DIRECTED STUDY AND RESEARCH IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND SAMPLING METHOD

Prepared by Geraldine G. Aquino
References: David, Fely. Understanding and Doing Research. 2002
Online Sources: http://www.hswriting.ca/guides/a-brief-guide-to-writing-a-literature-
review/, www.wikipedia.com, http://www.sportsci.org/jour/9901/wghreview.html

1. Why is the review of literature important and valuable?

A review of literature is a must in research. Review of literature can help a

researcher identify and develop a research problem, formulate a research framework and
identify and use appropriate research methodologies and tools.

a. Related literature helps the researcher identify and define a research problem. A
new problem may arise from vague results, conflicting findings or the inability of study
variables to adequately explain the existence of problem
b, Literature can be a source of a theoretical basis for the study. Correlation studies
usually use or generate theories to explain research phenomenon under study.
Researchers may use RRL or adopt the same theory or theoretical framework used in the
study
c. Literature enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem
and properly identify and operationally define study variables.
d. Related studies provide a basis for identifying and using appropriate research
design. It also helps in the formulation or refinement of research instruments.
e. Results of related studies provide lessons for data analysis and interpretation.
Findings of a study can be compared to findings of related studies
f. Related literature helps prevent unnecessary duplication of a study. There are many
research problems that are already over studied and yet, similar studies are still being
conducted. If a researcher has adequately reviewed related literature about his/her study
unnecessary duplication can be avoided
2. Identify and explain the different types of sources in reviewing the literature

There are three common types of sources in reviewing the literature and these are
the following:

a. General References – show where to locate other sources of information related to a

certain topic. Examples of general references available in most libraries are indexes,
reviews and abstracts. Indexes are usually published by field of specialization. For
example in education, there are the Education Index and the Dictionary of Education
Research. Commonly used abstract are the Psychological Abstract and Social Science
Index.
b. Primary Sources – results of many studies are published in journals, or monographs.
These articles or reports are generally written by those who actually conducted the study,
thus they are called as primary sources. Many research journals are published monthly,
quarterly or yearly. Some of the commonly used journals in various areas are: Philippine
Nursing Journal, Philippine Sociological Review, Journal of Philippine Public
Administration, Social Psychology Journal, Education Research Journal and many others.
c. Secondary Sources – refer to publications where authors cite the work of others. The
most common secondary sources are books, reviews, yearbooks and encyclopedias.
Secondary sources are good references for overview of the problem

3. Identify and explain the different steps in a literature review

In reviewing related literature, the following steps may be followed:

1. Review the precise definition of the research problem. Note the key variables
specified in the study objectives and hypothesis.
2. Formulate search terms pertinent to the problem or question.

3. Using the indexes of general references, search for relevant primary and secondary
sources guided by the search terms. Start with the most recent issue and work backwards.
Next search for sources listed under terms synonymous or related to the search terms.
4. List in a note or index card the bibliographical data of the pertinent sources selected,
including the a) author of the source b) its title c)name of publication d)date of
publication and e)pages of the article.
5. Read the selected reading materials, take notes and summarize key points. Notes are
preferably written in note cards, for easy retrieval information which you can use in your
full review, such as: the problem, the objectives and hypotheses, the procedures, major
findings and conclusions

After taking notes from the different sources reviewed, the researchers prepare the
final review. Most literature reviews consist of the following parts: introduction, body,
summary and conclusion.

INTRODUCTION – The introduction briefly describes the nature of the research

problem and explains what led the researcher to investigate the question. The summary
presents the main topics covered in the literature section.
BODY – The body of the review briefly reports what experts think or what other
researchers have found about the research problem. Studies done on one key element or
factor of the research problem are reviewed under that topic followed by studies done on
other aspects of the problem. The common findings of several studies are summarized in
one or two sentences and only when necessary, some specific findings of each study may
be presented.
SUMMARY/SYNTHESIS – The summary/synthesis of the literature review ties together
the major findings of the studies reviewed. It presents a general picture of what has been
known or thought of about the problem to date. It points out similar results, as well as
conflicting findings.
CONCLUSION – This part presents the course of action suggested by the literature.
Based on the state of knowledge revealed by the literature, the researcher could further
justify the need for his/her study.
4. Review some sources and write some notes using the following format

Procedure, Finding, Conclusion

1. Define sample, population

Sampling is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population of

some elements in a population that will represent the entire population.
In the study of sampling, it is important to distinguish the concepts of sample
and population.
SAMPLE –This refers to an individual, an element, or a group of individuals or elements
on which information is obtained. The sample is drawn from a population to which
research results are generalized.
POPULATION – This refers to the total number of elements {e.g items, objects, areas or
individuals} to be studied. For example in the study of “Sexual Attitudes and Practices
of Students in Public High School in Province A” all students in public high school in
the province constitute the study population.

2. Identify and explain the different kinds of samples

Simple Random Sampling – is a process of selecting sample cases or subset of sample

cases from a population, giving all the sampling units equal chances of being included as
a sample. It can done by drawing alots.
Stratified Random Sampling – is the process of selecting a random sample from
subgroups or strata into which a population has been subdivided.

Stratified random sample - Divide the population into groups. Then get a list of every
member of each group. Randomly sample from each group. This method works best
when you have homogeneity within groups and heterogeneity between groups - all the
members of a group are similar; the groups are different from each other.

Cluster Sampling – is a method of selecting a sample of group or cluster of elements.

Clusters are usually exclusive sub-populations, which together comprise a population.
Each cluster consists of heterogeneous elements and each is typical of the population.

3. Explain sampling error

SAMPLING ERROR - The error caused by the selection of a sample instead of

conducting a census of the population. Sampling error is reduced by selecting a large
sample and by using efficient sample design and estimation strategies such as
stratification, optimal allocation, and ratio estimation.
In statistics, sampling error or estimation error is the error caused by observing a
sample instead of the whole population
An estimate of a quantity of interest, such as an average or percentage, will
generally be subject to sample-to-sample variation. These variations in the possible
sample values of a statistic can theoretically be expressed as sampling errors, although in
practice the exact sampling error is typically unknown. Sampling error also refers more
broadly to this phenomenon of random sampling variation