytheendof1919,1.5millionIndianshad
    servedinthearmedservicesineithercombatantornon
    combatantroles,andIndiahadprovided146millioninrevenue
    forthewar.[103]Theincreasedtaxescoupledwithdisruptionsin
    bothdomesticandinternationaltradehadtheeffectof
    approximatelydoublingtheindexofoverallpricesinIndia
    between1914and1920.[103]Returningwarveterans,especially
    inthePunjab,createdagrowingunemploymentcrisis,[104]and
    postwarinflationledtofoodriotsinBombay,Madras,and
    Bengalprovinces,[104]asituationthatwasmadeonlyworseby
    thefailureofthe191819monsoonandbyprofiteeringand
    speculation.[103]Theglobalinfluenzaepidemicandthe
    BolshevikRevolutionof1917addedtothegeneraljittersthe
    formeramongthepopulationalreadyexperiencingeconomic
    woes,[104]andthelatteramonggovernmentofficials,fearinga
    similarrevolutioninIndia.[105]

    HeadlinesabouttheRowlattBills
    (1919)fromanationalistnewspaper
    inIndia.Althoughallnonofficial
    IndiansontheLegislativeCouncil
    votedagainsttheRowlattBills,the
    governmentwasabletoforcetheir
    passagebyusingitsmajority. [98]

    Tocombatwhatitsawasacomingcrisis,thegovernmentnow
    draftedtheRowlattcommittee'srecommendationsintotwo
    RowlattBills.[98]Althoughthebillswereauthorisedfor
    TheJallianwallaBaghin1919,afew
    legislativeconsiderationbyEdwinMontagu,theyweredoneso
    monthsafterthemassacrewhichhad
    unwillingly,withtheaccompanyingdeclaration,"Iloathethe
    occurredon13April
    suggestionatfirstsightofpreservingtheDefenceofIndiaActin
    peacetimetosuchanextentasRowlattandhisfriendsthink
    necessary."[101]IntheensuingdiscussionandvoteintheImperialLegislativeCouncil,allIndian
    membersvoicedoppositiontothebills.TheGovernmentofIndiawas,nevertheless,abletouseofits
    "officialmajority"toensurepassageofthebillsearlyin1919.[101]However,whatitpassed,indeference
    totheIndianopposition,wasalesserversionofthefirstbill,whichnowallowedextrajudicialpowers,
    butforaperiodofexactlythreeyearsandfortheprosecutionsolelyof"anarchicalandrevolutionary
    movements",droppingentirelythesecondbillinvolvingmodificationtheIndianPenalCode.[101]Even
    so,whenitwaspassed,thenewRowlattActarousedwidespreadindignationthroughoutIndia,and
    broughtGandhitotheforefrontofthenationalistmovement.[98]
    Meanwhile,MontaguandChelmsfordthemselvesfinallypresentedtheirreportinJuly1918afteralong
    factfindingtripthroughIndiathepreviouswinter.[106]Aftermorediscussionbythegovernmentand
    parliamentinBritain,andanothertourbytheFranchiseandFunctionsCommitteeforthepurposeof
    identifyingwhoamongtheIndianpopulationcouldvoteinfutureelections,theGovernmentofIndia
    Act1919(alsoknownastheMontaguChelmsfordReforms)waspassedinDecember1919.[106]The
    newActenlargedboththeprovincialandImperiallegislativecouncilsandrepealedtheGovernmentof
    India'srecoursetothe"officialmajority"inunfavourablevotes.[106]Althoughdepartmentslikedefence,
    foreignaffairs,criminallaw,communications,andincometaxwereretainedbytheViceroyandthe
    centralgovernmentinNewDelhi,otherdepartmentslikepublichealth,education,landrevenue,local

    selfgovernmentweretransferredtotheprovinces.[106]Theprovincesthemselveswerenowtobe
    administeredunderanewdyarchicalsystem,wherebysomeareaslikeeducation,agriculture,
    infrastructuredevelopment,andlocalselfgovernmentbecamethepreserveofIndianministersand
    legislatures,andultimatelytheIndianelectorates,whileotherslikeirrigation,landrevenue,police,
    prisons,andcontrolofmediaremainedwithinthepurviewoftheBritishgovernorandhisexecutive
    council.[106]ThenewActalsomadeiteasierforIndianstobeadmittedintothecivilserviceandthe
    armyofficercorps.
    AgreaternumberofIndianswerenowenfranchised,although,forvotingatthenationallevel,they
    constitutedonly10%ofthetotaladultmalepopulation,manyofwhomwerestillilliterate.[106]Inthe
    provinciallegislatures,theBritishcontinuedtoexercisesomecontrolbysettingasideseatsforspecial
    intereststheyconsideredcooperativeoruseful.Inparticular,ruralcandidates,generallysympatheticto
    Britishruleandlessconfrontational,wereassignedmoreseatsthantheirurbancounterparts.[106]Seats
    werealsoreservedfornonBrahmins,landowners,businessmen,andcollegegraduates.Theprincipalof
    "communalrepresentation",anintegralpartoftheMintoMorleyReforms,andmorerecentlyofthe
    CongressMuslimLeagueLucknowPact,wasreaffirmed,withseatsbeingreservedforMuslims,Sikhs,
    IndianChristians,AngloIndians,anddomiciledEuropeans,inbothprovincialandImperiallegislative
    councils.[106]TheMontaguChelmsfordreformsofferedIndiansthemostsignificantopportunityyetfor
    exercisinglegislativepower,especiallyattheprovinciallevelhowever,thatopportunitywasalso
    restrictedbythestilllimitednumberofeligiblevoters,bythesmallbudgetsavailabletoprovincial
    legislatures,andbythepresenceofruralandspecialinterestseatsthatwereseenasinstrumentsof
    Britishcontrol.[106]ItsscopewasunsatisfactorytotheIndianpoliticalleadership,famouslyexpressedby
    AnnieBeasantassomething"unworthyofEnglandtoofferandIndiatoaccept".[107]
    TheJallianwalaBaghmassacreor"Amritsarmassacre",tookplaceintheJallianwalaBaghpublic
    gardeninthepredominantlySikhnortherncityofAmritsar.AfterdaysofunrestBrigadierGeneral
    ReginaldE.H.DyerforbadepublicmeetingsandonSunday13April1919fiftyBritishIndianArmy
    soldierscommandedbyDyerbeganshootingatanunarmedgatheringofthousandsofmen,women,and
    childrenwithoutwarning.Casualtyestimatesvarywidely,withtheGovernmentofIndiareporting379
    dead,with1,100wounded.[108]TheIndianNationalCongressestimatedthreetimesthenumberofdead.
    DyerwasremovedfromdutybuthebecameacelebratedheroinBritainamongpeoplewithconnections
    totheRaj.[109]HistoriansconsidertheepisodewasadecisivesteptowardstheendofBritishrulein
    India.[110]

    1920s:Noncooperation,Khilafat,SimonCommission,Jinnah'sfourteenpoints

    MahatmaGandhiwithDr.
    AnnieBesantenroutetoa
    meetinginMadrasin
    September1921.Earlier,
    inMadurai,on21
    September1921,Gandhi
    hadadoptedtheloincloth
    forthefirsttimeasa
    symbolofhis
    identificationwithIndia's
    poor.

    Anearly1920sposter
    advertisingaCongress
    noncooperation"Public
    Meeting"anda"Bonfireof
    ForeignClothes"in
    Bombay,andexpressing
    supportforthe"Karachi
    KhilafatConference."

    HindusandMuslims,
    displayingtheflagsof
    boththeIndianNational
    CongressandtheMuslim
    League,collectingclothes
    tobelaterburntasapart
    ofthenoncooperation
    movementinitiatedby
    Gandhi.

    Photographofthestaffand
    studentsoftheNational
    College,Lahore,founded
    in1921byLalaLajpatRai
    forstudentspreparingfor
    thenoncooperation
    movement.Standing,
    In1920,aftertheBritishgovernmentrefusedtobackdown,Gandhibeganhiscampaignofnonco
    fourthfromtheright,is
    operation,promptingmanyIndianstoreturnBritishawardsandhonours,toresignfromcivilservice,
    futurerevolutionary
    andtoagainboycottBritishgoods.Inaddition,GandhireorganisedtheCongress,transformingitintoa
    BhagatSingh.
    massmovementandopeningitsmembershiptoeventhepoorestIndians.AlthoughGandhihaltedthe

    noncooperationmovementin1922aftertheviolentincidentatChauriChaura,themovementrevived
    again,inthemid1920s.
    Thevisit,in1928,oftheBritishSimonCommission,chargedwithinstitutingconstitutionalreformin
    India,resultedinwidespreadproteststhroughoutthecountry.[111]Earlier,in1925,nonviolentprotests
    oftheCongresshadresumedtoo,thistimeinGujarat,andledbyPatel,whoorganisedfarmerstorefuse
    paymentofincreasedlandtaxesthesuccessofthisprotest,theBardoliSatyagraha,broughtGandhi
    backintothefoldofactivepolitics.[111]

    19291937:RoundTableconferences,GovernmentofIndiaAct

    AllamaMuhammadIqbal,
    BritishPMRamsay
    Afirstdaycoverissuedon1
    fifthfromleft,arrivingat
    MacDonaldtotherightof
    April1937commemorating
    the1930sessionoftheAll
    Gandhiatthe2ndRound
    theseparationofBurmafrom
    IndiaMuslimLeague,
    TableConference.
    theBritishIndianEmpire.
    wherehedeliveredhis
    Foreground,fourthfrom
    presidentialaddress
    left,isB.R.Ambedkar
    outlininghisplanfora
    representingthe
    AtitsannualsessioninLahore,theIndianNationalCongress,underthepresidencyofJawaharlalNehru,
    homelandfortheMuslims
    "DepressedClasses."
    issuedademandforPurnaSwaraj(Hindi:"completeindependence"),orPurnaSwarajya.The
    ofBritishIndia.
    declarationwasdraftedbytheCongressWorkingCommittee,whichincludedGandhi,Nehru,Patel,and

    ChakravarthiRajagopalachari.Gandhisubsequentlyledanexpandedmovementofcivildisobedience,
    culminatingin1930withtheSaltSatyagraha,inwhichthousandsofIndiansdefiedthetaxonsalt,by
    marchingtotheseaandmakingtheirownsaltbyevaporatingseawater.Although,many,including
    Gandhi,werearrested,theBritishgovernmenteventuallygavein,andin1931Gandhitravelledto
    LondontonegotiatenewreformattheRoundTableConferences.
    Inlocalterms,BritishcontrolrestedontheIndianCivilService,butitfacedgrowingdifficulties.Fewer
    andfeweryoungmeninBritainwereinterestedinjoining,andthecontinuingdistrustofIndiansresulted
    inadecliningbaseintermsofqualityandquantity.By1945Indianswerenumericallydominantinthe
    ICSandatissuewasloyaldividedbetweentheEmpireandindependence.[112]ThefinancesoftheRaj
    dependedonlandtaxes,andthesebecameproblematicinthe1930s.Epsteinarguesthatafter1919it
    becameharderandhardertocollectthelandrevenue.TheRaj'ssuppressionofcivildisobedienceafter
    1934temporarilyincreasedthepoweroftherevenueagentsbutafter1937theywereforcedbythenew
    Congresscontrolledprovincialgovernmentstohandbackconfiscatedland.Againtheoutbreakofwar
    strengthenedthem,inthefaceoftheQuitIndiamovementtherevenuecollectorshadtorelyonmilitary
    forceandby194647directBritishcontrolwasrapidlydisappearinginmuchofthecountryside.[113]
    In1935,aftertheRoundTableConferences,ParliamentpassedtheGovernmentofIndiaAct1935,
    whichauthorisedtheestablishmentofindependentlegislativeassembliesinallprovincesofBritish
    India,thecreationofacentralgovernmentincorporatingboththeBritishprovincesandtheprincely
    states,andtheprotectionofMuslimminorities.ThefutureConstitutionofindependentIndiawasbased
    onthisact.[114]However,itdividedtheelectorateinto19religiousandsocialcategories,e.g.,Moslems,
    Sikhs,IndianChristians,DepressedClasses,Landholders,CommerceandIndustry,Europeans,Anglo
    Indians,etc.,eachofwhichwasgivenseparaterepresentationintheProvincialLegislativeAssemblies.
    Avotercouldcastavoteonlyforcandidatesinhisowncategory.
    The1935ActprovidedformoreautonomyforIndianprovinces,withthegoalofcoolingoffnationalist
    sentiment.Theactprovidedforanationalparliamentandanexecutivebranchunderthepurviewofthe
    Britishgovernment,buttherulersoftheprincelystatesmanagedtoblockitsimplementation.These
    statesremainedunderthefullcontroloftheirhereditaryrulers,withnopopulargovernment.Toprepare
    forelectionsCongressbuiltupitsgrassrootsmembershipfrom473,000in1935to4.5millionin
    1939.[115]
    Inthe1937electionsCongresswonvictoriesinsevenoftheelevenprovincesofBritishIndia.[116]
    Congressgovernments,withwidepowers,wereformedintheseprovinces.Thewidespreadvoter
    supportfortheIndianNationalCongresssurprisedRajofficials,whopreviouslyhadseentheCongress
    asasmallelitistbody.[117]

    19381941:WorldWarII,MuslimLeague'sLahoreResolution

    MahatmaGandhiand
    RajendraPrasad(left)on
    theirwaytomeetthe
    viceroyLordLinlithgow
    (13October1939)after
    theoutbreakofWorldWar
    II.

    ChaudhariKhaliquzzaman
    (left)secondingthe1940
    LahoreResolutionofthe
    MuslimLeaguewith
    Jinnah(right)presiding,
    andLiaquatAliKhan
    centre.

    NewlyarrivedIndiantroops
    onthequaysideinSingapore,
    November1941

    IndianArmySikhtroops
    inactionduringOperation
    CrusaderinWestern
    DesertCampaigninNorth
    Africain
    November/December
    1941.

    WhiletheMuslimLeaguewasasmallelitegroupin1927withonly1300members,itgrewrapidlyonce
    itbecameanorganisationthatreachedouttothemasses,reaching500,000membersinBengalin1944,
    200,000inPunjab,andhundredsofthousandselsewhere.[118]Jinnahnowwaswellpositionedto
    negotiatewiththeBritishfromapositionofpower.[119]WiththeoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939,the
    viceroy,LordLinlithgow,declaredwaronIndia'sbehalfwithoutconsultingIndianleaders,leadingthe
    Congressprovincialministriestoresigninprotest.TheMuslimLeague,incontrast,supportedBritainin
    thewareffortandmaintaineditscontrolofthegovernmentinthreemajorprovinces,Bengal,Sindand
    thePunjab.[120]
    JinnahrepeatedlywarnedthatMuslimswouldbeunfairlytreatedinanindependentIndiadominatedby
    theCongress.On24March1940inLahore,theLeaguepassedthe"LahoreResolution",demanding
    that,"theareasinwhichtheMuslimsarenumericallyinmajorityasintheNorthWesternandEastern
    zonesofIndiashouldbegroupedtoconstituteindependentstatesinwhichtheconstituentunitsshallbe
    autonomousandsovereign."AlthoughtherewereotherimportantnationalMuslimpoliticianssuchas
    CongressleaderAb'ulKalamAzad,andinfluentialregionalMuslimpoliticianssuchasA.K.FazlulHuq
    oftheleftistKrishakPrajaPartyinBengal,SikanderHyatKhanofthelandlorddominatedPunjab

    UnionistParty,andAbdalGhaffarKhanoftheproCongressKhudaiKhidmatgar(popularly,"red
    shirts")intheNorthWestFrontierProvince,theBritish,overthenextsixyears,weretoincreasinglysee
    theLeagueasthemainrepresentativeofMuslimIndia.[121]
    TheCongresswassecularandstronglyopposedhavinganyreligiousstate.[118]Itinsistedtherewasa
    naturalunitytoIndia,andrepeatedlyblamedtheBritishfor"divideandrule"tacticsbasedonprompting
    MuslimstothinkofthemselvesasalienfromHindus.JinnahrejectedthenotionofaunitedIndia,and
    emphasisedthatreligiouscommunitiesweremorebasicthananartificialnationalism.Heproclaimedthe
    TwoNationTheory,[122]statingatLahoreon22March1940:
    "IslamandHinduism...arenotreligionsinthestrictsenseoftheword,butare,infact,different
    anddistinctsocialorders,anditisadreamthattheHindusandMuslimscaneverevolvea
    commonnationality,andthismisconceptionofoneIndiannationhastroublesandwillleadIndia
    todestructionifwefailtoreviseournotionsintime.TheHindusandMuslimsbelongtotwo
    differentreligiousphilosophies,socialcustoms,litterateurs.Theyneitherintermarrynorinterdine
    togetherand,indeed,theybelongtotwodifferentcivilisationswhicharebasedmainlyon
    conflictingideasandconceptions.Theiraspectonlifeandoflifearedifferent...Toyoketogether
    twosuchnationsunderasinglestate,oneasanumericalminorityandtheotherasamajority,
    mustleadtogrowingdiscontentandfinaldestructionofanyfabricthatmaybesobuiltforthe
    governmentofsuchastate."[123]
    WhiletheregularIndianarmyin1939includedabout220,000nativetroops,itexpandedtenfoldduring
    thewar[124]andsmallnavalandairforceunitswerecreated.OvertwomillionIndiansvolunteeredfor
    militaryserviceintheBritishArmy.Theyplayedamajorroleinnumerouscampaigns,especiallyinthe
    MiddleEastandNorthAfrica.Casualtiesweremoderate(intermsoftheworldwar),with24,000killed
    64,000wounded12,000missing(probablydead),and60,000capturedatSingaporein1942.[125][126]
    LondonpaidmostofthecostoftheIndianArmy,whichhadtheeffectoferasingIndia'snationaldebt.It
    endedthewarwithasurplusof1,300million.Inaddition,heavyBritishspendingonmunitions
    producedinIndia(suchasuniforms,rifles,machineguns,fieldartillery,andammunition)ledtoarapid
    expansionofindustrialoutput,suchastextiles(up16%),steel(up18%),chemicals(up30%).Small
    warshipswerebuilt,andanaircraftfactoryopenedinBangalore.Therailwaysystem,with700,000
    employees,wastaxedtothelimitasdemandfortransportationsoared.[127]

    19421945:Crippsmission,QuitIndiaResolution,INA
    TheBritishgovernmentsenttheCripps'missionin1942tosecureIndiannationalists'cooperationinthe
    wareffortinexchangeforapromiseofindependenceassoonasthewarended.TopofficialsinBritain,
    mostnotablyPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchill,didnotsupporttheCrippsMissionandnegotiations
    withtheCongresssoonbrokedown.[128]
    Congresslaunchedthe"QuitIndia"movementinJuly1942demandingtheimmediatewithdrawalofthe
    BritishfromIndiaorfacenationwidecivildisobedience.On8AugusttheRajarrestedallnational,
    provincialandlocalCongressleaders,holdingtensofthousandsofthemuntil1945.Thecountryerupted
    inviolentdemonstrationsledbystudentsandlaterbypeasantpoliticalgroups,especiallyinEastern
    UnitedProvinces,Bihar,andwesternBengal.ThelargewartimeBritishArmypresencecrushedthe
    movementinalittlemorethansixweeks[129]nonetheless,aportionofthemovementformedforatime

    anundergroundprovisionalgovernmentontheborderwith
    Nepal.[129]InotherpartsofIndia,themovementwasless
    spontaneousandtheprotestlessintensive,howeveritlasted
    sporadicallyintothesummerof1943.Itdidnotslowdownthe
    Britishwareffortorrecruitingforthearmy.[130]
    Earlier,SubhasChandraBose,whohadbeenaleaderofthe
    younger,radical,wingoftheIndianNationalCongressinthelate
    1920sand1930s,hadrisentobecomeCongressPresidentfrom
    SubhasChandraBose(secondfrom
    [131]
    left)withHeinrichHimmler(right),
    1938to1939.
    However,hewasoustedfromtheCongressin
    [132]
    1942.
    1939followingdifferenceswiththehighcommand,
    and
    subsequentlyplacedunderhousearrestbytheBritishbefore
    escapingfromIndiainearly1941.[133]HeturnedtoNaziGermanyandImperialJapanforhelpin
    gainingIndia'sindependencebyforce.[134]WithJapanesesupport,heorganisedtheIndianNational
    Army,composedlargelyofIndiansoldiersoftheBritishIndianarmywhohadbeencapturedbythe
    JapaneseintheBattleofSingapore.Asthewarturnedagainstthem,theJapanesecametosupporta
    numberofpuppetandprovisionalgovernmentsinthecapturedregions,includingthoseinBurma,the
    PhilippinesandVietnam,andinaddition,theProvisionalGovernmentofAzadHind,presidedby
    Bose.[134]
    Bose'seffort,however,wasshortlived.In1945theBritisharmyfirsthaltedandthenreversedthe
    JapaneseUGooffensive,beginningthesuccessfulpartoftheBurmaCampaign.Bose'sIndianNational
    ArmywasdrivendowntheMalayPeninsula,andsurrenderedwiththerecaptureofSingapore.Bose
    diedsoonthereafterfromthirddegreeburnsreceivedafterattemptingtoescapeinanoverloaded
    JapaneseplanewhichcrashedinTaiwan,[135]whichmanyIndiansbelievedidnothappen.[136][137][138]
    AlthoughBosewasunsuccessful,herousedpatrioticfeelingsinIndia.[139]

    1946:Elections,Cabinetmission,DirectActionDay
    InJanuary1946,anumberofmutiniesbrokeoutinthearmed
    services,startingwiththatofRAFservicemenfrustratedwith
    theirslowrepatriationtoBritain.[140]Themutiniescametoa
    headwithmutinyoftheRoyalIndianNavyinBombayin
    February1946,followedbyothersinCalcutta,Madras,and
    Karachi.Althoughthemutinieswererapidlysuppressed,they
    hadtheeffectofspurringthenewLabourgovernmentinBritain
    toaction,andleadingtotheCabinetMissiontoIndialedbythe
    SecretaryofStateforIndia,LordPethickLawrence,and
    includingSirStaffordCripps,whohadvisitedfouryears
    before.[140]

    Membersofthe1946Cabinet
    MissiontoIndiameetingMuhammad
    AliJinnah.FarleftisLordPethick
    LawrencefarrightisSirStafford
    Cripps.

    Alsoinearly1946,newelectionswerecalledinIndia.Earlier,at
    theendofthewarin1945,thecolonialgovernmenthad
    announcedthepublictrialofthreeseniorofficersofBose's
    defeatedIndianNationalArmywhostoodaccusedoftreason.Nowasthetrialsbegan,theCongress
    leadership,althoughambivalenttowardstheINA,chosetodefendtheaccusedofficers.[141]The
    subsequentconvictionsoftheofficers,thepublicoutcryagainsttheconvictions,andtheeventual
    remissionofthesentences,createdpositivepropagandafortheCongress,whichonlyhelpedinthe
    party'ssubsequentelectoralvictoriesineightoftheelevenprovinces.[142]Thenegotiationsbetweenthe

    CongressandtheMuslimLeague,however,stumbledovertheissueofthepartition.Jinnahproclaimed
    16August1946,DirectActionDay,withthestatedgoalofhighlighting,peacefully,thedemandfora
    MuslimhomelandinBritishIndia.ThefollowingdayHinduMuslimriotsbrokeoutinCalcuttaand
    quicklyspreadthroughoutIndia.AlthoughtheGovernmentofIndiaandtheCongresswerebothshaken
    bythecourseofevents,inSeptember,aCongressledinterimgovernmentwasinstalled,withJawaharlal
    NehruasunitedIndia'sprimeminister.[143]

    1947:Planningforpartition
    Laterthatyear,theLabourgovernmentinBritain,itsexchequer
    exhaustedbytherecentlyconcludedWorldWarII,and
    consciousthatithadneitherthemandateathome,the
    internationalsupport,northereliabilityofnativeforcesfor
    continuingtocontrolanincreasinglyrestlessBritishIndia,[144]
    Quote:Bytheendof1945,heandtheCommanderinChiefof
    India,GeneralAuckinleckwereadvisingthattherewasareal
    threatin1946oflargescaleantiBritishdisorderamountingto
    evenawellorganisedrisingaimingtoexpeltheBritishby
    paralysingtheadministration.[120][145]
    Quote:...itwascleartoAttleethateverythingdependedonthe
    spiritandreliabilityoftheIndianArmy:"Providedthattheydo
    theirduty,armedinsurrectioninIndiawouldnotbeaninsoluble
    problem.[120]If,however,theIndianArmywastogotheother
    way,thepicturewouldbeverydifferent...
    Quote:...Thus,Wavellconcluded,ifthearmyandthepolice
    "failed"Britainwouldbeforcedtogo.Intheory,itmightbe
    possibletoreviveandreinvigoratetheservices,andrulefor
    anotherfifteentotwentyyears,but:Itisafallacytosupposethat
    thesolutionliesintryingtomaintainstatusquo.Wehaveno
    longertheresources,northenecessaryprestigeorconfidencein
    ourselves.[146]decidedtoendBritishruleofIndia,andinearly
    1947Britainannounceditsintentionoftransferringpowerno
    laterthanJune1948.[120]

    PercentageofHindusbydistrict.Map
    ofBritishIndianEmpire,1909.

    PercentageofMuslimsbydistrict.
    MapofBritishIndianEmpire,1909.

    Asindependenceapproached,theviolencebetweenHindusandMuslimsintheprovincesofPunjaband
    Bengalcontinuedunabated.WiththeBritisharmyunpreparedforthepotentialforincreasedviolence,
    thenewviceroy,LouisMountbatten,advancedthedateforthetransferofpower,allowinglessthansix
    monthsforamutuallyagreedplanforindependence.[145]InJune1947,thenationalistleaders,including
    SardarPatel,NehruandAbulKalamAzadonbehalfoftheCongress,JinnahrepresentingtheMuslim
    League,B.R.AmbedkarrepresentingtheUntouchablecommunity,andMasterTaraSinghrepresenting
    theSikhs,agreedtoapartitionofthecountryalongreligiouslinesinstarkoppositiontoGandhi's
    views.[120]ThepredominantlyHinduandSikhareaswereassignedtothenewnationofIndiaand
    predominantlyMuslimareastothenewnationofPakistantheplanincludedapartitionoftheMuslim
    majorityprovincesofPunjabandBengal.[147]

    1947:Violence,partition,independence

    On14August1947,thenewDominionofPakistan(laterIslamicRepublicofPakistan)cameintobeing,
    withMuhammadAliJinnahsworninasitsfirstGovernorGeneralinKarachi.Thefollowingday,15
    August1947,India,theUnionofIndia,(laterRepublicofIndia)cameintobeingwithofficial
    ceremoniestakingplaceinNewDelhiandJawaharlalNehruassumingtheofficeoftheprimeminister,
    andtheviceroy,LouisMountbatten,stayingonasitsfirstGovernorGeneral.[148]
    ThegreatmajorityofIndiansremainedinplacewithindependence,butinborderareasmillionsof
    people(Muslim,Sikh,andHindu)relocatedacrossthenewlydrawnborders.InPunjab,wherethenew
    borderlinesdividedtheSikhregionsinhalf,therewasmuchbloodshedinBengalandBihar,where
    Gandhi'spresenceassuagedcommunaltempers,theviolencewasmorelimited.Inall,somewhere
    between250,000and500,000peopleonbothsidesofthenewborders,amongboththerefugeeand
    residentpopulationsofthethreefaiths,diedintheviolence.[149]Otherestimatesofthenumberofdeaths
    areashighas1,500,000.[2](http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indopakpartition2.htm)

    Ideologicalimpact
    AtindependenceandsinceIndiahasmaintainedsuchcentralBritishinstitutionsasparliamentary
    government,oneperson,onevoteandtheruleoflawthroughnonpartisancourts.[15]Theyretainedas
    welltheinstitutionalarrangementsoftheRajsuchasdistrictadministration,universitiesandstock
    exchanges.Onemajorchangewastherejectionofseparateprincelystates.Metcalfshowsthatoverthe
    courseoftwocenturies,BritishintellectualsandIndianspecialistsmadethehighestprioritybringing
    peace,unityandgoodgovernmenttoIndia.[150]Theyofferedmanycompetingmethodstoreachthe
    goal.Forexample,CornwallisrecommendedturningBengaliZamindarintothesortofEnglish
    landlordsthatcontrolledlocalaffairsinEngland.[150]Munroproposedtodealdirectlywiththepeasants.
    SirWilliamJonesandtheOrientalistspromotedSanskrit,whileMacaulaypromotedtheEnglish
    language.[151]Zinkinarguesthatinthelongrun,whatmattersmostaboutthelegacyoftheRajisthe
    BritishpoliticalideologieswhichtheIndianstookoverafter1947,especiallythebeliefinunity,
    democracy,theruleoflawandacertainequalitybeyondcasteandcreed.[150]Zinkinseesthisnotjustin
    theCongresspartybutalsoamongHinduNationalistsintheBharatiyaJanataParty,whichspecifically
    emphasisesHindutraditions.[152][153]

    Famines,epidemics,publichealth
    AccordingtoAngusMaddison,"TheBritishcontributedtopublichealthbyintroducingsmallpox
    vaccination,establishingWesternmedicineandtrainingmoderndoctors,bykillingrats,andestablishing
    quarantineprocedures.Asaresult,thedeathratefellandthepopulationofIndiagrewby1947tomore
    thantwoandahalftimesitssizein1757."[154]

    Populationgrowthworsenedtheplightofthepeasantry.Asaresultofpeaceand
    improvedsanitationandhealth,theIndianpopulationrosefromperhaps100millionin
    1700to300millionby1920.Whileencouragingagriculturalproductivity,theBritish
    alsoprovidedeconomicincentivestohavemorechildrentohelpinthefields.Althougha
    similarpopulationincreaseoccurredinEuropeatthesametime,thegrowingnumbers
    couldbeabsorbedbyindustrialisationoremigrationtotheAmericasandAustralia.India
    enjoyedneitheranindustrialrevolutionnoranincreaseinfoodgrowing.Moreover,
    Indianlandlordshadastakeinthecashcropsystemanddiscouragedinnovation.Asa
    result,populationnumbersfaroutstrippedtheamountofavailablefoodandland,
    creatingdirepovertyandwidespreadhunger.

    CraigA.Lockard,Societies,Networks,andTransitions[155]

    FaminesinIndia(Estimateddeathsinmillions)
    DuringtheBritishRaj,Indiaexperiencedsomeof
    theworstfamineseverrecorded,includingtheGreat
    Famineof18761878,inwhich6.1millionto
    10.3millionpeopledied[168]andtheIndianfamine
    of18991900,inwhich1.25to10millionpeople
    died.[169]Recentresearch,includingworkbyMike
    DavisandAmartyaSen,[170]arguethatfaminesin
    IndiaweremademoresevereBritishpolicyinIndia.
    AnElNioeventcausedtheIndianfamineof1876
    1878.[171]
    Havingbeencriticisedforthebadlybungledrelief
    effortduringtheOrissafamineof1866,[172]British
    authoritiesbegantodiscussfaminepolicysoon
    afterwards,andinearly1868SirWilliamMuir,
    LieutenantGovernoroftheNorthWestern
    Provinces,issuedafamousorderstatingthat:[173]
    "...everyDistrictofficerwouldbeheld
    personallyresponsiblethatnodeathsoccurred
    fromstarvationwhichcouldhavebeen
    avoidedbyanyexertionorarrangementonhis
    partorthatofhissubordinates."

    Colonialera
    (17651947)[156][157][158]
    Famine
    Years

    Deaths
    10[159]

    GreatBengalFamine

    17691770

    Madrascityfamine

    17821783

    Chalisafamine

    17911792

    11[160]

    DojibaraorSkullfamine

    17891795

    11[161]

    Agrafamineof183738

    18371838 0.8[162]

    EasternRajputana

    18601861

    2[162]

    Odishafamineof1866

    18651867

    1[163]

    Rajputanafamineof1869

    18681870 1.5[164]

    Biharfamineof187374

    18731874

    GreatFamineof187678

    18761878 10.3[165]

    Odisha,Bihar

    18881889 0.15[166]

    Indianfamineof189697

    18961897

    5[162]

    Indianfamineof1899
    1900

    18991900

    1[162]

    BombayPresidency

    19051906 0.23[167]

    Bengalfamineof1943

    19431944

    5[167]

    ThefirstcholerapandemicbeganinBengal,thenspreadacrossIndiaby1820.TenthousandBritish
    troopsandcountlessIndiansdiedduringthispandemic.[174]EstimateddeathsinIndiabetween1817and
    1860exceeded15million.Another23milliondiedbetween1865and1917.[175]TheThirdPandemicof
    plaguestartedinChinainthemiddleofthe19thcentury,spreadingdiseasetoallinhabitedcontinents
    andkilling10millionpeopleinIndiaalone.[176]WaldemarHaffkine,whomainlyworkedinIndia,
    becamethefirstmicrobiologisttodevelopanddeployvaccinesagainstcholeraandbubonicplague.In
    1925thePlagueLaboratoryinBombaywasrenamedtheHaffkineInstitute.
    FeversrankedasoneoftheleadingcausesofdeathinIndiainthe19thcentury.[177]Britain'sSirRonald
    Ross,workinginthePresidencyGeneralHospitalinCalcutta,finallyprovedin1898thatmosquitoes
    transmitmalaria,whileonassignmentintheDeccanatSecunderabad,wheretheCenterforTropicaland
    CommunicableDiseasesisnownamedinhishonour.[178]
    In1881,around120,000leprosypatientsexistedinIndia.ThecentralgovernmentpassedtheLepersAct
    of1898,whichprovidedlegalprovisionforforcibleconfinementofleprosysufferersinIndia.[179]Under
    thedirectionofMountstuartElphinstoneaprogramwaslaunchedtopropagatesmallpox
    vaccination.[180]MassvaccinationinIndiaresultedinamajordeclineinsmallpoxmortalitybytheend
    ofthe19thcentury.[181]In1849nearly13%ofallCalcuttadeathswereduetosmallpox.[182]Between
    1868and1907,therewereapproximately4.7milliondeathsfromsmallpox.[183]

    SirRobertGrantdirectedhisattentiontoestablishingasystematicinstitutioninBombayforimparting
    medicalknowledgetothenatives.[184]In1860,GrantMedicalCollegebecameoneofthefour
    recognisedcollegesforteachingcoursesleadingtodegrees(alongsideElphinstoneCollege,Deccan
    CollegeandGovernmentLawCollege,Mumbai).[17]

    Seealso
    ListofGovernorsGeneralofIndia
    CompanyruleinIndia

    WikimediaCommonshas
    mediarelatedtoBritishRaj.

    Indianindependencemovement
    WesternimperialisminAsia
    InterimGovernmentofIndia
    GlossaryoftheBritishRaj(Urduwords)

    Notesandreferences
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    6. ^Mansergh,Nicholas,ConstitutionalrelationsbetweenBritainandIndia(http://books.google.com/books?
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    194047
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    (https://www.academia.edu/8530155/The_Indian_Mines_Maternity_Benefit_Question_19191947),TheIndian
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    (1),7398
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    MaternityBenefitQuestion(19191947)
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    (AsiaticSocietyofBangladesh,June2004),pp.136,ISBN9843200467
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    HistoricalStudies,Vol.IV,pp.4963,(Dhaka,1979)
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    (https://www.academia.edu/8530547/The_Activities_of_the_Bengal_Home_Industries_Association_1917
    1940),JournaloftheAsiaticSocietyofBangladesh,Vols.XXIVXXVI,197981,pp.179188
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    (https://www.academia.edu/8548113/Murder_in_the_District_of_Bakergunge_in_the_late_Nineteenth_Century
    ),JournaloftheAsiaticSocietyofBangladesh,Vol.XXXII,No.2(1987),pp.165210
    IftikharulAwwal(1987)AntiDacoityDriveinMidNineteenthCenturyBengal
    (https://www.academia.edu/8547924/AntiDacoity_Drive_in_MidNineteenth_Century_Bengal),Journalofthe
    AsiaticSocietyofBangladesh,Vol.35,No.1,June1990,pp.89105
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    (https://www.academia.edu/8547704/Extent_and_Nature_of_Dacoity_in_Bengal_Countryside_1837
    1863),DhakaUniversityStudies,Vol.47,No.2,December,1990,pp.5169.
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    sici=08953309%28200222%2916%3A3%3C109%3AEHAMIR%3E2.0.CO%3B2F),TheJournalof
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