Energy Conversion and Management 77 (2014) 227232

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Experimental investigations of combustion and emission characteristics

of rapeseed oildiesel blends in a two cylinder agricultural diesel engine
D.H. Qi a,b,, C.F. Lee a,c, C.C. Jia b, P.P. Wang b, S.T. Wu b
a

Center for Combustion Energy and State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, Peoples Republic of China
School of Automobile, Changan University, Xian 710064, Peoples Republic of China
c
Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, United States
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 21 June 2013
Accepted 11 September 2013

Keywords:
Vegetable oil
Rapeseed oildiesel blend
Performance
Combustion characteristics
Emissions

a b s t r a c t
The main objective of this paper was to study the performance, emissions and combustion characteristics
of a diesel engine using rapeseed oildiesel blends. The main fuel properties of rapeseed oil (RSO) were
investigated and compared with that of diesel fuel. The experimental results showed that the viscosity
and density of the blends were decreased and approached to that of diesel fuel when RSO volume fraction
was less than 20%. At low engine loads, the start of combustion for the blends was almost similar to that
for diesel fuel, but the peak cylinder pressure and heat release rate were higher. At high engine loads, the
start of combustion for the blends was slightly earlier than that for diesel fuel, but the peak cylinder pressure and heat release rate were identical. For the blends, there was slightly higher brake specic fuel consumptions (BSFC) and brake specic energy consumptions (BSEC) at low engine loads. Smoke emission
was higher at low engine loads, but lower at high engine loads. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission was
observed slightly lower at low engine loads and almost identical at high engine loads. Carbon monoxide
(CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emission were higher under all range of engine loads for the blends.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Internal combustion engines that are fuelled by fossil fuels in
the automotive and power generation sectors are one of the main
sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other hazardous pollutants.
Fuels from renewable resources are benecial from the environmental point of view. The CO2 produced from the combustion of
biofuels can be effectively absorbed by new growing plants during
the process of photosynthesis, which in turn can be used to produce fuels [13]. These are the triggering factors for researchers
all over the world to consider vegetable oils and their derivatives
as alternative to petroleum diesel fuel. However major disadvantage of vegetable oil is its viscosity, which is order of magnitude
higher than that of diesel fuel. High viscosity of the vegetable oil
leads to poor fuel atomization, which in turn results in poor combustion, ring sticking, injector cocking, injector deposits, injector
pump failure and lubricating oil dilution by crank-case polymerization [48].
The transesterication is an extensive, convenient and most
promising method for reduction of viscosity and density of vegetable oils [911]. But some literatures revealed that vegetable oil had
Corresponding author at: Center for Combustion Energy and State Key
Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084,
Peoples Republic of China. Tel./fax: +86 10 67285013.
E-mail address: donghuiqi@gmail.com (D.H. Qi).
0196-8904/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.09.023

the environmentally advantageous and more energy efcient than

corresponding biodiesel. Esteban et al. [12] concluded that the
rapeseed oil showed the environmental benets instead of biodiesel by using life cycle assessment. The energy return on investment
index indicated a more energy efcient for rapeseed oil as
compared to biodiesel due to the production of biodiesel which
required more complex processes. Therefore, rapeseed oil was a
useful option as a produced biofuel that additionally closed the
cycles of all generated co-products. Hossain and Davies [13] indicated that raw plant oils had considerable advantages over corresponding biodiesel as regards life-cycle energy and greenhouse
gas emission analyses. In addition, biodiesel was formed by the
transesterication reaction of triglycerides with alcohols in the
presence of a catalyst and produced glycerol as a co-product. Since
glycerol was expensive to purify or convert to a value-added product, it caused problems of disposal and environmental concern
[14]. The preheating of inlet fuel reduced viscosity and can be
implemented as indicated by the results of many studies [15
18]. Results showed that preheating of vegetable oil lowered rapeseed oils viscosity and provided smooth fuel ow and concluded
that preheating of the fuel had some positive effects on engine
performance and emissions when operating with vegetable oil.
But preheating method needs some extra equipment in the engine.
Blending with diesel fuel was an effective method to reduce
engine problems associated with the high viscosity of vegetable
oil. Altun et al. [19] investigated the combustion and emission

228

D.H. Qi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 77 (2014) 227232

characteristics of rapeseed oil and its blends with diesel fuel in a

multi-cylinder direct injection diesel engine. The results showed
a signicant reduction in NOx and relatively higher amount of soot
for rapeseed oil compared to diesel fuel. Huzayyin et al. [20] experimentally evaluated the jojoba oil as an alternative fuel in a single
cylinder, diesel engine. The results indicated that there was a
negligible loss of engine power, a slight increase in BSFC and a
reduction in NOx and soot emission using blends of jojoba oil with
diesel fuel. Golimowski et al. [21] studied the performance of raw
rapeseed oil in a common rail diesel engine and concluded that the
power was reduced 1214% compared to that of diesel fuel.
Fontaras et al. [22] measured the regulated and non-regulated
pollutants of three different vegetable oils (cottonseed, sunower,
and rapeseed) blended with diesel fuel, on a 1090% v/v ratio each
by using chassis dynamometer according to the legislated procedure and the Artemis driving cycles. The results indicated that all
blends have limited effects on gaseous pollutants and vehicle
performance.
Engine performance and its emission characteristics also
depend on the quality of the air-to-fuel mixture, actual start of
injection, ignition delay and heat release process, therefore, the
test results obtained from different types of engines may vary
substantially. The objective of the present work is to evaluate the
performance of rapeseed oil blended with diesel fuel in a two
cylinder agricultural direct injection diesel engine. The experimental results of the engine combustion and emission characteristics of
the diesel engine operated on the blends were analyzed and compared with the baseline data of diesel fuel in an unmodied diesel
engine.
2. Rapeseed oil and its properties
Rapeseed is the second most important oilseed crop in the
world after soybean. Every year, about 31 million hectares of rapeseed are cultivated and 60 million tons of oilseed rape is produced.
In China, the planting area of the rapeseed is about 6.7 million
hectares, and the total yield is about 12 million tons, accounting
for 20% of the worlds supply. Rapeseed oil contains low levels of
saturated fatty acids (510%), high amounts of monounsaturated
fatty acids (4475%), some linoleic acid (1822%) and alpha-linolenic acid (913%) [23]. Velasco and Becker [24] evaluated the fatty
acid composition of rapeseed oil by near infrared reectance
spectroscopy (NIRS) and found average percentages of individual
acids to be: palmitic, 4.0; stearic, 1.4; oleic, 46.8; linoleic, 19.5;
linolenic, 8.7; eicosenoic, 6.2 and erucic, 11.4.
Table 1
Main properties of diesel and rapeseed oil.
Properties

Diesel

Rapeseed oil

Chemical formula
Average molecular weight
Density at 20 C (g/ml)
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C (mm2 s
Flash point (C)
Self-ignition temperature (C)
Cold lter plugging point (C)
Pour point (C)
Cetane number
Sulfur (mg/kg)
Contamination (mg/kg)
Iodine number (J2 g/100 g)
Acid value (mg KOH/g)
Oxygen content (wt%)
Carbon to hydrogen ratio
Lower heating value (kJ/kg)
Stoichiotric airfuel ratio (kg/kg)
Ash content (mass %)
Water content (mg/kg)

C13H14
180192
0.829
2.68
78
250
5
0
51.6
33
0.2
6
0.06
0.4
6.9
42,636
14.45
0.01
28

C57H105O6
885
0.912
23.91
244
320
15
20
4448
2
25
111
2.0
10.8
6.5
36,995
12.56
0.01
75

The diesel fuel and RSO used in this study was obtained
commercially from a local company. Table 1 reports the fuel properties of diesel fuel and RSO. Without engine modication, the fuel
properties of the blends will affect the engine combustion and
emissions. The density was measured following the ASTM D1298.
The measurements were carried out at 20 C by using a calibrated
glass gravity hydrometer, conducted three times for each sample
and the results were averaged. Viscosity is a physical phenomenon
caused by the resistance of a liquid to ow. A glass capillary kinematic viscometer was used to measure viscosity at 40 C according
to ASTM D445. The lower heating values (LHV) were measured by
an automated bomb calorimeter. Other main properties were cited
from other literatures [25,26]. In this study, the test engine was
operated with diesel fuel and two different blends: 20% rapeseed
oil80% diesel fuel (RSO20) and 50% rapeseed oil50% diesel fuel
(RSO50). Main properties of RSO and its blends (RSO20 and
RSO50) were measured and compared with those of diesel fuel.
The results are shown in Table 2.

3. Experimental procedure
The engine used was a two-cylinder, naturally aspirated, four
stroke, water-cool, and direct injection diesel engine with a bowl
in piston combustion chamber. The basic data of the engine used
are given in Table 3. With the liquid fuel injection, a high pressure
fuel pump was used, having a plunger diameter of 8 mm connected
to a four-hole injector nozzle. The injector nozzle was located in
the center of the combustion chamber and had an opening pressure of 18 MPa. A high precision ow meter was used to measure
the fuel ow per 30 s. A Kistler piezoelectric transducer was
installed for monitoring the cylinder pressure (average for 100
working cycles) coupled with Kistler charge amplier. Indimeter
was used to record the measured data. Gaseous emissions were
measured by a gas analyzer (AVL Digas 4000). Smoke was measured by a part-ow smoke opacimeter (AVL Dismoke 4000). The
test installation is shown in Fig. 1. To insure that the accuracy of
the measured values was high, the gas analyzer was calibrated
before each measurement using reference gases. The smoke density was indicated by K value. Table 4 shows the main specication
and the resolution of the measurement devices.
To prevent problems of high fuel viscosity and cold start, the engine was always started using diesel fuel and then switched to the
blends. The engine was allowed to run for approximately
4550 min to make sure that all diesel fuel was ushed out by
the blends before the start of measurements. Similarly, while shutting down, the engine was switched back from the blends to diesel
fuel and run for another 45 min to ensure that only diesel fuel was
left inside the fuel system to avoid problems associated with cold
start. The experiments were carried out under different engine
loads at engine speed of 1500 r/min. The cylinder pressure, fuel
consumption and exhaust emissions such as NOx, HC, CO and
smoke were measured. Signicant engine performance parameters
such as BSFC, BSEC and brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) were
calculated. In addition, the heat release rate was calculated to
evaluate the combustion characteristics of the test fuels.
Due to the pulsed characteristics of the engine, we always took
3 measurements to average the data for each operating condition.
To estimate the repeatability of measurements and the accuracy of
the procedure, the coefcient of variance (COV) for each measured
parameter was determined. It represented the standard deviation
of each magnitude as a percentage of its mean value. The COV
for each main measured parameter is presented in Table 5. Considering these values, it revealed that the measurements were quite
repeatable especially for engine performance. As far as pollutant
emissions were concerned, the COV was less than 3.5% for gaseous

229

D.H. Qi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 77 (2014) 227232

Table 2
Main properties of the test fuels.
Properties
Density at 20 C (g/ml)
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C (mm2 s
Lower caloric value (kJ kg 1)
Flash point (C)

Diesel

Rapeseed oil

RSO20

RSO50

Test methods

0.829
2.68
42,636
68

0.912
23.91
36,995
234

0.848
4.46
41,420
86

0.873
9.64
39,680
122

ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM

Table 3
Specication of test diesel engine.
Engine type

Two cylinder, 4-stroke, DI

Bore (mm)
Stroke (mm)
Connecting rod (mm)
Compression ratio
Displacement (ml)
Rated power (kW)
Rated speed (r/min)
Fuel injection timing (deg. BTDC)
Injector holes (mm)
Injector opening pressure (MPa)

100
105
164
17:1
1650
13.7
2500
19 (Static)
4  0.32
18

pollutants and 3.7% for smoke. Using the measured data, we can
derive sound conclusions for the effects of rapeseed oil operation
on engine performance and emissions.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Combustion characteristics
The cylinder pressures variation of the test fuels under different
engine loads at engine speed of 1500 r/min is shown in Fig. 2. It is
clear that the cylinder pressure is increased with increase of engine
load. The test fuels follow the similar cylinder pressure pattern
under different engine loads, but the peak cylinder pressure and
its corresponding crank angle vary signicantly with the volume
fraction of RSO in the blends. It can be seen that RSO50 shows
the highest peak cylinder pressure at low engine load, and almost
similar value to that of RSO20 and diesel fuel at high engine load.
The corresponding crank angles are retarded with the increase of
RSO volume fraction in the blends at low engine load, but advanced
at high engine load.
Ignition delay is one of the important combustion parameter as
it affects the start of combustion, cylinder pressure and heat

D1298
D445
D2015
D93

release rate. The ignition delay is a period between start of injection into the combustion chamber and start of combustion. In this
study, the ignition delay period was not measured, but, the start of
combustion may reect the variation of the ignition delay because
the fuel pump and injector setting were kept identical for the test
fuels. From Fig. 2, it can be seen that the combustion of the test
fuels starts almost at the same crank angle at low engine load,
and the start of combustion is advanced with the increase of RSO
volume fraction in the blends at high engine load. Because of a
higher bulk modulus and higher viscosity of RSO, the injection timing of the blends would be earlier than that of diesel fuel, which
indicates longer ignition delay of the blends at low engine load
[27]. When the ignition delay period increases, more fuel will be
physically prepared for chemical reaction which increases the
amount of air-fuel mixture burned and the heat release rate in
the premixed combustion phase. This leads to the rise in peak
cylinder pressure. As the engine load is increased, the ignition
delay period decreases because the gas temperature in the cylinder
is increased, which result in the earlier start of combustion for the
blends. The peak cylinder pressures of the test fuels are almost
identical due to the almost same ignition delay and different start
of combustion.
The heat release rate variation of the test fuels under different
engine loads at engine speed of 1500 r/min is shown in Fig. 3. It
can be seen that the combustion process of the blends is similar,
consisting of premixed combustion phase following by diffusion
combustion phase. It also shows that the peak heat release rate increases with the growth of engine load. There is a little difference
among the traces of the test fuels. At low engine load, the peak heat
release rate of RSO50 is the highest and that of diesel fuel is lowest.
As mentioned above, when the ignition delay increases, more fuel
would be physically prepare, which increases the amount of fuel
burned and the heat release rate in the premixed combustion
phase. At high engine loads, the peak heat release rate is almost
identical, but the combustion process of RSO50 is advanced. The
added RSO slightly affected spray tip penetration and spray cone

Fig. 1. Schematic layout of the test installation. 1. CI Engine 2. Eddy current dynamometer 3. Injector 4. Fuel pump 5. Fuel lter 6. Fuel tank 7. Air stabilizing tank 8. Air lter 9.
AVL smoke meter 10. AVL Di-gas analyzer 11. Pressure transducer 12. TDC encoder 13. Charge amplier 14. Indimeter 15. Monitor 16. Exhaust silencer.

230

D.H. Qi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 77 (2014) 227232

Table 4
The main specication and the resolution of the measurement devices.
Instrumentation
AVL Digas 4000

HC (ppm)
CO (%)
NOx (ppm)
CO2 (%)
K value (m 1)
Opacity (%)
Pressure (bar)
Flow (ml)
Heat capacity (JK
T (C)

AVL Dismoke 4000

Kistler 6051B1 transducer for cylinder pressure
Fuel Flow Meter
Oxygen bomb calorimeter

angle, whereas the droplet size of the blends increased with an increase of the RSO volume fraction because of the high viscosity.
Although the beginning of heat release is advanced with the
increase of RSO volume fraction, the end of heat release remains
at almost the same crank angle for the blends, which leads to the
extension in the combustion duration.

Table 5
Coefcient of variance for measured magnitudes.
Measured magnitude

Coefcient of variance

Cylinder pressure
BSFC
Nitrogen oxide
Hydrocarbon
Carbon monoxide
K value

1.4
2.3
3.5
3.4
2.8
3.7

Fig. 2. Variation of cylinder pressure with respect to crank angle.

Measuring range

Resolution

Operating Temperature (C)

020,000
010
04000
020
099.99
0100
0250
0100
14,00015,000
1035

1
0.01
1
0.1
0.01
0.1
1  10-4
0.01

535, max.40

545
-50-350, max.400
545
1528

0.001

4.2. Performance and emissions

Fig. 4 shows the BSFC variation of the diesel and the blends with
respect to BMEP at engine speed of 1500 r/min. It can be seen that
under almost all engine loads, BSFC of RSO20 is almost similar to
those of diesel fuel, but those of RSO50 are evidently higher. The
difference of BSFC between them is reduced with the increase of
engine load. The BSFC of diesel engine depends on the relationship
among volumetric fuel injection system, fuel density, viscosity and
lower heating value (LHV). More blends are needed to produce the
same amount of power due to its lower LHV in comparison with
diesel fuel, especially for RSO50. Brake specic energy consumption (BSEC) is an ideal parameter for comparing engine performance of fuels having different LHV. Fig. 5 shows the comparison
of BSEC of the test fuels under different engine loads. The gure

Fig. 3. Variation of heat release rate with respect to crank angle.

D.H. Qi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 77 (2014) 227232

231

Fig. 6. Variation of NOx emission with respect to engine loads.

Fig. 4. Variation of BSFC with respect to engine loads.

shows that the BSEC of RSO20 is almost similar to that of diesel fuel
under all range of engine load. At low engine loads (less than
0.32 MPa), BSEC of RSO50 is higher than that of diesel fuel, but is
almost identical at high engine loads (more than 0.4 MPa).
Fig. 6 shows the variations of NOx emissions with respected to
engine loads at engine speed of 1500 r/min. Generally speaking,
there are three primary sources of NOx in combustion processes:
thermal NOx, fuel NOx and prompt NOx. Thermal NOx formation,
which is highly temperature dependent, is recognized as the most
relevant source from engine combustion. The formation rate of NOx
is primarily a function of combustion (ame) temperature, the residence time of nitrogen at that temperature, and the contents of
oxygen in the reaction regions in the combustion chamber [28].
It can be seen from Fig. 6 that the NOx emission is increased with
the rising of engine load. This is due to more fuel is injected and
combusted in the cylinder when engine load increases, which
causes higher gas temperature.
It also can be seen that the emission of NOx is slightly lower for
the blends at low engine load. As the engine load is increased, the
gap of the emissions between he blends and diesel fuel gets narrowed. The main reason is that RSO have higher viscosity therefore
the fuel droplet size in the cylinder is expected to be larger than
that of diesel fuel. Larger droplets have longer combustion duration and signicant energy release during the late burning phase.
This suggests that the peak combustion chamber temperature is
possibly lower for the blends compared to diesel fuel, leading to
lower formation of NOx. With the increase of engine load, due to
more fuel injections and then higher combustion temperature,
the effect of viscosity may not be a dominating factor, and the contents of oxygen in the reaction regions has an increased effect on
the NOx formation. So the NOx emissions of the blends are almost
similar to that of diesel fuel. It has been shown from the multi-zone
modeling studies that the temperature distribution for the plant oil

Fig. 5. Variation of BSEC with respect to engine loads.

Fig. 7. Variation of smoke emission with respect to engine loads.

Fig. 8. Variation of CO emission with respect to engine loads.

sprays was lower compared to diesel fuel, which resulted in lower

NOx emissions for plant oils [29].
Fig. 7 shows the variation of the light absorption coefcient of
smoke (K value) with respect to BMEP at engine speed of 1500 r/
min. With the increase of engine loads, smoke emission is
increased. It can be seen that RSO50 gives higher smoke even at
lower engine loads. Higher smoke opacity may be due to poor
atomization of RSO. Bulky fuel molecules and higher viscosity of
RSO result in poor atomization of the blends. In addition, the
smoke emissions are higher due to faster chemical decomposition
and cracking at low temperatures. This leads to formation of a series of hydrocarbons, which tend to act as soot precursors leading to
higher amount of soot formation [30].
Figs. 8 and 9 show the variations of the CO and HC emissions
with respect to BMEP at engine speed of 1500 r/min. Within the
most experimental range, CO and HC emissions from the blends
are higher than those from diesel fuel. This is possible because of
the high viscosity of RSO, which made it the more difcult to
atomize for the blends. This resulted in locally rich mixtures in
the engine. In consequence it caused more CO and HC generated
during the combustion, due to the lack of oxygen locally. Only at

232

D.H. Qi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 77 (2014) 227232

Fig. 9. Variation of HC emission with respect to engine loads.

high engine load (0.61 MPa), the CO emission of the blends is lower
than that of diesel fuel. The ndings and trends were supported by
literature available data [31,32]. This is possibly due to two factors
that the temperature in the cylinder is higher at the high engine
load, which makes the blends easier to atomize, a better airfuel
mixture and then a better combustion can be achieved. In addition,
the oxygen contents in RSO make it easier to be burnt at higher
temperature in the cylinder, which also results in the lower CO
emission for the blends.
5. Conclusions
The objective of this study was to characterize the rapeseed
oildiesel blends on the combustion, performance and exhaust
emissions of a diesel engine. Based on the experimental results,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) Blending rapeseed oil with diesel fuel was an effective
method to reduce the viscosity of the fuel and can be used
in diesel engine without any modication.
(2) The BSFC of rapeseed oildiesel blends was higher than that
of diesel fuel under all range of engine loads, but the BSEC
was improved at high engine loads.
(3) At different engine load, rapeseed oildiesel blends showed
various combustion characteristics compared to that of diesel fuel. The peak cylinder pressure and heat release rate
were higher at low engine loads, but almost identical at high
engine loads.
(4) The smoke, CO and HC emissions of the blends were higher
than that of diesel fuel under almost all engine loads, but the
differences of NOx emissions among the test fuels were not
evident.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their deep thanks to the scientic
research foundation for the returned overseas of China and the
colleagues in the center for combustion energy at Tsinghua
University.
References
[1] Achten WMJ, Vandenbempt P, Almeida J, Mathijs E, Muys B. Life cycle
assessment of a palm oil system with simultaneous production of biodiesel
and Cooking oil in Cameroon. Environ Sci Technol 2010;44:480915.
[2] Gasol CM, Gabarrell X, Anton A, Rigola M, Carrasco J, Ciria P, et al. Life cycle
assessment of a Brassica carinata bioenergy cropping system in southern
Europe. Biomass Bioenergy 2007;3:54355.

[3] Huo H, Wang M, Bloyd C, Putsche V. Life-cycle assessment of energy use and
greenhouse gas emissions of Soybean-derived biodiesel and renewable fuels.
Environ Sci Technol 2009;43:7506.
[4] Misra RD, Murthy MS. Straight vegetable oils usage in a compression ignition
engine a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:300513.
[5] Hossain AK, Davies PA. Plant oils as fuels for compression ignition engines: a
technical review and life-cycle analysis. Renew Energy 2010;35:113.
[6] Labeckas G, Slavinskas S. Performance of direct-injection off-road diesel engine
on rapeseed oil. Renew Energy 2006;31:84963.
[7] Altin R, Cetinkaya S, Yucesu HS. The potential of using vegetable oil fuels as
fuel for diesel engines. Energy Conv Manage 2001;42(5):52938.
[8] Kalam MA, Husnawan M, Masjuki HH. Exhaust emission and combustion
evaluation of coconut oil-powered indirect injection diesel engine. Renew
Energy 2003;28:240515.
[9] No SY. Inedible vegetable oils and their derivatives for alternative diesel fuels
in CI engines: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:13149.
[10] Qi DH, Geng LM, Chen H, Bian YZH, Liu J, Ren XCH. Combustion and
performance evaluation of a diesel engine fuelled biodiesel produced from
soybean crude oil. Renew Energy 2009;34:270613.
[11] Meher LC, Vidya Sagar D, Naik SN. Technical aspects of biodiesel production by
transesterication a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2006;10:24868.
[12] Esteban B, Baquero G, Puig R, Riba JR, Rius A. Is it environmentally
advantageous to use vegetable oil directly as biofuel instead of converting it
to biodiesel? Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35:131728.
[13] Hossain AK, Davies PA. Plant oils as fuels for compression ignition engines: a
technical review and life-cycle analysis. Renew Energy 2010;35:113.
[14] Galan M, Bonet J, Sire R, Reneaume J, Plesu AE. From residual to useful oil:
revalorization of glycerine from the biodiesel synthesis. Bioresour Technol
2009;100:37758.
[15] Yilmaz N, Morton B. Effects of preheating vegetable oils on performance and
emission characteristics of two diesel engines. Biomass Bioenergy
2011;35:202833.
[16] Agarwal D, Agarwal AK. Performance and emissions characteristics of Jatropha
oil (preheated and blends) in a direct injection compression ignition engine.
Appl Therm Eng 2007;27:231423.
[17] Agarwal AK, Rajamanoharan K. Experimental investigations of performance
and emissions of Karanja oil and its blends in a single cylinder agricultural
diesel engine. Appl Energy 2009;86:10612.
[18] Hazar H, Aydin H. Performance and emission evaluation of a CI engine fueled
with preheated raw rapeseed oil (RRO)diesel blends. Appl Energy
2010;87:78690.
[19] Altun S, Bulut H, ner C. The comparison of engine performance and exhaust
emission characteristics of sesame oildiesel fuel mixture with diesel fuel in a
direct injection diesel engine. Renew Energy 2008;33:17915.
[20] Huzayyin AS, Bawady AH, Rady MA, Dawood A. Experimental evaluation of
Diesel engine performance and emission using blends of jojoba oil and Diesel
fuel. Energy Conv Manage 2004;45:2093112.
[21] Golimowski W, Pasyniuk P, Berger WA. Common rail diesel tractor engine
performance running on pure plant oil. Fuel 2013;103:22731.
[22] Fontaras G, Kousoulidou M, Karavalakis G, Bakeas E, Samaras Z. Impact of
straight vegetable oildiesel blends application on vehicle regulated and nonregulated over legislated and real world driving cycles. Biomass Bioenergy
2011;35:318898.
[23] Yang M, Zheng C, Zhou Q, Huang FH, Liu CS, Wang H. Minor components and
oxidative stability of cold-pressed oil from rapeseed cultivars in China. J Food
Compos Anal 2013;29:19.
[24] Velasco L, Becker HC. Estimating the fatty acid composition of the oil in intactseed rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) by near-infrared reectance spectroscopy.
Euphytica 1998;101:22130.
[25] Laza T, Bereczky . Basic fuel properties of rapeseed oilhigher alcohols
blends. Fuel 2011;90:80310.
[26] Labeckas G, Slavinskas S. Comparative performance of direct injection diesel
engine operating on ethanol, petrol and rapeseed oil blends. Energy Conv
Manage 2009;50:792801.
[27] Vojtek-Lom M, Pechout M, Barbolla A. Experimental investigation of the
behavior of non-esteried rapeseed oil in a diesel engine mechanical fuel
injection system. Fuel 2012;97:15765.
[28] Heywood JB. Internal combust engine fundaments. 3rd ed. New
York: Macmillan; 1979.
[29] Rakopoulos CD, Antonopoulos KA, Rakopoulos DC. Development and
application of a multi-zone model for combustion and pollutants formation
in a direct injection diesel engine running with vegetable oil or its bio-diesel.
Energy Conserv Manage 2007;48:1881901.
[30] Labecki L, Cairns A, Xia J, Megaritis A, Zhao H, Ganippa LC. Combustion and
emission of rapeseed oil blends in diesel engine. Appl Energy 2012;95:13946.
[31] Wang YD, Al-Shemmeri T, Eames P, McMullan J, Hewitt N, Huang Y, et al. An
experimental investigation of the performance and gaseous exhaust emissions
of a diesel engine using blends of a vegetable oil. Appl Therm Eng
2006;26:168491.
[32] Misra RD, Murthy MS. Performance, emission and combustion evaluation of
soapnut oildiesel blends in a compression ignition engine. Fuel
2011;90:25148.