Unit 3 Chapter 8 Immunity

Summary

Mustafa Abuqlam
10/05/2014

Antigens: Any substance that enters the body and triggers an immune response.
Immunity: Prevents the development of disease after contact with a pathogen.
The immune system is able to distinguish foreign material from material that is made by the body.
Nonspecific responses
react in the same way to all infections
have no memory of prior infections
level of response same for each infection of the
same organism

Specific responses
react in a specific way to each infection
have a memory of prior infections
much greater response on a second infection by
the same organism

Material made by the bodys cells is called self. Foreign material is called non-self.
Examples of foreign material include snake venom, dust, pollen, viruses and micro-organisms, such
as bacteria.
Infection is entry into the body of a micro-organism that may cause disease. Infection does not
necessarily lead to disease.
Nonspecific Immunity: Natural or innate immunity. Involves many physical and chemical barriers to
infection and is not affected by prior contact with a particular micro-organism. It has no memory of
a prior infection.
Specific Immunity: Acquired or adaptive immunity. Involves the production of specialised cells and
chemical substances known as antibodies, which act against a particular infection. Specific immunity
has a memory so that, when another infection from the same organism occurs, an increased
response is obtained.

The first line of defence

The first line of defence against infection takes place at the body surfaces.
Skin
Intact skin acts as a barrier against entry by micro-organisms. A cut or abrasion will allow entry of
bacteria or viruses. Glands in the skin secrete fatty acids and sweat contains salt, both of which
inhibit bacteria.
Mucous membranes
Mucus secreted by the cells lining your respiratory tract traps bacteria, which are then swept
upward to the back of the throat by the action of cilia, which line much of the respiratory tract.
Some of the mucus and bacteria are swallowed. Some are removed when you blow your nose. Some
bacteria are also removed from the respiratory tract when you cough or sneeze. Mucus that lines
the digestive tract forms a protective barrier and makes it difficult for micro-organisms to penetrate
the cells beneath.
Natural secretions
Many secretions of the body contain bactericidal agents. Tears and saliva contain lysozyme, an
enzyme that causes bacteria to lyse or burst. Acid in the stomach kills many bacteria.

Unit 3 Chapter 8 Immunity

Summary

Mustafa Abuqlam
10/05/2014

Natural flora
Many different bacteria are normally found on the skin, in the gut and (in females) in the vagina.
These bacteria are the natural flora of the body and are generally non-pathogenic in those areas.
The presence of these bacteria inhibits the growth of pathogenic bacteria in those places because
they compete more successfully for the space and nutrients that are available. In special
circumstances, such as when a person takes antibiotics, the natural flora may be disturbed.
Pathogenic organisms are then able to move in. This type of infection is called opportunistic
infection.
Distinguishing Self and Non-Self
Proteins on cell membranes are determined by genes. These genes are called the major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) and the proteins produced by these genes are called markers. All
cells have MHC markers on their surfaces.
In humans, two major groups of MHC markers exist. Class 1 markers are found on all cells of the
body except red blood cells. Class 2 markers are found only on T cells, B cells and some
macrophages. MHC markers produced in a person are called self. Markers that are not produced
within a person are called non-self.
The material (or marker) that triggers a response from a B cell or a T cell is called an antigen.
Antigens are usually proteins but can also include carbohydrate.
Antigen Presenting Cells
APCs are cells that process foreign antigens, placing them on their cell membrane to present to
other cells of the immune system, stimulating an immune response. Examples of APCs are
macrophages, dendritic cells and B lymphocytes.
Immune Cells
B cells, T cell and other leucocytes such as macrophages have receptors on their cell membranes
that recognise and ignore cell with the same MHC markers as themselves. They also have receptors
that recognise non-self markers and trigger an immune response.
Blood Clotting
Coagulation is initiated almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel.
Injured tissues and platelets release clotting factors (e.g. clotting factor 8) which catalyse the
conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin then splits fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrin fibres
form a mesh over the wound, trapping RBCs and platelets, stopping bleeding.

The second line of defence

Depends on recognition of self from non-self. It is non-specific and non-adaptive.
White blood cells leucocytes
Phagocytes: Leucocytes that engulf and destroy micro-organisms and other foreign materials that
enter the body by phagocytosis. Once foreign invader is destroyed, the foreign antigens are
presented on the surface of the phagocyte, where cells of the specific immune system (T cells) are
able to act on. They act as APCs.

Unit 3 Chapter 8 Immunity

Summary

Mustafa Abuqlam
10/05/2014

Neutrophils: Most common type of leucocytes

Monocytes: Largest of the WBCs. Become Macrophages when they leave the blood stream and
gather in body tissues. Effective against microorganisms that can live inside the cells of the person
they infect. They may also differentiate into dendritic cells.
Immediately after a bacterium or other micro-organism is engulfed by a phagocyte, enzymes and
other factors are released into the vacuole containing the bacterium and the bacterium is killed.
Natural Killer (NK) cells: Some white blood cells that kill virus-infected body cells, transplanted
organs and cancer cells. These are similar to Tc cells except they, unlike Tc cells, are non-specific.
Dendritic cells: APCs. Present in small quantities in tissues that are in contact with the external
environment, mainly the skin and the inner lining of the nose, lungs, stomach and intestines. Once
activated, they migrate to the lymphoid tissues where they interact with T cells and B cells to initiate
and shape the adaptive immune response.
Complement Proteins
There are about 20 different complement proteins. Most are made in the liver and circulate in the
blood in an inactive state.
When infection occurs, antibodyantigen complexes form and these activate complement proteins.
The activation of one kind of complement protein results in a cascade effect where each activated
complement protein then activates another, and so on down the chain.
Complement proteins assist in the second line of defence in a number of ways. Some complement
proteins stick to invading micro-organisms, which then become more readily identifiable to
phagocytes as foreign. Some stimulate phagocytes to become more active. Some attract phagocytes
to the site of infection. Other complement proteins destroy the membranes of invading microorganisms
Interferon
Another group of proteins. An antiviral agent secreted by host cells infected with a virus. Acts on
uninfected cells making them more resistant to the virus.
Cytokines
Proteins or glycoproteins that act as messengers between cells of the immune system.
They are produced by virtually all cells of the immune system, but particularly by certain T cells.
Examples: Lymphokines and interleukins
They communicate the presence of damaged cell or invaders.
Inflammation
A reaction that develops in local tissue when cells are damaged or killed by infection, punctures or
burns.
The area become hot, red, swollen and tender, which is a result of an increase in blood flow to the
area.
The increase in blood flow results in more phagocytes being brought to the area of injury. These
phagocytes release chemicals such as serotonin, which promotes vasodilation & therefore increases
the blood flow & brings more and more phagocytes to the area.
Phagocytes engulf and destroy bacteria.

Unit 3 Chapter 8 Immunity

Summary

Mustafa Abuqlam
10/05/2014

Fever
Typically, when any kind of microbe invades the body, it is engulfed and destroyed by macrophages.
The macrophages secrete chemicals called interleukins. One of these sends a message to the
hypothalamus to set the bodys temperature at a higher set point, about 39C.
The three functions of fever are:
- To stimulate the immune system by stimulating the Helper T cells
- To create an inhospitable environment for invading organisms
- Increase metabolism so as to increase blood flow so as to increase the amount of white blood cells
to area of infection
Interleukins induce drowsiness so more energy can be diverted to defence and tissue repair.

The third line of defence (The specific immune response)

The presence of a foreign microorganism in the body will initiate a response known as the third line
of defence. This involves a specific response to that particular infection by the immune system and
results in adaptive or acquired immunity. The specific immunity is generally long-lasting, often for
life. Involves lymphocytes (special WBCs) which recognise invading cells or particles, react to them,
and remember the type of invader. If the same infection occurs again, the response occurs more
rapidly.
Lymphocytes:
Lymphocyte
B Cell
T Cell

Made
Bone Marrow
Bone Marrow

Mature
Bone Marrow
Thymus

B and T cells recognise foreign cells by markers on their surface known as MHC markers
The B lymphocytes Humoral Immunity
B cells have immunoglobulins on their surfaces. Immunoglobulins are proteins that identify antigens.
Immunoglobulins are also called antibodies. The immunoglobulins of each B cell have a specific
structure and recognise only one kind of antigen.
Some B cells produce and secrete antibodies in response to a foreign antigen.
So, humoral immunity is about producing antibodies.
Antibodies
Specific structure. Only recognise one kind of antigen.
Specific antibodies in extracellular fluid bind to matching antigens and target the pathogen for
destruction by macrophages (phagocytes).
Gene rearrangement for antibody production
There are millions of antigens to which the body must be able to respond. When B cells are maturing
in the bone marrow, a particular part of the genetic material undergoes change and only a few of
each kind of B cell are made. In this way millions of different B cells are made with different
immunoglobulins on their surfaces. These are able to identify the millions of different antigens with
which a person may come into contact.

Unit 3 Chapter 8 Immunity

Summary

Mustafa Abuqlam
10/05/2014

The clonal-selection theory of antibody production

When a B cell recognises a foreign antigen, it replicates rapidly and produces a clone of cells clonal
expansion.
Cells produced in this way will contain the same genetic material and produce the same
immunoglobins. These cells then differentiate into plasma cells (or effector cells) and produce the
same kind of antibodies. These antibodies, produced in the rough ER of the plasma cell, are released
into the body fluids (extracellular) and these help to destroy the pathogen or foreign material.
Antigen-antibody complex is formed, pathogen is immobilised, and then macrophages (phagocytes)
engulf the complex and digest it.
The B cells also reproduce to form B memory cells. These have the same antibody-antigen specificity
as the parent B cell, but they survive for several years rather than the few days of the plasma cell.
If a second infection of the same pathogen containing the same antigen occurs, B memory cells react
faster and more vigorously than the initial B cell reaction to the first infection. The immune system
responds so quickly that the person shows few, if any symptoms.
B cell activation and antibody production summary
1. A B cell with a specific antigen receptor on its cell membrane (i.e. an antibody bound to the cell
membrane) binds to an antigen on a pathogen. The B cell also ingests the pathogen and then
displays the pathogens antigen with its MHC 2 on its cell membrane.
2. An effector T helper cell then binds to the B cell displaying the
specific antigen on its MHC 2 with its matching antigen receptor.
3. Binding between these two cells causes the T helper cell to secrete interleukins that stimulate B
cell clonal expansion. The B cells reproduce many times by mitosis producing many clones of the
B cell.
4. The B cells differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells.
5. Plasma cells secrete antibodies, which are specific for the antigen of the pathogen.
6. Antibodies bind to the antigen on pathogens in the extracellular fluid, forming antibody-antigen
complexes, which are recognised by phagocytes that then engulf and destroy the complex.
7. Memory cells produced after the first contact with a pathogen are activated rapidly on second
contact with the same antigen.
8. Plasma cells are produced rapidly. Specific antibodies are secreted quickly for a longer time and
in higher concentrations.
9. No disease develops. The person is said to be immune and have resistance to the infection.
How different kinds of antibodies act on antigens
Because the basic antibody unit has two antigen-binding sites, it can bind to two antigens. A lattice is
built up of the antibody and its specific antigen bound together, and the antigen is disarmed. The
antigen is no longer able to damage host cells. This is what happens when an antivenom is injected
into a person after a snakebite. The antivenom combines with the venom and the venom can no
longer act against cells.
If the antigen is a bacterium, additional help is required to remove the antibody-antigen complex.
Macrophages have receptors that recognise the antigen-antibody complex and engulf the antibody
with its associated antigen.

Unit 3 Chapter 8 Immunity

Summary

Mustafa Abuqlam
10/05/2014

The T lymphocytes The Cell-mediated immune response

After encountering their specific antigens, they reproduce rapidly, in the same way as B cells and Tmemory cells also form.
T cells do not make antibodies.
T lymphocytes do not bind with antigens directly but bind with the antigens presented on the MHC
markers.
T cells are unable to recognise foreign antigens unless a phagocyte has presented the antigen, e.g. a
dendritic cell.
Helper T cells
Have receptors that detect specific antigens displayed on MHC markers class II, which are found on
macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells.
These cells produce chemicals such as lymphokines and interleukins, which induce any activated B or
T cells to divide and give rise to effector cells and memory cells.
Lymphokines also stimulate macrophages to engulf invading cells more rapidly.
Without helper T cells (TH) B cells and TC cells would not be stimulated and antibodies would not be
produced.
AIDS: A disease caused by a virus that attacks helper T cells, without which antibodies will not be
produced and people infected with HIV often die by opportunistic infections.
Suppressor T cells:
AKA regulatory T cells.
Important in regulating the action of lymphocytes. Supress the action of phagocytes and slow the
production of antibodies and cytotoxic T cells.
In other words, these cells turn off the immune response when no more pathogen is present.
Cytotoxic T cells:
Have receptors that detect specific antigen that have been presented on class 1 MHC markers of
infected body cells.
Cytotoxic T cells kill body cells that have been infected with a virus; therefore, they destroy
eukaryotic cells.
They recognise an infected body cell by the viral antigen presented on the MHC marker (class 1) left
outside the cell.
Tc cells kill the infected cell by secreting powerful cytotoxins, such as perforins, that punch holes in
the membrane of the cell and the contents ooze out.
Like B cells, cytotoxic T cells will only divide with a signal from the helper T cell.

Unit 3 Chapter 8 Immunity

Summary

Mustafa Abuqlam
10/05/2014

Attenuated: Organisms that are weakened but not killed by the special treatment given during the
preparation of a vaccine are said to be attenuated.

Failures in the immune system

Autoimmune diseases:
Sometimes the ability of the immune system to recognise self material from non-self material
breaks down. When this occurs, the system reacts as if some of the bodys own cells are non-self.
Examples: Type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis
Immunodeficiency diseases:
Immune deficiency is a malfunction or a deficiency in one or more components of the immune
system.
Two types:
Primary immunodeficiency diseases: Born with the deficiency e.g. failure of the immune system to
mature after birth.
Secondary immunodeficiency diseases: Severe stress or another disease targets different parts of
the immune system e.g. the HIV virus targets T cells in particular.
Allergies (Overreaction of the immune system):
Mast cells are immune cells involved in allergic response. Mast cells are fixed cells found around the
blood vessels, in connective tissue, near the lining of the gut, mucous around eyes, nose and mouth
and in the lungs. Mast cells contain large amounts of histamine.
If a person is allergic to a particular antigen and comes into contact with it, antibodies are produced
(IgE) that bind to the mast cells causing them to release histamine.
An allergic reaction is a hypersensitivity of the immune system to a harmless non-self antigen.
Histamine causes the symptoms associated with allergic responses. Treatment includes the use of
antihistamines.
Examples of allergic responses: Sneezing, runny nose, itching, swelling, etc.
An antigen that causes an allergic reaction is called an allergen.
Examples of allergens: Dust, mold, plant spores, eggs, peanuts, pollen, dander, bee venom, wheat