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History of Psychiatry 2009 Perdicoyianni Paléologou 311 39
History of Psychiatry 2009 Perdicoyianni Paléologou 311 39
of Psychiatry
http://hpy.sagepub.com/
The vocabulary of madness from Homer to Hippocrates. Part 1: The verbal group of
i
Hlne Perdicoyianni-Palologou
History of Psychiatry 2009 20: 311
DOI: 10.1177/0957154X08337643
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312
313
314
Pirithoos, under the influence of wine, Eurytion completely ruins the palace of
his host.26 The destructive moral blindness caused by appears in his desire
for vengeance.27
In conclusion, indicates acquired and passing madness caused by
divine interference, intense psychic disturbance, or mental trouble, as well as
a lack of righteousness. Innate madness as the mental state of a god is rare.
M in the classical period
M describes disturbance of the mind and/or behaviour resulting from
diseases altering mental faculties. These diseases manifest themselves in
perceptible symptoms. M thus possesses a pathological connotation.
Most of the usages occur in Hippocrates but there are also some in Herodotus,
Euripides, Aristoteles and Plato.
In Hippocrates, is caused by the intensity of internal bodily heat.28
High temperature as the result of drunkenness makes the patient lie in a drowsy
state. If on getting up he vomits bile, he then rages and usually dies shortly
afterwards.29 Besides, drunkenness, along with eating meat, sleepiness, and a
thoughtlessly coming into contact with any degree of temperature, is part of an
unhealthy lifestyle and leads to insanity.30 Drunkenness is also related to the
psychological state of a person going insane from black bile (Roy, 1981), which
is associated with a melancholy temperament (Mueri, 1953) and persistent
depression.31 We should note that madness as the result of excessive use of
alcohol is mentioned once in Euripides. Drinking excessive wine provokes
the loss of consciousness, and then the drunk, i.e., Cyclops, becomes an easy
victim.32 This use also occurs in two passages in Herodotus, who considers it
as the opposite of divine madness ( ).33
Another cause of madness is abnormality of the bile, which, when it breaks
out, provokes a violent uncontrollable anger in the patient,34 or the brain,
functioning as the coordinating centre of sensation and intellectual and nervous
activity, including madness and delirium ( / ).35
Abnormal moistness of the brain36 and its corruption by phlegm (Craik, 2002)
or bile are considered as explanations for madness. Those maddened through
phlegm do not make a noise or disturbance. In contrast, those who are insane
from bile are clamorous, restless and inopportune.37 Besides, irregular beats in
the hypochrondrium indicate a disturbance or a delirium (), which
may cause rapid eye movement in the patient, who is expected to go mad.38
Varicose veins or a swollen group of veins in the region of the anus can
make the patient mad.39 However, insanity can occur after the treatment of
haemorrhoids.40 Abnormal enlargement of wounds, typically as a result of an
accumulation of fluid, occasionally prompts convulsion or madness.41 A slight
unforeseen inflammation can madden the half-mads ( ), i.e.,
those who suffer from nightmares resulting from extreme quickness of the soul,
315
which is provoked by the fact that the water is more mastered by the fire. The
inflammation can arise from intoxication, or from being overweight, or from
eating too much meat.42
Abnormalities of blood circulation such as blood gathering in the breast,43
congenital physical deformity such as a squint,44 unsuccessful treatment of
fractured or cleft bone,45 or an excessive dose of a medicine such as mandrake
root (Besnehard, 1993)46 give rise to madness. Moreover, melancholics
and patients with phrenitis become deranged (), some even mad
(), because their blood is disordered by bile and phlegm.47
In Aristotle, indicates people unreasonable because of irascibility of soul.48 Moreover, insane people are fond of drinking alcohol49 and
incapable of realizing circumstances relevant to an event50 as well as of deliberating over a topic rationally.51 Additionally, they are unable to face dangerous
celestial phenomena normally.52 However, irrationality has its own limits. The
demented never confuse two different earthly phenomena, such as fire and
ice.53 Madmen are comparable to animals, which are guided by bad sense
and aberrance of innate instinct.54 Besides, horses are subject to madness caused
by the scent of a mare in heat, or horsing.55
Finally, Plato finds a congenital reason in madness. Therefore can
be explained by the fact that not all humans possess from birth the entire faculty
of thought () and therefore do not have complete adult intellectual capacity
().56 M then indicates an innate mental state. Apart from the
congenital origin of insanity, Plato identifies other causes. He distinguishes
madness provoked by diseases from that prompted by aggravation of natural
violence resulting from exterior circumstances, e.g., bad education. In this case,
patients are both most susceptible and most offensive. At the least offence, they
shout loudly and insult each other. This aggressive behaviour is dangerous and
inappropriate for a well-conducted city.57
In conclusion, Hippocrates and Herodotus search out the causes, primarily,
of acquired madness, rather than its symptoms, as Aristotle does. In these
authors, only the pathological aspect of insanity is stressed. By contrast,
Euripides describes the causes of passing and acquired madness, as well as its
consequences. Finally, Plato emphasizes both the causes of madness, innate or
acquired, and its manifestations. The accent is clearly put on the pathological
aspect. Innate dementia is aggravated by exterior influence. It can also be a
mental immaturity, appearing in early life and vanishing in adulthood.
In contrast to uses of indicating congenital or acquired mental
trouble, there are those related to divine madness, manifested either as a divine
gift or an inflicted punishment. Sometimes a heros resentful rage for having
failed is reinforced by pathological hallucination instilled by a god as a penalty.
Additionally, hallucination can be inspired by a goddess in order to satisfy her
hostility.
316
317
of Ajax is explained by her desire for revenge, because of his arrogance. Ajax
appears as one who has offended Athene by the presumptuous self-confidence
with which he has rejected divine aid in war (Jebb, 2004: xi). A similar divine
madness is the result of Heres unappeasable hatred for her husbands bastard
son Heracles (Simon, 1978: 1309).78 When he had performed Eurystheus
tasks, Here decided to make him kill his children,79 setting his feet leaping,
stirring him up, letting loose the rope of death.80 The progress of Heracles madness81 is described from the initial physical symptoms of rolling, protruding,
bloodshot eyes,82 foaming at the mouth83 and an hysterical laugh,84 to the
mental illness including hallucination85 and a sudden sleep.86 Bewildered by
this madness, Heracles kills each one of his children with arrows dipped in the
blood of the hundred-headed hydra.87
In sum, the immortals can use inspiring madness to express their feelings for
a human being or a hero. The maddened is either in an unfortunate condition
or possessed by a supernatural gift.
Strong feelings and emotions lead to passing and intense insanity. These
feelings include bellicose fury, hate, love, desire, joy, pleasure, pain and
indignation.
In a military context, conveys the fierceness either of a people determined to fight against the King88 or a warrior, e.g., Eteocles, whose anger is
caused by Ambition, the most unjust goddess.89 Military behaviour of a whole
people is also considered a permanent madness leading to obsession.90 Martial
vehemence is expressed by metonymic use of the name of Ares (
). This fervour makes conquerors behave with disrespect.91 Bellicose
madness also has an influence on the seat of feelings ( ) of Argiens
warriors, who bluster against the city of Thebes with irrational aggressiveness.92
Used metaphorically, characterizes the insane conflict between
Eteocles and Polyneikes in battle,93 as well as the hope of having destroyed the
great city of Athens.94 Military madness also attacks animals, such as Potniad
colts. In the battle against the Thebans, these, upon Polyneikes shield as a
device, were running around and leapt distraught, cunningly, somehow enclosed
inside by pivots close to the handle, so as to seem crazed.95
M expresses an intense dislike for his enemies, which is considered a
great illness.96 Prometheus, a Titan known for his wily intelligence, displays
a deep-seated aversion to his enemies, i.e., the gods, especially Zeus, who inflicted physical sufferings on him as a punishment for providing fire to humans.
Throughout the play PV, Prometheus is bound to a rock with an eagle eating
his liver each day, only to have it grow back to be eaten again the next day.
M means to be transported with rage caused by the behaviour
of another person. Rage can be provoked by an unjust decision of a person
possessing supreme power. In one passage, is coordinated with a
verb expressing the speakers hostility.97 Besides, blaming ones husband
for adultery is considered a madness.98 In fact, Love rules gods and mortals as
he pleases.99
318
Madness due to love overcomes all immortals and mortals who possesses it.100
Moreover, divine love is an evil ( )101 (Doyle, 1984: xx; Neuberg,
1993) or a sort of insanity which is contrary to wisdom that those who are not
in love possess.102 In a social context, a tyrant is considered as mad because of
his intense erotic lust and desire.103 Madness caused by sensual passion inspired
by Eros is expressed by the expressions 104 and
.105
M can convey a transport of desire for death, ones own106 or that of
a daughter.107 A father, like Creon, is also considered mad because he intends
to cause moral pain to his son Haemon by making him witness to his lovers
murder.108 Hoping for the impending arrival of Orestes, who was believed as
lost forever, is another aspect of madness.109
M expresses the state of overwhelming joy upon learning of a miserable event, such as the death of ones enemies. The enemy may be a member
of the family of the raging person110 or a third party.111 Satyrs, a class of lustful,
drunken woodland gods, are also transported with joy upon hearing how Ulysses
will blind Cyclops.112 M results, too, from a feeling of great pleasure,
of eating, and often overeating,113 or of drinking up a cup of wine.114 Being
crazy from drinking wine is also a habitual and agreeable way of behaving and
living.115 Therefore, the man who refuses drinking can be considered insane.116
In a poetic context, the quality of Euripides plays drives the god Dionysos mad,
by giving him delight and arousing his admiration.117
M indicates the state of being maddened by pain, the result of physical
or moral affliction imposed by gods. Ios mad flight occurs as the consequence
of Heres vengeance,118 which explains the epithet applied to her, Bacchante of
the goddess.
Apart from the divine connotation, possesses a familial one. The
decision of the Achaean army to sacrifice Iphigeneia in order that the Greek fleet
may set off provokes Agamemnons grave affliction.119 Furthermore,
conveys the combination of suffering and rage that husbands feel when they find
their wives improperly outdoors.120 In a social context, expresses the
strong psychological pain that affects slaves overhearing their masters gossiping
about them.121
possessing as subject an internal organ, such as and ,
expresses excessive sorrow aroused by either an impious act or an announcement of the cruel destiny of a third party. denotes the
maddened heart of Oedipus when he becomes aware of his appalling marriage.
His rage leads him to blind himself.122 In addition, the sentence
reveals the overpowering madness of the choreutes souls upon learning
of Polyneikesdeath. indicates soul as the seat of the feeling of pain, displaying its insane grief by bursting into tears.123
We have found a metaphoric meaning of possessing as subject
a feeling of deep distress caused by a physical pain. The suffering is provoked
by running a sword through the body.124
319
320
321
publicly in the city. Their relatives should keep them indoors by all possible
means or be liable to a penalty.164 The language and behaviour of these insane
people must not be a model for imitation to a true honest man.165 Finally, a
virtuous man must never go mad.166
In conlusion, indicates for the most part passing and acquired
madness, caused by intense psychic or mental trouble and a lack of moral sense
or, possibly, divine interference. In the latter case, the mad have the benefit of
spiritual and intellectual faculties or they are subjected to divine anger which
makes them commit outrageous acts. Moreover, pathological insanity provoked
by diseases is usually permanent and mostly leads to death. In addition,
congenital madness is considered as a natural and temporary irrationality,
constant in all human beings at the very beginning of life.
Conclusion
In archaic and classic times, madness is caused by psychic and mental trouble
and manifests either as a vein of feeling or as family, religious or social misconduct. Usages of indicating divine madness occur in both periods.
Prophetic dementia and mantic beneficial power are common in all usages. By
contrast, divine destructive madness only appears in the archaic period. In this
period, is characterized by a pathological aspect resulting from either
diseases that affect an anatomical organ or physiological effects of illness or a
psychic trouble.
Compound verbs
E in the archaic period
In a divine context, used with the meaning to drive mad with passion,
conveys the furious love that Cybele instilled in her companion Attis.167
E in the classical period
Used in the middle voice and with a pathological connotation, is
found in Hippocrates and expresses an acutely disturbed state of mind that
mostly occurs in high fever, which is either the main cause of this mental state
or a symptom of another disease. When fever is the main cause, conveys
mad delirium, which, along with death, is one the final symptoms of other
physical and mental disorders.168 In every fever, patients who are in danger of
raving may suffer from a pain in the neck, which is one of the worst signs in such
cases.169 Madness as well as other mental and physical disorders is caused by
burning fever when regarded as a feature of other diseases, such as a headache
which increases through heavy drinking,170 a violent pain in the great toe,171 a
bad regimen,172 or a difficult labour and bad lochial discharge.173
Dementia is also present after one has been heated by drunkenness and sexual
indulgence174 or has drunk a quantity of undiluted wine.175 Additionally, in a
322
deaf and sleepless person, insanity manifests itself just after he vomits greenish
material during a headache.176
In short, mad delirium, as a persistent disorder of the mental state, is consequent on physiological abnormality, such as fever or alcohol dependency, as
well as satisfaction resulting from having sex.
In the divine context, expresses the state of wild excitement and
ecstasy into which Dionysos drove all the women of Thebes in order to punish
them for not believing in his divine origin and status.177
E means to kindle mad desire by love or by fear. In the first context,
refers to Cypris, goddess of love and beauty, who drives a young man
mad for a girl.178 Moreover, alludes to Dejanira who attempted to
inflame Hercules passion with a love charm.179 Used with the second meaning,
is used in reference to the wild bull sent by Dionysos in order to drive
the four-horse team of Hippolytus mad with fear and cause them to drag him
to his death.
In short, indicates an insane mental state into which man and
animals are brought forcibly by divine intervention so that they may either feel
a great pleasure and happiness or commit brutal slaying.
E indicates the state of going mad through a religious crime. This
mental state leads the patient, e.g., Cambyses, to misbehave in both family
and society.180 However, the acquired aspect of his madness is disputed by
Herodotus who explains it as congenital epilepsy and subsequently permanent.
This illness is also called by others sacred disease. Herodotus, too, makes the
following reasonable remark: when the body suffers from a grave illness, it is
not surprising that the spirit is also affected. The way Herodotus speaks makes
clear that he was sceptical about a divine origin of madness and somehow fought
this belief, like Hippocrates.181 We then observe that the historian assimilates
congenital madness to the divine one.
In conclusion, a divine origin of mad delirium is expressed by usages of
in both archaic and classical times. In the human world, mad delirium
expresses a strong lust. By contrast, when referring to animals, it indicates a
wild and destructive excitement. Moreover, the Herodotean usage of
for the first time assimilates congenital madness to madness of divine origin.
Finally, severe mad delirium resulting from a physiological abnormality, mostly
an acute fever, occurs solely in Hippocrates treatise.
E in the archaic period
E means to feel an extreme and uncontrollable love.182
E in the classical period
With a social connotation, the verb occurs at Vesp. 744. refers
to the judicial madness of Lovecleon who used to spend all his time as a juror,
323
In the archaic period, refers to Cybele who inspires an old man with
love.186 By contrast, indicates the rage of man-slaying Ares shouting
around the grove of Phoebus Apollo.187
324
325
326
that if the delirium of Love is good, it will then be good both for the person
loved and also for the lover.226 As the source of the greatest goods that can
befall us,227 the madness of Love results from the shock of emotion caused by
sensuous beauty. By the sight of a beautiful object, one is reminded of the true
Beauty and wants to fly upward. Yet one has not the power, but inasmuch as
one gazes upward like a bird, regardless of the world beneath, one is considered
demented.228 Beauty, then, evokes recollection, which is not always easy. For
some souls had seen little of the vision, and some have forgotten what they
saw, being corrupted by evil associations.229 When moved by earthly beauty,
one is deprived of self-possession and is subsequently passive and shaken out
of ones adjustment to the real world. For earthly beauty can strike the receptive
mind efficiently and powerfully. This kind of Love is the best of all the kinds
of ecstatic enthusiasm. The madman who falls in love with a beautiful human
being is, under such circumstances, called .230 He whose vision of the
mystery is fresh, and who saw much vision contemplates a physical Beauty,
first trembling convulsively, then feeling a deep wonder and reverence as at the
sight of a god; but, to avoid the risk of being regarded as an actual madman,
he abstains from offering sacrifice to his beloved, as one otherwise might to a
holy image.231 As a true amorous passion, ravishment, devotion, `
provides to lovers a great reward. After death, their souls will leave the body with
budding wings. Once having taken the first steps on the celestial highway, they
will walk together in a life of gleaming happiness and will no more return to dark
pathways beneath the earth.232 This point of view is intended eschatologically.
Sincere and heartfelt love is a means of salvation, and salvation is achieved
only, though always, where true love exists (Pieper, 1962: 88).
In Sophocles, Euripides and Aristotle, is often seen as a divine punishment. Upon seeing the bloody face of Oedipus, the Chorus wonders about the
god who has given [thee] sorrow which almost exceeds the imaginable limit
of human suffering.233 The madness of Ajax inspired by Athene (see above,
pp. 31617) is mostly regarded as a disease ()234 or an ill ().235
This madness is caused by the disgrace of the hero,236 who, believing that he
is killing the two Atreids, slaughters sheep and cattle.237 Moreover, this divine
madness makes Ajax refuse the sympathy of the Chorus.238 Heracles regrets
that he contemplated the dementia instilled by Cypris.239 Indeed, the goddess of
Love inspired his desire for Iole, which gave rise to his misfortunes. Heracles
madness also manifests itself in the mental trouble that leads him to assassinate
his children.240 This mental state was provoked by Lyssa at the instigation of
Here and Iris (see above, p. 317) as an expression of their hate for Zeus son.241
As indicated above (p. 316), madness is imposed by the Erinyes on Orestes
as a retribution for his matricide.242 Pursued by the Erinyes, supernatural personifications of the anger of the dead Clytemnestra, he runs as if mad.243 Divine
dementia causes him abnormal pathological physical, psychic and mental
symptoms. It makes him shout like an animal244 and causes rolling bloodshed
327
in his roving eyeballs, which is a manifestation of the blood he has shed (West,
1987: 241).245 It gives birth to fear,246 intense psychological pain, convulsive
trouble of his hands247 and hallucinations, making him imagine himself in
imminent danger248 and fighting the Erinyes, while in reality he is attacking
heifers.249 At the end of the crisis, Orestes falls down, foam dripping from his
chin.250 Accomplishing Apollos wish to steal the statue of Artemis is the sole
way for him to avoid the madness of the Erinyes and be purified.251
In sum, divine madness possesses a double aspect. As a divine gift, it has a
beneficial function of bestowing on the maddened person divinatory, creative
and poetic faculties, as well as love, pleasure and happiness. When maleficent,
divine madness is inflicted as punishment to a person hated by the gods.
is prompted either by emotional reactions such as fear, bellicose fury
or anger, or an agreeable affective state such as desire, love or pleasure. Upon
learning of her future wanderings, Io feels fear that results in violent pain,
followed by convulsions and delirium.252 These physio-pathological troubles
are accompanied by convulsive rolling of the eyeballs, great verbal violence and
confusion of thought.253
In the divine world, bacchic furore appears in battle. Dionysos, who here
somewhat resembles the martial nature of Ares, intervenes in the battle in order
to disperse a terrified army before the fight has begun.254 By contrast, can
result from the fury of a fighter, as in the case of Neoptolemus, determined to
take revenge for his fathers death.255
can be provoked by the violent anger a person feels upon seeing his
rival. In front of Euripides, Aeschylus displays his fury by rolling his eyeballs,
which is a sign of brief mental trouble.256 can also result from anger
related to the impetuous desires of love.257 Finally, is used to express
the furious anger of a noble person, such as Lycurgus, son of the king Dryas,
hostile to Dionysos cult.258
Corporal desire is considered as a source of and passion (), to
which all human souls are subject. This avoids Hades retaining them in the
Underworld by chaining them with the desire of virtue.259
In intemperate people comes from a violent pleasure. The madness
manifests itself in furious and dreadful cries.260
When caused by love, indicates a lovers fury that may provoke the fear
of the beloved.261 Love and the resulting furore are replaced by reason () and
wisdom () when the lover ceases loving. In this sense the opposites
of love and madness are seen as reason and wisdom, respectively.262
resulting from emotion affects both divine and human beings. By
contrast, as a result of sexual desire and the pleasure of love, violently
attacks the souls of mortals.
In a martial context, can indicate an unwise military tactic. This usage
occurs twice in Herodotus. The Persians, preparing for the imminent arrival of
328
the Athenians, observed that they came on the run without cavalry or archers.
This tactic was judged by the Persians as a frenzy that would cause their utter
destruction.263 Xerxes men also consider the offensive of the Greeks to be
madnsess, since they have only a few ships.264
Used with a pejorative meaning, refers to religious, familial, and social
turpitude.
In Aristophanes, religious madness possesses a contradictory aspect. Indeed,
refers to committing impious acts, denying Zeus existence, or, on the
other hand, deep devotion to him. At Thesm. 680, indicates a
demented person committing sacrileges. At Nub. 83233 alludes to
Strepsiades declaration that the world is ruled by chaos, Zeus having been
dethroned. By contrast, at Pax 65 refers to the pious attitude of Trygaeus
who kept muttering to himself about how he could ever get even with Zeus.
In a family context, is used with regard to either the madness of husbands when their wives are away from home265 (see above, p. 318) or the series
of murders committed in the royal Mycenaean family, i.e., Iphigeneias sacrifice
by her father and then his assassination by Clytemnestra as vengeance for her
daughters death.266 Also, a fathers neglecting the education of his children for
the sake of wealth is considered madness.267
In a moral and social context, can exert a beneficial or maleficent
influence. As wisdom and passion, beneficial madness gives birth to moral
qualities, such as power () and bravery (). These qualities are,
respectively, opposed to force (`) and courage () resulting from
nature and good nourishment (o` ) of the body and
soul.268 With a maleficent aspect, madness indicates behaviour against moral
and social principles. comes from degenerating courage, which leads
to moral decadence.269 As unethical behaviour, madness is compatible with
licentiousness and violence.270
Within a society, destructive is equal to ,
the primary cause of
bad actions271 and a corrupted lifestyle.272 When accompanied by a maleficent
spirit (), madness causes unjust financial conditions, with bad
people becoming rich by unjust gains, while others who are honest suffer from
hunger.273 Moreover, madness abolishes moral values in a society. Under
the effects of madness, citizens deny the just politics that their city follows in
honouring gods.274 In addition, madness provokes a strong feeling of getting
corrupted by Sophists education.275
Innovations in art are constantly parodied by Aristophanes. At Vesp. 1486,
hints at madness in Lovecleon dressed up in Polyphemus clothing and
performing a grotesque dance parodying Euripides Cyclops.276 Aristophanes
intends to satirize the poets coming after Phrynichos for having introduced into
tragedy new dances with contortions and pirouettes.
Destructive madness plays a role auxiliary to Love ( ), nourished and
growing from other desires. In its most advanced stages, Love creates a wild
and uncontrolled insanity so that if it finds any shameful opinions or appetites in
329
the lover, it slays them and pushes them out until it purges his soul of sobriety
and infects it with frenzy. This is the generation of the tyrannical man, who
exercises power in a cruel, unreasonable and arbitrary way.277
When they held power, the Thirty Tyrants recast laws, including one
regarding the social status of the citizens suffering from . Until then,
Athenian law had authorized all citizens to offer their goods to anyone they
wanted unless the givers were mad, weakened by old age or influenced by a
woman. This clause was abolished by the Thirty Tyrants in order to deprive
sycophants of all kinds of actions regarded as undesirable.278
In conclusion, is a mental trouble caused by ferocious or agreeable
affective states and also by pathological disorders, in which case it can be predicted and healed by a doctor. Divine beneficial madness grants people poetic
gifts and happiness. In contrast, divine maleficent madness is destructive
and is inflicted on those the god intends to punish. The pernicious aspect of
, as insane misconduct, manifests to the detriment of religious, moral and
social values.
Contrary to the usages of in texts from the archaic period, usages in
classical times are more frequent and richer in connotation. In the totality
of usages, only the emotional and divine aspects of madness are common to
both eras.
330
sometimes loquacious.290 The heat can attack the seat of intelligence, i.e., the
breast and heart ( ), producing madness or inspiration. This is
the case with sibyls, seers and all possessed people whose psychic state can be
explained by a natural temperament and not by a disease.291 We may observe
that Aristotle does not consider prophetic dementia as a divine gift, but rather
the result of a pathological cause.
In conclusion, Hippocrates and Aristotle lay stress on pathological causes of
madness. Also, Hippocrates singles out its recoverable and beneficial aspect. In
contrast, Aristophanes describes only the physical signs of madness.
Ritual dementia manifests in bacchic transports () and all kinds
of mad dances inspired by Dionysos, who seeks to take revenge for Heres
deranged judgement.292 Wine and religious dancing represent two great benefits
given by Dionysos to mankind.293
With an expressive connotation, indicates those who feel a strong
and violent emotion. Their inclination to anger displays exaltation rather than
courage.294 Moreover, makes reference to both agreeable feelings,
such as the pleasure of love (the most furious)295 and great psychic suffering.
Indeed, the greatest and most violent pleasures cause mad pains that disturb
the human soul.296
Madness and genius are considered as creative poetic impulses. Skills in
poetry are granted to naturally gifted men and to the exalted who abandon
themselves to poetic delirium.297
In reference to the art of speech, can describe a speaker formulating
contradictory arguments so that he may not succeed in convincing his
interlocutor.298
In a social context, alludes to thoughts and actions contrary to social
conventions, even considered as violent.299 Moreover, described
the grotesque dance performed by Lovecleon, disguised in Polyphemus, to
parody Euripides Cyclops.300
In the light of the usages of indicating a madman and and
expressing madness, we observe that mental trouble may be caused by
genetic disorders. Madness manifests itself in unreflecting feelings as well as
by unreasoned thoughts and actions. In contrast to the maleficent aspect of
madness, a beneficial one results in poetic skill.
331
In the archaic period, can indicate a demented woman, e.g,. the goddess
Demeter driven mad upon seeing Hermes,309 and Hecuba upon hearing of
Hectors death.310
In the classical period, makes reference to the Bacchants or Maenads
from Asia, Dionysos devoted companions, who compose the Chorus in
Euripides play of the same name.311 also describes the Erinyes who
resemble Dionysiac maenads in their wild appearance, their violent dancing
and their mercilessness towards those who offend them (Sommerstein, 1989:
174). One of their tasks is to watch the dead.312
can indicate a noble woman, such as Cassandra, transported by
prophetic delirium inspired by Apollo (Perdicoyianni, 1992: 60).313 We should
also note an adjectival use of indicating the bird of love delirium that
Aphrodite first brought to humans.314
As a substantive, / generally indicates a woman or group of
women under the influence of prophetic, ritual dementia.
(Aeolian, Dorian: ),
In the archaic period, (Meillet, 1932: 1302) indicates a raving
woman315 or a raving heart.316
332
At Eur. Suppl. 485, the term is used in reference to the Greeks raging with
the spear.
333
The word is used in Aeschylus and Euripides. In the former, it is used to indicate
Oedipus family, hated by the gods.331 In the latter, Io uses to refer to
Creusa as being in a fit of divine madness because she claims that she is his
mother.332 Also, describes Orestes rage, sent by the Eumenides.333
Used metaphorically, refers to Helens fatal destiny.334
In short, is used as qualifier indicating divine and destructive
madness.
H
In Aristophanes, ` refers to a sun-crazed cicada.335
334
335
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336
Notes
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