3.

A book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is analyzed based on content,
style, and merit.[1] A book review can be a primary source opinion piece, summary review or
scholarly review.[2] Books can be reviewed for printed periodicals, magazines and newspapers,
as school work, or for book web sites on the Internet. A book review's length may vary from a
single paragraph to a substantial essay. Such a review may evaluate the book on the basis of
personal taste. Reviewers may use the occasion of a book review for a display of learning or to
promulgate their own ideas on the topic of a fiction or non-fiction work.
There are a number of journals devoted to book reviews,[3] and reviews are indexed in databases
such as Book Review Index and Kirkus Reviews; but many more book reviews can be found in
newspaper databases as well as scholarly databases such as Arts and Humanities Citation Index,
Social Sciences Citation Index and discipline-specific databases.
5. A memorandum (abbrev.: memo) was from the Latin verbal phrase memorandum est, the gerundive
form of the verb memoro, "to mention, call to mind, recount, relate",[1] which means "It must be
remembered (that)...". It is therefore a note, document or other communication that helps the memory
by recording events or observations on a topic, such as may be used in a business office. The plural form
of the Latin noun memorandum so derived is properly memoranda, but if the word is deemed to have
become a word of the English language, the plural memorandums, abbreviated to memos, may be used.
(See also Agenda, Corrigenda, Addenda)

6. Minutes, also known as protocols or, informally, notes, are the instant written record of a
meeting or hearing. They typically describe the events of the meeting, starting with a list of
attendees, a statement of the issues considered by the participants, and related responses or
decisions for the issues.
Minutes may be created during the meeting by a typist or court reporter, who may use shorthand
notation and then prepare the minutes and issue them to the participants afterwards.
Alternatively, the meeting can be audio recorded, video recorded, or a group's appointed or
informally assigned Secretary may take notes, with minutes prepared later. Many government
agencies use minutes recording software to record and prepare all minutes in real-time.
For private organizations, it is usually important for the minutes to be terse and only include a
summary of discussion and decisions. A verbatim report is typically not useful. The minutes of
certain groups, such as a corporate board of directors, must be kept on file and are important
legal documents.
7. An article is a written work published in a print or electronic medium. It may be for the
purpose of propagating the news, research results, academic analysis or debate. A news article
discusses current or recent news of either general interest (i.e. daily newspapers) or of a specific
topic (i.e. political or trade news magazines, club newsletters, or technology news websites).
A news article can include accounts of eyewitnesses to the happening event. It can contain
photographs, accounts, statistics, graphs, recollections, interviews, polls, debates on the topic,
etc. Headlines can be used to focus the readers attention on a particular (or main) part of the
article.

Research article: In academic publishing, a paper is an academic work that is usually published
in an academic journal. It contains original research results or reviews existing results. Such a
paper, also called an article, will only be considered valid if it undergoes a process of peer
review by one or more referees (who are academics in the same field) who check that the content
of the paper is suitable for publication in the journal. A paper may undergo a series of reviews,
revisions and re-submissions before finally being accepted or rejected for publication. This
process typically takes several months. Next there is often a delay of many months (or in some
subjects, over a year) before an accepted manuscript appears. This is particularly true for the
most popular journals where the number of accepted articles often outnumbers the space for
printing. Due to this, many academics self-archive a 'pre-print' copy of their paper for free
download from their personal or institutional website.
Some journals, particularly newer ones, are now published in electronic form only. Paper
journals are now generally made available in electronic form as well, both to individual
subscribers, and to libraries. Almost always these electronic versions are available to subscribers
immediately upon publication of the paper version, or even before; sometimes they are also
made available to non-subscribers, either immediately (by open access journals) or after an
embargo of anywhere from two to twenty-four months or more, in order to protect against loss of
subscriptions. Journals having this delayed availability are sometimes called delayed open access
journals. Ellison has reported that in economics the dramatic increase in opportunities to publish
results online has led to a decline in the use of peer reviewed articles.[16]
9. Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an
equivalent target-language text.[1] Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing,
translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of
the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second
millennium BCE.[2]
Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the
target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language
calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped
substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.[3]
Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that
began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with
dedicated schools and professional associations.[4]
Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate
translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted
translation).[5] The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services
and has facilitated language localization.[6]
Translation studies deal with the systematic study of the theory, the description and the
application of translation.[7]

Gender sensitivity is the act of being aware of the ways people think about gender, so
that individuals rely less on assumptions about traditional and outdated views on the roles of men
and women. In language and the humanities, this is often expressed through peoples language
choice. People can choose more inclusive language that doesnt define gender, and many new
words that are gender neutral have entered languages like English to substitute for more gender
specific terms.
For centuries, many words referring to all people were specifically masculine. Terms like man,
and mankind, which are used to describe all human beings, exclude females. While some
people argue that such terms do include women, its been argued that these words have a
belittling effect on women. True gender sensitivity, it is said, moves past these terms to include
all and exclude none.
It is further contended by experts that the use of such terms is by no means innocent, and they
have a negative cultural effect felt beyond the words. By making women either absent or nonapparent in terms like mankind, they become worth less and society will see them as
possessing less value. This societal view in extreme forms is of detriment and corresponds to
discrimination and even, arguably, things like greater violence against women.
In language and the humanities, this argument is accepted and a number of substitute words like
humankind, express the gender sensitivity of the present. In the late 1980s, when Star Trek:
The Next Generation began to air, a noted and more gender sensitive substitution differed from
the original series. The opening narration changed so that where no man has gone before,
become where no one has gone before, with a great deal of emphasis on the word one.
Some feminists suggest changing basic words with a masculine element to those with a
specifically feminine element. Terms like herstory have been proposed for history. This
substitution merely transfers the power from masculine to feminine, however, disregarding the
male gender. A common compromise is to use gender-neutral terms so that males and females
are both included.
Such terms can be obvious, like firefighter and police officer, in place of fireman or policeman.
Pronouns are often considered carefully, too, and writers may take several tactics to remain
gender neutral. They may oscillate back and forth between male and female pronouns, use plural
pronouns that lack gender bias, or they use terms like one. Being gender sensitive with
pronoun choice often takes work.
At the core of gender sensitivity in language is the goal of stripping away assumptions about
limits of gender, and this benefits men and women. A stay at home parent isnt automatically a
mom, but can be a dad too. Such sensitivity from a language basis offers more choice and gives
people the opportunity to view each other as individuals with different capacities, shedding
assumptions about the traditional roles men and women may fill.

Case study
The study of a person, a small group, a single situation, or a specific "case," is called a case
study. It involves extensive research, including documented evidence of a particular issue or
situation -- symptoms, reactions, affects of certain stimuli, and the conclusion reached following
the study. A case study may show a correlation between two factors, whether or not a causal
relationship can also be proven. It may sound complicated, but it's really quite simple.
For example, a case study may show that obese people tend to drink a lot of diet soda. This
would mean that there is a correlation, or association, between being overweight and drinking
diet soda. No causal factor has been shown, or in other words, there is no scientific evidence that
indicates drinking diet soda actually causes obesity, just that there is an association between the
two.
Another case study may prove both causal and correlative factors. If research and evidence show
that obese people also tend to eat more fattening foods than leaner people, there is science to
back up the fact that eating fat causes people to gain weight. The difference between causal and
correlative factors is important in the study, because sometimes such studies are used to promote
a specific medicine, therapy, or product; or to show that a particular product is unhealthy, unsafe,
or should be used with care.
A case study may be used to show that a medicine is safe for the largest percentage of a certain
demographic, based on the physical evidence, interviews, and observations. On the other hand,
the same resources may show that the medicine is unsafe for certain segments of the population,
including certain age groups. A case study may also be used to test other products or services, or
even to decide which business model is most cost efficient.
A case study can be an important tool for establishing the effectiveness and safety of a product.
Depending on who is conducting the study, a company can also use it as a tool to discount claims
made by competing manufacturers. To better decipher case studies, be sure to pay close attention
to the factors examined, and ascertain whether they are correlative, causal, or both.