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in

FundamentalsOfInformationTechnology

ShrutiKhatri
Shruti_8288@yahoo.co.in
DelhiTechnicalUniversitySem1
Shruti_8288@yahoo.co.in


ShrutiKhatriShruti_8288@yahoo.co.in

DearAll,
Throughmyownexperiencesasastudentandasanyotherhumanbeing,Ihavebeen
strugglingtofightmyfearsandcomeoutstronglyasawinner.Yourfearmaybeofloosinga
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belessbeautifulthanthefairest..tobelessconfident..andtoalwaysbeacoward
......Thesefearswillruinyourlifecompletely.Ihavelearntmylessonswell...andnowIwish
toteachTHEFEARATIGHTLESSON...
Alwaysremember
Courageisnottheabsenceoffear.Itisonlythejudgmentthatsomethingelseismore
importantthanfear.Thecourageousmaynotliveforever,butthecautiousdoesnotliveatall
Ihopeyourengineeringteachesyouthetruelessonsoflifetoworkhard,andtolove
harder..andIdohopemyexperiencedoessomegoodtoyou!.HappyReading!!!!

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Topic1:DefinitionOfElectronicComputer
WhatisaComputer?
Definition:
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the
information is needed, processes the information according to the instructions provided by the
user, and finally returns the results to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large
quantities of data at very high speed, but a computer cannot think. A computermakesdecisions
based on simple comparisons such as one number being larger than another. Although the
computer can help solve a tremendous variety of problems, it is simply a machine. It cannot
solveproblemsonitsown.
Explanation/History
The abacus was an important counting machineinancientBabylon,China,andthroughout
Europe where itwasuseduntilthelatemiddleages.Itwasfollowedbyaseriesofimprovements
in mechanical counting machines that led up to the development of accurate mechanical adding
machines in the 1930s. These machines used a complicated assortment of gears and levers to
perform the calculations but they were far to slow to be of much use to scientists. Also, a
machine capable of making simple decisions such as which number is larger was needed. A
machinecapableofmakingdecisionsiscalledacomputer.
Since civilizations began, many of the advances made by science and technology have
depended upon the ability to process large amounts of data and perform complex mathematical
calculations. For thousands of years, mathematicians, scientists and businessmen have searched
for computingmachines that couldperformcalculationsandanalyzedataquicklyandefficiently.
Onesuchdevicewastheabacus.
The first computer like machine was the Mark I developed by a team from IBM and
Harvard University. It used mechanical telephone relays to store information and it processed
data entered on punch cards. This machine was not a true computer since it could not make
decisions.
In June 1943, work began on the world's first electronic computer. It was built at the
University of Pennsylvania as a secret military project during World War II and was to beused
to calculate the trajectory of artillery shells. It covered 1500 square feet and weighed 30 tons.
The project was not completed until 1946 but the effort was not wasted. In one of its first
demonstrations,thecomputersolved aproblemin20secondsthattookateamofmathematicians
three days. This machine was a vast improvement over the mechanical calculating machines of
the pastbecauseitusedvacuumtubesinsteadofrelayswitches.Itcontainedover17,000ofthese
tubes,whichwerethesametypetubesusedinradiosatthattime.

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The invention of the transistor made smaller and less expensive computers possible. Although
computers shrank in size, they were still huge by todays standards. Another innovation to
computers in the 60s was storing data on tape instead of punch cards. This gavecomputersthe
abilitytostoreandretrievedataquicklyandreliably.
Topic2:GenerationsOfComputers
FirstGenerationComputers:
The First Generation Computers was marked by the use of vacuum tubes for the electronic
components and by the use ofelectrostatictubesormercurydelaylinesforstorage.Examplesof
first generation computers are EDSAC (1949), EDVAC (1951) etc., this generation lasted until
the end of the 1950s andthecomputersin thiserahadtheirbasisinwiredcircuitryandthermion
valves.Theiroutstandingfeatureswere:
1.Veryexpensive,poorreliability,slowinput/output.
2.Quitelarge,generatedlotofheatandrequiredspecialhousing.
3.Themediumofinternalstoragewasmagneticdrum.
4.Punchedcardsandpapertapeswereusedforsecondarystorage.
5.Continuousmaintenanceisrequiredproduceslotofheathencerequiresspecialair
conditioning.
6.Applicationspayrollandothersingleapplicationsinlargecompanies.
7.Usesbatchprocessingtechnology,toprocessthedata.Ex.In1949atCambridgeUniversity
EDSAC(ElectronicDelayedStorageAutomaticCalculatorwasdeveloped).
In1952atPennsylvaniaUniversity,EDVAC(ElectronicDiscreteVariableAutomatic
Calculator)wasdeveloped.

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In1951,UNIVACI(UniversalAutomaticComputer)wasdeveloped.
LimitationsofFirstGenerationComputerFollowingsarethemajordrawbacksofFirst
generationcomputers.
1.Theyusedvalvesorvacuumtubesastheirmainelectroniccomponent.
2.Theywerelargeinsize,slowinprocessingandhadlessstoragecapacity.3.Theyconsumed
lotsofelectricityandproducedlotsofheat.4.Theircomputingcapabilitieswerelimited.5.They
werenotsoaccurateandreliable.6.Theyusedmachinelevellanguageforprogramming.7.
Theywereveryexpensive.
SecondGenerationComputers:
Thesecondgenerationcomputersareinitiallymarkedbyeithermagneticdrumormagneticcore
storageandlaterbytheuseofthetransistorintheplaceofvacuumtubes.Mainfeaturesofthe
secondgenerationcomputersare:1.Magneticcorewasusedasprimarystoragedeviceandtape
assecondarystorage.2.Usedtransistorcircuits,hencethesizeofthecomputerwassmall
comparedtothatoffirstgenerationcomputer.3.Greaterreliabilityandhigherspeed,when
comparedtothatoffirstgenerationcomputers.4.Useshighlevelprocedurallanguagesviz.,
FORTRAN(FormulaTranslator)195457,COBOL(CommonBusinessOrientedLanguage)
195761.
5.Theyaresmall,fasterandrequiredlesspowertooperate.
6.Applications:Payroll,Inventory,AccountsReceivable,inlargeandmediumsizedcompanies:
Ex:IBM700,1401ATLASICL1901
ThirdGenerationComputers(19651971):
The arrival of the third generation in the mid 1960s proved to be an importantmilestoneinthe
evolution of computers. The advances over the previous generations were very significant and
allowed an increased number of organizations to reap the undoubted benefits which
computerizationcouldbring.Thefollowingarethefeaturesofthisgeneration:
1.Furtherreductionsinsizeofcomputer.
2.Thecost/performancefactorhasimprovedsignificantly.

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3.Increasedinternalcorememorycapacity.
4.Processorspeedsareratedinnanoseconds.
5.Theuseofhighlevellanguagesbecamecommone.g.:COBOL,FORTRANandPL/I.
6.Multiprogrammingoperatingsystemwasdeveloped.
7.Magneticdiskwasusedassecondarystorage.
8.Transistorswerereplacedwithintegratedcircuitshenceincreasedminiaturization.
9.Computerswerecapableofperformingbothscientificandbusinesstaskswithhighspeedand
reliability.
10.InputandOutputdevicesareimproved.
11.Applications:OrderProcessing,airlinereservation,realtimeinventorycontroletc.
12.Usesonline,realtimeprocessingandmultiprogrammingoperatingsystem.Ex:
IBM/360/370NCR395BurroughsB6500.
FourthGenerationComputers:
The fourth generation computers arrived in mid 1970s. The distinguishing marks were the
introduction of standard architecture which proved greater mobility of the system. The
introduction of micro technology and significantsoftwaredevelopments,Microtechnologygave
rise to the development of micro computers, work processors and intelligentterminals.Features
ofthisfourthgenerationare:
1.IntegratedCircuitsarereplacedwithverylargescaleintegratedcircuits.
2.Semiconductorsusedasprimarystorage.
3.Dramaticdecreaseinthesizeofcomputerdevelopmentofmicrocomputers,personal
computer.
4.Developmentofelectronicspreadsheet.
5.Developmentofdatabasemanagementsystems.

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6.Developmentofdistributeddatabasesandvirtualstorageoperatingsystem.
7.Increaseduseofdatacommunicationsandcomputernetworks.
8.IncreaseduseofCathodeRayTube(CRT)terminals.
9.Thecomputersarecompact,faster,andcheaperandaremorereliable.
10.Application:Corporatemodeling,decisionsupportsystem,electronicfundstransfer,
electronicspreadsheet,wordprocessingandsmallbusinessapplications.
FutureComputers(since1985):
By the end of 1982, the computers were used every where, inautomobiles,appliances,business
information systems, and military hardware. With electronic technology advancing rapidly, the
use of computers is expected togrowincomingyears.Withtheincreaseduserrequirements,the
technology has evolved with outstanding features. Some of the important features of the future
computersare:
1.FutureComputersuseorganicchipstoprocessthedata.
2.Boththesoftwareandhardwarecostsaredecreasingatahighspeed,sothatthecomputerscan
beusedbyeverycommonman(withinthereachofcommonman).
3.Increasedminiaturizationandprice/performanceratio.
4.Thecomputershavehighspeed,andstoragecapacity.
5.Hasthecapacitytomakedecisions.(Autodecisions).
6.Usesnonproceduralsoftware,whichisveryuserfriendly.
7.Applications:ArtificialIntelligence,Robots,LargeScaleCorporatemodeling,oilexploration,
starwarssystemandpersonalrobots.
Topic3:ClassificationofComputers
Computersdifferbasedontheirdataprocessingabilities.Theyareclassifiedaccordingto
purpose,datahandlingandfunctionality.
Accordingtopurpose,computersareeithergeneralpurposeorspecificpurpose.General
purposecomputersaredesignedtoperformarangeoftasks.

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They have the ability to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency.
Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific
task.Asetofinstructionsisbuiltintothemachine.
According to functionality, computers are analog, digital or hybrid. Analog computers
work on the principleofmeasuring,inwhichthemeasurementsobtainedare translatedintodata.
Modern analog computers usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistancesor
currents,torepresentthe
quantitiesbeingmanipulated.Suchcomputersdonotdealdirectlywiththenumbers.They
measurecontinuousphysicalmagnitudes.Digitalcomputersarethosethatoperatewith
information,numericalorotherwise,representedinadigitalform.Suchcomputersprocessdata
intoadigitalvalue(in0sand1s).Theygivetheresultswithmoreaccuracyandatafasterrate.
Hybridcomputersincorporatethemeasuringfeatureofananalogcomputerandcountingfeature
ofadigitalcomputer.Forcomputationalpurposes,thesecomputersuseanalogcomponentsand
forstorage,digitalmemoriesareused.Accordingtofunctionality,computersareclassifiedas:
AnalogComputer
An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses
continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model
theproblembeingsolved.
DigitalComputer
Acomputerthatperformscalculationsandlogicaloperationswithquantitiesrepresented
asdigits,usuallyinthebinarynumbersystem.
HybridComputer(Analog+Digital)
Acombinationofcomputersthosearecapableofinputtingandoutputtinginbothdigital
andanalogsignals.Ahybridcomputersystemsetupoffersacosteffectivemethodofperforming
complexsimulations.
OnthebasisofSize
SuperComputerThefastestandmostpowerfultypeofcomputer.Supercomputersarevery
expensiveandareemployedforspecializedapplicationsthatrequireimmenseamountsof
mathematicalcalculations.Forexample,weatherforecastingrequiresasupercomputer.Other
usesofsupercomputersincludeanimatedgraphics,fluiddynamiccalculations,nuclearenergy
research,andpetroleumexploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe
usesitspowertoexecutemanyprogramsconcurrently.

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Iwishtoearnformyfamilyandnotformyself.Iwishtolearnformyselftoearnmyfamily.

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MainframeComputerAverylargeandexpensivecomputercapableofsupportinghundreds,or
eventhousands,ofuserssimultaneously.Inthehierarchythatstartswithasimple
microprocessor(inwatches,forexample)atthebottomandmovestosupercomputersatthetop,
mainframesarejustbelowsupercomputers.Insomeways,mainframesaremorepowerfulthan
supercomputersbecausetheysupportmoresimultaneousprograms.Butsupercomputerscan
executeasingleprogramfasterthanamainframe.
MiniComputerAmidsizedcomputer.Insizeandpower,minicomputersliebetween
workstationsandmainframes.Inthepastdecade,thedistinctionbetweenlargeminicomputers
andsmallmainframeshasblurred,however,ashasthedistinctionbetweensmallminicomputers
andworkstations.Butingeneral,aminicomputerisamultiprocessingsystemcapableof
supportingfrom4toabout200userssimultaneously.
WorkstationsAterminalordesktopcomputerinanetwork.Inthiscontext,workstationisjusta
generictermforauser'smachine(clientmachine)incontrasttoa"server"or"mainframe."
MicroComputerorPersonalComputer
Thefollowingillustratevarietiesinmicrocomputers.
DesktopComputer:apersonalormicrominicomputersufficienttofitonadesk.
LaptopComputer:aportablecomputercompletewithanintegratedscreenandkeyboard.It
isgenerallysmallerinsizethanadesktopcomputerandlargerthananotebookcomputer.
PalmtopComputer/DigitalDiary/Notebook/PDAs:ahandsizedcomputer.Palmtopshave
nokeyboardbutthescreenservesbothasaninputandoutputdevice.
Topic4:CHARACTERISTICSOFCOMPUTERS
Thecharacteristicsofcomputersthathavemadethemsopowerfulanduniversallyuseful
havebeenenumeratedasfollows:
1) Speed: A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in few seconds, the amount of
work that a human being can do in an entire year. The speed of a computer measure in
microseconds(106), nanoseconds(109) and picoseconds(1012). A powerful computer is
capableofperformingseveralbillionarithmeticoperationspersecond.

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2) Accuracy: A Computer is very accurate device. The accuracy of a computer is in

principle high. The degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design.
Computer does every calculation with same accuracy.Errorscanoccurinacomputer,However,
theseproblemaremainlyduetohumanratherthantechnologicalweaknesses.
3)Automatic(Automation):Amachineisnosoonerthandonetobeautomaticifit,worksby
itselfwithout
human intervention. Computers are automatic machines, because once started on a job,
they carry on, until the job is finished, without anyhuman assistance.However,computerbeing
machines can notstartthemselves.Theycannotgoouttofindtheirownproblemsandsolutions.
Theyhavetobeinstructed.
4) Diligence: Computers are unlike human beings. A computer is freefromdullnessandlackof
concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error in doing regular
types of jobs, which requires great accuracy. Computer can perform any numberofcalculations
withexactlythesameaccuracyandspeedasthefirstone.
5) Versatility: Versatility is a mostimportantcharacteristicofcomputer.Itmeansthecapacityto
perform completely different type of work. You mayuseyourcomputertopreparepayrollslips.
Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electricbills.Acomputer
iscapableofperformingalmostanytask,ifthetaskcanbereducedtoseriesoflogicalsteps.
6) Memory(Power of Remembering): Computer has a brain, but unlike human (Man) beings. A
computer can store data andinformation.Andrecalledaslongasyourequireit, foranynumbers
of years. Because ofitssecondarystoragecapability.Adata andinformationcanberetrievedas
long as desired by the user and can be recalled, as when required. The information recalled
wouldbeasaccurateasonthefirstdaywhenitwasfedtothecomputer.
7) No.I.Q.(IntelligenceQuotient):Acomputerisnotamagicaldevice.Itisnotintelligentofits
own. Users can determine, what tasks will the computer perform. So a computer cannottakeits
owndecisionasyoucan.
8)NoFeelings:Computerhasnofeelings.Theyhavenoemotions,becausetheyaremachines.A
Computeris