ENVIRONMENTALISM: A GLOBAL HISTORY (PART 2)

PART II- ENVIRONMENTALISMS SECOND WAVE

The Green Agenda of the first waves was relegated to the margins of public life
by an event of a global consequence The Second World War (political
situation across the world-victory of Good (democracy) over Evil
(authoritarian fascist) Indias freedom-other nations too). There was a preoccupation with productivity and production,-developed/developing nations)
1941-American President (Roosevelt) Franklin R. spoke of a world founded on 4
essential freedoms- freedom of expression and worship, freedom from want and
fear- a decade later it seemed as if the 4 freedoms most cherished by the
Affluent Society' were:
Freedom to produce,
Freedom to consume,
Freedom to get rich,
Freedom to get richer!
The goal in developing countries was removal of poverty- Leaders like Nehru in
India, Sukarno in Indonesia, Nasser in Egypt believed in development- rapid
Industrialization would end poverty and unemployment and make for a strong
and self-reliant society. Thus called for intensive use of nature and natural
resourcesthe earth is infinitely blessed with natural riches (Henry
Morgenthau U.S Secretary of Treasury 1945 at the time of founding the World
Bank)
In this way the prospect of unending Economic growth promised to the people of
North and the prospect of becoming like America, offered to developing and
under developed countries.- Science looked upon as an endless frontier
technology as an inexhaustible resource.
A discordant voice came from Berkeley Geographer Carl Sauer We have not
learnt the difference between Yield and loot
F.F Schumacher: German Economist believed that the ideology of economic
expansion had legitimized the exploitation of non-renewable resources such as
coal and oil. Man had lived off his income and is now forcing himself into natures
larder and emptying it out with increasing speed every year. This would surely
lead to self- destruction. (Mumford) he deplored the rule of power, prestige,
profit. Love must take the lead only then will the earth and life on it be safe
again.
Mira Behn (Madeline Slade) Gandhijis discipline her primary concern was with
the rehabilitation of the village economy but was worried by the way in which
nature was being plundered and despoiled and disorganized by man. She
stressed the need to understand and study natures balance and develop our
lives within her laws, if we have survive as a physically healthy and morally
decent species. This phase of Ecological innocence stretched from the end of
S.W.W to the last quarter of 1962.
THE ECOLOGY OF AFFLUENCE.
It was in this year the second wave took off the medium being a book (1962)
described as a Bible and a founding event of modern environmentalism. This
landmark book SILENT SPRING was the work of Rachael Carson a biologist. It

was a book on pesticide pollution.-The central problem was the contamination of

mans total environment that can cause great harm. These chemicals such as
D.D.T (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) an insecticide that had found favor
among farmers and scientists. Though used for a worthy purpose to increase
food production by eliminating pests, these had now become elixirs of death.
Chemicals applied to plants and trees, slowly leached into the soil and water thus
entering the food chain-passing from one organism to another-from insects and
birds to fish and animals, they went on to enter the human body in small doses.
Thus these chemicals posed a danger to diverse forms of life. The title Silent
Spring refers to the death of the Robin (birds) in parts of New England. They
heralded the coming of spring. Now spring comes unheralded, early mornings
are silent. She speaks of the Eagle kills (American national bird) and the Salmon
deaths before arriving finally at the threat to human life though chemical
ingestion, illustrated by the increasing incidence of cancer. Silent Spring helped
environmentalist that, nature was an intricate web of life whose interwoven
strands lead from microbes to man. This called for a modest, gentle and cautious
attitude towards nature. The book made people rethink-The federal Government
outlawed the use of D.D.T and a Pesticide Control Act was passed in 1972 and a
Toxic substances control Act 1974 which monitored the use of chemicals. The
impact of this book was not confined to the US alone. It was translated into 12
languages and there was a resurgence of environmentalist in Europe. Rachael
Carson wrote Silent Spring as if unaware of the first wave of environmentalism
and the important contributions from Marsh, Muir, and Leopold. Therefore it is
referred to as the Age of Ecological Innocence, which seems to have effectively
wiped away the memory and heritage of the first wave of environmentalism.
WAVES WITHIN THE WAVE.
Carson inspired a lot of environmental debated in the 1960s and 1970s and
several biologist wrote extensively on varied aspects, The Destruction of
California (Dasmann), The population bomb (Ehrlich), The tragedy of the
Commons (Hardin), in the UK the first to ring alarm bells were F.Fraser Darling,
C.H. Waddington, Eric Ashby and Julian Huxley all biologists with an interest in
protecting the environment. An Economist E.F. Schumacher in 1973 published
Small is Beautiful which expressed the need to use machines where the
production process would be cheap, use little energy and be sensitive to the
environment. He was influenced by Gandhiji.
Thus in both Europe and North America there was a lot of environmental
concern, many works, some scholarly others passimate. Many environmental
activists were considered by the dominant ruling ideologies as backwardlooking reactionaries, prophets of doom (the Socialists and Economists).
Ecologist Barry Commoner wrote that economic motivation resulted in antiecological changes in technology and production since the Second World War.
Spanish scholar Juan Martinez Alier coined the term effluents of affluence to
refer to the changes that have turned the nations factories, farms, vehicles and
shops into seed-beds of pollution: e.g. nitrates from fertilizers, phosphates from
detergents, toxic residues from pesticides.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT: From Ideas to Activism: in the US and
Europe.

From 1969 there is a change in activism and the approaches adopted. Earlier
activists used the power of their words to persuade people to join or follow
them. Some worked closely with politicians and public officials. Contemporary
environmentalism tended to resort to more militant forms of action. There were
several movements each having a distinct identity: Feminist movements, Civil
rights movement, environmental movements. There were marches and
processions. Earth Day was held on April 22nd 1970 described as the largest
organized demonstration in human history.
Swedish sociologist Andrew Jamison has written about the new social
movements that were the work of the young people impatient with the political
methods of the elders it was a Revolt of the Young.
Environmentalism steadily grew in support and influence. As affluent societies
grew, its members wanted more food to consume. There was a shift to the 5 day
week. Consumers had both money and means to travel. There was a growing
interest in the wild and beautiful to relax, nature being viewed as one more
good to be consumed. In 1970s and 1980s environmentalists relied on lawyers
and scientists who would work with, rather work against the industry and
government. Legislations were drafted to protect nature or control effluents.
Over a period of time the routinization and professionalization has in recent
years generated a counter-movement---a struggle to return environmentalism to
its confrontational past. In US, this radical reaction was given by Dave Foreman,
founder of Earth First! According to him many environmentalists had begun to
resemble bureaucrats and this needed to change. In Britain, Chris Maile
influenced by Gandhiji returned to their half forgotten tradition of dissent and
moral authority.
RADICAL AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTALISM.
There are two legitimate claimants to the radical (purity and militancy) label.
The first strand in the wilderness movement is known as DEEP ECOLOGY. Its
origin dates to an essay by a Norwegian; Arn Naess (1972) who urged
environmentalists to embrace an ethic termed biospheric egalitarianism that
places humans on a more or less equal footing with other species. This would be
truly a deep ecology in contrast to the shallow ecology which is only concerned
pollution and resource depletion. This ethic found followers with the scholarly
community. A new journal Environmental Ethics influenced a lot of debates in
the academic discipline of philosophy. Several activists also took it up very
enthusiastically. (North America)- The Canadian province of British Columbia
(militant efforts to defend the wild)blockaded logging roads, with fallen trees,
boulders and then own bodies, dangling from trees 100 feet off the ground etc.
Deep ecologists considered themselves as the intellectual, spiritual and political
vanguard of American environmentalism. However then, critics accused them of
ignoring problems of social inequality both within the countries of the North and
between the North and the South. They speak of a more radical strand the
Second strandEnvironmental Justice Movement while Deep ecology was
rooted in the wild. Environmental justice was firmly rooted in human
inhabitations. The threats it fears are toxic waste dumps and landfills, excretions
of the affluence e.g. Love Canal (New York) recipient of 43 million pounds of
waste produced by Hooker Chemicals. Love Canal passes through a white area

but the toxic waste sites are located in areas inhabited by the minority
communities. African-American has been put at risk due to the waste dumps and
landfills.
Sociologist Robert Bullard was the first to raise his voice against this problem of
effluent discriminations. He found that in the city of Houston where Whites
outnumber the Blacks, 3 out of 4 disposal sites had been placed in Black
neighborhoods. This did give rise to movements, protests, demonstrations,
campaigns and lawsuits against the dangerous dump-sites and landfills often
making industry and government accountable. Women have played a leading
role for which the health of their children was not a negotiable category. A
coordinating body Citizens Clearing House for Hazardous Waste (CCHW) along
with activist Lois Gibbs outlined alternatives to production and dispersal of
toxics, the FOUR Rs--- Recycling, Reduction, Reuse and Reclamation, leading to a
new reorientation of American environmentalism. The new anti-toxics
movement was rooted in peoples immediate experience and comprised of the
working classes and low income people. The principle of Social Justice became
important.
THE GERMAN GREENS:
Origin can be traced to the 1960s. After the Second World War, the ruling
Christian Democratic Union urged people to forget the past and work to building
an affluent society. In 1979 a Green party was formed. In 1978 a group of
environmentalists taking part in elections in Germany put forward candidates
under the Green List. The German Greens stand out for their political victories
and for the moral challenge they offer to the governing beliefs of Industrial
civilization. Indian Scholar Saral Sarkar a resident of Germany observes that the
BIs (Burger Initiative- Citizens actions) passed through 3 distinct phases:
i)
From 1969-1972 they operated as one point actions ( local efforts
to stop damaging industries rehabilitate battered women and drug addicts,
construct schools, playgrounds without waiting for the Government to do so
ii)
After oil price hike in 1973, Western Germany expanded is nuclear
industry. Theme was Ecology- controversy over nuclear power (fears of the
contribution of nuclear plants to pollution, their links to the armament industry
and the secrecy around them). There was opposition to Atomic energy.
iii)
From 1977 efforts resulted in an Alternative Political Alliance (Green
Party). The Greens have contributed by drawing attention to the rights of other
nations and future generations and the disadvantaged section of their society i.e.
Women industrialized nations were urged to curb their voracious appetite (they
consume of the worlds energy and resources) and allow the southern nations
to grow out of poverty. The Green Party (Green Femminism included) has
transformed the political landscape of Germany. This is considered to be the
finest achievement of the second wave of environmentalism.
THE SOUTHERN CHALLENGE:
Societies of the third world (developing nations) though far flung and richly
varied among themselves are united by the poverty of the masses of their
peoples:

1) Penan- Malaysia (community of hunters and farmers)- their forests were

encroached by commercial loggers, their rivers, exposed their soils and
destroyed plants and animals. Penan struggle support from Green peace,
Rainforest action network.
2) Sardar Sarovar Dam- (Narmada) 460 feet (Medha Patkar)
3)
Thailand (1970) - forest department initiated conversions of acres of
natural forests into mono-cultural plantations of eucalyptus- peasants opposed
these plantations.
4)
Nigeria (1995) military dictatorship hung 9 dissenters for drawing
attention on the impact of oil-drilling by Royal- Shell on the Ogoni tribe.
5) Kenyas Green belt movement- founded by Waangari Matthai (her countrys
first woman professor) urged women to protect and improve their environment.
Starting with 7 saplings planted on 5th June 1977 (World Environment Day) the
movement had distributed 7,000,000 saplings by 1992 in 22 districts (Kenya).
There were varied other forms of social action---struggles of dam displaced
people (Narmada) peasants, fisher folk against environmental degradation.
There were also struggle for environmental renewal, soil conservation etc. Most
struggles and movements highlighted the problems and consequences on the
local communities as it was a fact that environmental degradation often
intensities Economic deprivation. In India social protests took various forms--Dharna (sit down strike) Pradarshan mass processions, Hartal (general
strike) Rasta Roko (transport blockade) Bhook Hartal (hunger strike), Gherao,
Jail Bharo Andolan.
One important feature of the environmentalism of the poor was the role of
women (India, Malaysia, Brazil, Kenya, Mexico) - Women and nature (Ecofeminism).
March 27th 1973. (Chipko Movement) Mandal (a remote Himalayan village in the
Upper Gangetic plain) episode (India)
In Brazil- Amazon by Francisco Chico Mendes- labor organizer who achieved
international fame for promoting the Ecology of Justice in a region devastated
by economic exploitation. From the Mid 1970s the rubber tappers have their
union. In 1987 they joined the inhabitants of the Amazon to form a Forest
Peoples Alliance to defend the forest and land rights of its members. In
December 1988 (22nd) Chico Mendes was shot dead.
1)
The Northern Environmentalism highlighted the significance of value
change (shift to post materialism), The southern movements seem to be rooted
in material conflicts with claims to economic justice (rights to natural resources
of poorer communities)
2)
The Southern groups have been more adversarial with regard to their
government (opposing laws and policies considered unjust and destructive).
While the northern groups have been constructive i.e. they have worked with
their governments in promoting benign laws and policies
3)
Northern Greens have been attentive to the rights of the victimized or
endangered species (animals and plants), whilst the Southern Greens have been
very alert to the rights of the less fortunate members of their own species
(human beings).

However all environmentalists have had to intend with the antienvironmental lobby. In the US its the businessman and Industrialist whilst in
India and Malaysia they are joined by state officials and technocrats, with both
private and public promoters of development attacking environmentalists as
motivated by foreigners, as creating law and order problems.
SOCIALISM AND ENVIRONMENTALISM
Early Soviet Environmentalism
1st World countries comprised the affluent societies of Europe and North
America along with Japan, Australia and New Zealand.
3rd World: Poor nations---Africa, Asia, Latin America
2nd World: Neither rich nor poor, who before the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989,
were committed to the Ideology of State Socialism: e.g. Soviet Union.
After the Bolshevik Revolution (1917) the leaders believed that in order to catch
up with the affluent societies they needed massive Industrialization. Joseph
Stalin wanted this to be achieved in 10 years. In 1920s technology dominated
nature, planning helped to extract from nature all that man required and perhaps
even more. In the first 10 years of communist rule a conservation movement
began to take shape. Soviet scientists were asking for sites of virgin nature to be
selected on ecological criteria, to act as a baseline from which to judge the
suitability of human intervention in other unprotected areas. (Zapovedniki or
protected areas)
1920s seem to be the Golden Age for soviet science and for soviet
environmentalism as well. This got a set back in 1929-1934 (1st five year plan).
Ecologists and Conservationists were attacked and criticized, no need for a
Saccharinesentimental approach to nature as it prohibited further
development of socialism.
China: the Three Gorges ProjectIn 1920sA dam across 3 Gorges on the
Yangtze river (185 meters high i.e. 620 feet) communist China punished
dissenters. (In 1989 scholars-journalists published a book- Yangtze! Yangtze!
which criticized the project)
Even in 1993 (August) villagers in Gansu province protested against
contamination of their water by a chemical plant, leading to death of fish and
livestock and causing respiratory illness. Their complaints were disregarded and
when the peasants took to the streets, police were called. They killed two
protestors and injured several others. Several attempts at creating awareness
and creation of non-political groups of nature lovers have not been fruitful.
Affirmative voices are allowed to be heard but the negative voices are often
suppressed.
Several protests and movements did take place in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and
Romania and later once again in Soviet Union when Mikhail Gorbachev came to
power with his policies of Glasnost (openness in 1985). From the mid 70s
writers and scientists slowly criticized the foul smelling residues of unchecked
industrialization. This criticism increased in the 80s (accident at the Chernobyl)
nuclear plantbiggest disaster in planned development Green Movements have

been strong in India and most influential in the United States and Western
Europe where there is a great commitment to political democracy.
ONE WORLD OR TWO?

The World Wildlife Fund celebrated its 25th anniversary in September 1986
in a novel way in a small town in ItalyAssisi. It brought together representative
of five of the worlds great religionsChristianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism,
Judaismto harness these diverse and widespread energies towards a collective
goal. The protection of One Earth which is the abode for us all.

By 1970s environmentalism had emerged as a world wide movement

By 1980s to the list of regional and local problems were added those that
were global. (Climate changes, green house effect, emissions) etc.

In 1989- Time magazine chose the Earth as the Planet of the Year calling
for protecting the eartha universal crusade to save the planet

1987- Norwegian Prime Minister Go. Harlem Brundtland presented a

report on Sustainable development.

1992 Earth Summit was held in Rio De Janeiro (June) United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) 180 countries
participated. It was the largest international conference ever held
Three major problems were discussed
1) Deforestation. 2)Climate Change 3) Loss of Biodiversity
The question of climate change was very significant and it was recommended
that each country agree to stabilize its carbon emissions by an agreed cut-off
date say 2015. This was attacked by southern environmentalistsAnil Agarwal,
Sunita Narain. (Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi) They made a
distinction between Survival Emissions of the poor and Luxury Emissions of
the rich.
The summit was also said to be a Forest convention which sought to strengthen
global control over forest resources. There were differences between the
Northern and Southern environmentalists, while:
I)
The Northern environmentalists were in favor of an international
management regime. Their southern counterparts insisted that National control
must make way for local control.
II)
Disputes arose over a proposed biodiversity treaty which was
considered to be favorable to the northern activists.
III)
Many felt that the environmental crisis was precipitated by the
wasteful and excessive consumption of the North (80% resources being used by
20% population in Europe, North America, Oceania and Japan).
Despite all the views and differences at Rio there is something that
unites different kinds of environmentalists The Idea of Restraint.
THREE GORGES DAM
he Three Gorges Dam is a hydroelectric dam that spans the Yangtze River by the
town of Sandouping, located in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province, China.

The Three Gorges Dam is the world's largest power station in terms of installed
capacity (22,500 MW). In 2012, the amount of electricity the dam generated was
similar to the amount generated by the Itaipu Dam.[2][3]
Except for a ship lift, the dam project was completed and fully functional as of
July 4, 2012,[4][5] when the last of the main water turbines in the underground
plant began production. Each main water turbine has a capacity of 700 MW.[3][6]
The dam body was completed in 2006. Coupling the dam's 32 main turbines with
two smaller generators (50 MW each) to power the plant itself, the total electric
generating capacity of the dam is 22,500 MW.[3][7][8]
As well as producing electricity, the dam is intended to increase the Yangtze
River's shipping capacity and reduce the potential for floods downstream by
providing flood storage space. The Chinese government regards the project as a
historic engineering, social and economic success,[9] with the design of state-ofthe-art large turbines,[10] and a move toward limiting greenhouse gas
emissions.[11] However, the dam flooded archaeological and cultural sites and
displaced some 1.3 million people, and is causing significant ecological changes,
including an increased risk of landslides.[12] The dam has been a controversial
topic both domestically and abroad.[13]
Emissions
According to the National Development and Reform Commission of China,
366 grams of coal would produce 1 kWh of electricity during 2006.[61] At full
power, Three Gorges reduces coal consumption by 31 million tonnes per year,
avoiding 100 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions,[62] millions of tonnes of
dust, one million tonnes of sulfur dioxide, 370,000 tonnes of nitric oxide,
10,000 tonnes of carbon monoxide, and a significant amount of mercury.[63]
Hydropower saves the energy needed to mine, wash, and transport the coal from
northern China.
From 2003 to 2007, power production equaled that of 84 million tonnes of
standard coal, reducing carbon dioxide by 190 million tonnes, sulfur dioxide by
2.29 million tonnes, and nitrogen oxides by 980,000 tonnes.[64]
The dam increased the Yangtze's barge capacity sixfold, reducing carbon dioxide
emission by 630,000 tonnes. From 2004 to 2007 a total of 198 million tonnes of
goods passed through the ship locks. Compared to using trucking, barges
reduced carbon dioxide emission by ten million tonnes and lowered costs by
25%.[64]
Erosion and sedimentation
Two hazards are uniquely identified with the dam.[65] One is that sedimentation
projections are not agreed upon, and the other is that the dam sits on a seismic
fault. At current levels, 80% of the land in the area is experiencing erosion,
depositing about 40 million tons of sediment into the Yangtze annually.[66]
Because the flow is slower above the dam, much of this sediment will now settle
there instead of flowing downstream, and there will be less sediment
downstream.
The absence of silt downstream has three effects:

Some hydrologists expect downstream riverbanks to become more

vulnerable to flooding.[67]

Shanghai, more than 1,600 km (990 mi) away, rests on a massive

sedimentary plain. The "arriving siltso long as it does arrivestrengthens the

bed on which Shanghai is built... the less the tonnage of arriving sediment the
more vulnerable is this biggest of Chinese cities to inundation..."[68]

Benthic sediment buildup causes biological damage and reduces

aquatic biodiversity.[69]
Earthquakes and landslides
Erosion in the reservoir, induced by rising water, causes frequent major
landslides that have led to noticeable disturbance in the reservoir surface,
including two incidents in May 2009 when somewhere between 20,000 and
50,000 cubic metres (26,000 and 65,000 cu yd) of material plunged into the
flooded Wuxia Gorge of the Wu River.[70] Also, in the first four months of 2010,
there were 97 significant landslides.[71]
Waste management
Zigui County seat source water protection area in Maoping Town, a few km
upstream of the dam
The dam catalyzed improved upstream wastewater treatment around Chongqing
and its suburban areas. According to the Ministry of Environmental Protection,
as of April 2007 more than 50 new plants could treat 1.84 million tonnes per
day, 65% of the total need. About 32 landfills were added, which could handle
7,664.5 tonnes of solid waste every day.[72] Over one billion tons of wastewater
are released annually into the river,[66] which was more likely to be swept away
before the reservoir was created. This has left the water looking stagnant,
polluted and murky.[71]
Forest cover
In 1997 the Three Gorges area had 10% forestation, down from 20% in the
1950s.[66]
Research by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization research
suggested that the Asia-Pacific region would, overall, gain about 6,000 square km
of forest by 2008. That is quite a turnaround from the 13,000 square km net loss
of forest each year in the 1990s. The main reason is China's huge reforestation
effort. This accelerated after the 1998 Yangtze River floods convinced the
government that it must restore tree cover, especially in the Yangtze's basin
upstream of the Three Gorges Dam.[73]
Wildlife
Concerns about the potential wildlife impact of the Dam predate the National
People's Congress's approval in 1992.[74] This region has long been known for its
rich biodiversity. It is home to 6,388 species of plants, which belong to 238
families and 1508 genera. Of these plant species, 57 percent are endangered.[75]
These rare species are also used as ingredients in traditional Chinese
medicines.[76] Already, the percentage of forested area in the region surrounding
the Three Gorges Dam has dropped from twenty percent in 1950 to less than ten
percent as of 2002,[77] negatively affecting all plant species in this locality. The
region also provides habitats to hundreds of freshwater and terrestrial animal
species.[66] Freshwater fish are especially affected by dams due to changes in the
water temperature and flow regime. Many other fish are hurt in the turbine
blades of the hydroelectric plants as well. This is particularly detrimental to the
ecosystem of the region because the Yangtze River basin is home to 361 different
fish species and accounts for twenty-seven percent of all endangered freshwater
fish species in China.[78] Other aquatic species have been endangered by the dam,
particularly the Baiji, or the Chinese River Dolphin,[66] now extinct. In fact,

Government Chinese scholars even claim that the Three Gorges Dam directly
caused the extinction of the Baiji.[79]
Of the 3,000 to 4,000 remaining critically endangered Siberian Crane, a large
number currently spend the winter in wetlands that will be destroyed by the
Three Gorges Dam.[80] The dam contributed to the functional extinction of the
Baiji Yangtze river dolphin. Though it was close to this level even at the start of
construction, the dam further decreased its habitat and increased ship travel,
which are among the factors causing what will be its ultimate demise. In
addition, populations of the Yangtze sturgeon are guaranteed to be "negatively
affected" by the dam.[81]
CEQA
The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) is a California statute passed in
1970,[1] shortly after the United States federal government passed the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), to institute a statewide policy of
environmental protection. CEQA does not directly regulate land uses, but instead
requires state and local agencies within California to follow a protocol of analysis
and public disclosure of environmental impacts of proposed projects and adopt
all feasible measures to mitigate those impacts.[2] CEQA makes environmental
protection a mandatory part of every California state and local agency's decision
making process. It has also become the basis for numerous lawsuits concerning
public and private projects.
The purpose of CEQA is to:

Disclose to the public the significant environmental effects of a

proposed discretionary project, through the preparation of an Initial Study (IS),
Negative Declaration (ND), or Environmental Impact Report (EIR).

Prevent or minimize damage to the environment through

development of project alternatives, mitigation measures, and mitigation
monitoring.

Disclose to the public the agency decision-making process utilized

to approve discretionary projects through findings and statements of overriding
consideration.

Enhance public participation in the environmental review process

through scoping meetings, public notice, public review, hearings, and the judicial
process.

Improve interagency coordination through early consultations,

scoping meetings, notices of preparation, and State Clearinghouse review.