Chapter 2.

Particle Kinematics

Chapter 2

Particle Kinematics
Chapter Objectives

To introduce the concepts of position, displacement, velocity,

and acceleration.

To study particle motion along a straight line and represent this

motion graphically.

To investigate particle motion along a curved path using

different coordinate systems.

To present an analysis of dependent motion of two particles.

To examine the principles of relative motion of two particles

using translating axes.

2.1 Introduction
Kinematics is that branch of dynamics which deals with the description of the motion of
points and rigid bodies without regard for the forces causing that motion. It is purely
descriptive in nature and does not deal with issues of cause and effect. Kinematics is often
referred to as the geometry of motion. It is based purely upon definitions. No physical laws,
i.e., observed relations are required. However, a thorough working knowledge of kinematics
is an absolute prerequisite to kinetics which is the study of the relationships between motion
the corresponding forces which either cause or accompany the motion.
The study of kinematics will start in this chapter by first discussing the motion of particle.
Recall that a particle, or a point mass, is a body whose physical dimensions are so small
compared with the radius of curvature of its path. It is an idealized model of a collection of
matter in which the matter is assumed to all be located at a point. Hence we can treat the
motion of the particle as that of a point.
When dealing with the motion of points, three kinematical concepts will be of interest. Each is
represented by a vector:
(i). Position represented by a position vector
(ii). Rate of change of position represented by a velocity vector
(iii). Rate of change of rate of change of position represented by an acceleration vector.
Each of these will be defined in this chapter and a variety of relations will be derived which

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

can simplify finding expressions for these quantities. Some of these derived relations will be
restricted to a special motion when the particle is confined to a specified path and the motion
is said to be constrained. The example is the rectilinear motion i.e. straight line motion. If
there are no physical guides, the motion is general in nature, i.e., is not restricted to a
particular type, it is said to be unconstrained.
Various coordinate systems can be used to describe the position of the particle at any time. It
can be rectangular, cylindrical, spherical coordinate system. The position of a point may also
be described by measurement along the tangent and normal to the curve of the particle path. It
is worth to note that in the case of plane motion where all movement occurs in or can be
represented as occurring in a single plane, the position of a point can be described by only two
coordinate parameters. In three dimensional or spatial cases the number of coordinate
parameters should be three.
Moreover the motion of particles may be described in fixed coordinate system with fixed
reference axes. It this case

we provide the absolute motion analysis. When we

use

coordinates measured from moving reference axes, the relative motion analysis is provided.

2.2 Rectilinear Kinematics

We will begin our study of dynamics by discussing the kinematics of a particle that moves
along a rectilinear or straight line path. Since a particle has a mass but negligible size and
shape we limit application to those objects that have dimensions that are of no consequence in
the analysis of the motion. In such problems, the motion of the body is characterized by
motion of its mass center and any rotation of the body is neglected. The kinematics of a
particle is characterized by specifying, at any given instant. the particle's position, velocity,
and acceleration.
Consider a particle P moving along a straight line, Fig 2.1. The path of the particle will be
defined using a single coordinate axis s. The origin O on the path is a fixed point and from
this point the position vector r is used to specify the location of the particle P at any given
instant t. Notice that r is always, along the s axis, and so its direction never changes. What
will change is its magnitude and its sense or arrowhead direction. For analytical work it is
therefore convenient to represent r by an algebraic scalar s, representing the position
coordinate of the particle. The magnitude of s (and r) is the distance from O to P, and the
sense (or arrowhead direction of r) is defined by the algebraic sign on s. Although the choice
is arbitrary, in this case s is positive since the coordinate axis is positive to the right of the
origin. Likewise, it is negative if the particle is located to the left of O.

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

The change in the position during the time interval t is called the displacement of the
particle. At time t+t the particle has moved from P to P', the displacement is r = r'-r.
Using algebraic scalars to represent r, we also have s = s- s.

Fig. 2.1
Note that in Fig.2.1 s is positive since the particle's final position is to the right of its initial
position, i.e., s' > s and the particle moved in the positive s-direction. Likewise, if the final
position is to the left of its initial position, s is negative that means the particle moved in the
negative s-direction. It is worthy to distinguish the displacement which is a vector quantity,
from the distance the particle travels. The distance traveled is always a positive scalar which
represents the total length of path over which the particle travels.
The average velocity of the particle during the interval t is the displacement divided by the
time interval or
vavg

r
t

(2.1)

If we take smaller and smaller values of t, the magnitude of s becomes smaller and smaller.
Consequently, the average velocity approaches the instantaneous velocity of the particle, or
r
dr
=
= r&
t 0 t
dt

v lim

(2.2)

Representing v as an algebraic scalar, we can also write

v

ds
= s&
dt

(2.3)

Thus the velocity is the time rate of change of the position coordinate s. Since dt is always
positive, the sign used to define the sense of the velocity is the same as that of ds. For
example, if the particle is moving to the right, Fig. 2.1, the velocity is positive; whereas if it is
moving to the left, the velocity is negative. The magnitude of the velocity is known as the
speed, and it is generally expressed in units of m/s. Occasionally, the term "average speed" is
used. The average speed is always a positive scalar and is defined as the total distance (which
is, clearly, a positive scalar), traveled by a particle, sT, divided by the elapsed time t, i.e.,
sT/t.

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

10

The average acceleration of the particle during the interval t is the change in its velocity
divided by the time interval or

aavg

v
t

(2.4)

Here v represents the difference in the velocity during the interval t. The instantaneous
acceleration at time t is found by taking smaller an smaller values of t and corresponding
smaller and smaller values of v so the average acceleration approaches the instantaneous
accelerations of the particle, or
a lim

t 0

v
dv
&
=
=v
t
dt

(2.5)

If using algebraic scalars we get

a=

dv
= v&
dt

(2.6)

Substituting Eq. (2.3) into this result, we can also write

d2s
&
a = 2 = s&
dt

(2.7)

Both the average and instantaneous acceleration can be either positive or negative. In
particular, when the particle is slowing down, or its speed is decreasing, it is said to be
decelerating. In the case in Fig. 2.1, if v ( the velocity at P) is less than v, and so v = v' - v
will be negative. Consequently, a will also be negative, and therefore it will act to the left, in
the opposite sense to the positive direction and also to v. Clearly, when the velocity is
constant, the acceleration is zero. Units commonly used to express the magnitude of
acceleration are m/s2.
A differential equation relating the displacement, velocity, and acceleration along the path
may be obtained by eliminating the time differential dt between Eqs. (2.3) and (2.7). We get
easily
a ds = v dv

(2.8)

Eqs. (2.3), (2.6) and (2.8) are the differential equations for the rectilinear motion of a particle.
Realize that although we can then establish another equation, it will not be independent of
Eqs. (2.3) and (2.6). Keep in mind also that vector and acceleration are actually vector. For
rectilinear motion where the direction of the motion is that of the given straight line-path, the
sense of the vector along the path is described by a plus or minus sign. In the treatment or
curvilinear motion

we will account for the change in direction of the velocity and

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

11

acceleration vectors as well as the change in magnitude.

If

the position coordinate s is known for all values of the time t, then successive

differentiation with respect to t gives the velocity v and acceleration a. However, in many
problems the functional relationship between position coordinate and time is unknown and we
must determine it by successive integration from the acceleration. Acceleration is determined
by the forces which act on moving. Depending on the nature of the forces, the acceleration
may be specified as a function of time, velocity, position coordinate, or as a combined
function of these quantities. For illustration we consider some special cases.
When the acceleration is constant, each of the three kinematic equations (2.3), (2.6) and (2.8)
may be integrated to obtain formulas that relate a v, s, and t. Assuming that initially v = v0
when t = 0, integrating Eq. (2.7) gives
v

v0

dv = adt

since a is constant we get

v = v0 + at

(2.9)

Similarly, assuming that initially s = s0 when t = 0, we can integrate Eq. (2.3)

s

s0

ds = (v0 at)dt

with assumption of constant acceleration a we get

s = s0 v0t +

2
at

(2.10)

We can get another equation by either solving for t in Eq. (2.9) and substituting into Eq.
(2.10), or integrating (2.8) with assumption that initially v = v0 at s = s0,
v2 = v02 + 2a(s - s0)

(2.11)

Keep in mind that this equation is not independent of Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10). Also, it is
important to remember that all these relations are necessarily restricted to the special case
where the acceleration is constant. The integration limits depend on the initial and final
conditions and for a given problem may be different from those used here. The magnitudes
and signs of s0, v0, and a used in the above three equations (2.9), (2.10), (2.11) are determined
from the chosen origin and positive direction of the s axis. A common example of constant
accelerated motion occurs when a body falls freely toward the earth. If air resistance is
neglected and the distance of fall is short, then the downward acceleration of the body when it
is close to the earth is constant and approximately 9.81 m/s2.

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

12

Now consider the case when the acceleration is given as a function of time, i.e. a=f(t).
Substitution of the function into Eq. (2.6) gives

f (t) =

dv
(2.12)
dt

Multiplying dt separates the variables and permits integrations. We get

t

v = v0 f (t)dt

(2.13)

From this integrated expression for v as a function of t the position coordinate s is obtained by
integrating Eq. (2.3), thus
t

ds = vdt
or
t

s = s0 vdt

(2.14)

If the indefinite integral is employed the ends condition are used to established the constants
of integration with results which are identical with those obtained by using the definite
integral. If desired, the displacement s may be obtained by a direct solution of second-order
&= f (t) obtained by substitution of f(t) into Eq. (2.7).
differential equation s&
Similarly, when the acceleration is given as a function of velocity a = f(v), substitution of the
function into Eq. (2.6) gives
f (v) =

dv
dt

Separating the variables and integrating yield

t

t dt =
0

dv

f (v)

(2.15)

v0

This result gives t as a function of v. Then it would be necessary to solve for v as a function of
t so that Eq. (2.3) can be integrated to obtain the position coordinate s as a function of t.
Alternatively, in this case, the function a = f(v) can be substituted into Eq. (2.8) giving
v dv = f(v) ds
Separating the variables yields
v

vdv
v f (v) s ds
0
0

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

13

Thus
v

vdv

f (v)

s = s0

(2.16)

v0

Surely, this form gives the position coordinate s in term of v without explicit reference to t.
In the case that acceleration is given as a function of displacement a = f(s), substitution of the
function into Eq. (2.8) and integrating give the form
v

v0

s0

vdv f (s)ds

Thus we get
s

v2 v02 2 f (s)ds

(2.17)

s0

Next we solve for v to give v = g(s) , a function of s. Then we can substitute ds/dt for v,
separate variables, and integrate in the form
s

ds
s g(s) 0 dt
0
Hence
t

ds

g(s)

(2.18)

s0

which gives t as a function of s. Lastly we can arrange to obtain the position coordinate s as a
function of t.
In each of the foregoing cases when the acceleration varies according to some functional
relationship, the ability to solve the equations by direct mathematical integration will depend
on the form of the function. In cases where the integration is difficult, numerical methods may
be used.
Important Points

Dynamics is concerned with bodies that have accelerated motion.

Kinematics is a study of the geometry of the motion.

Kinetics is a study of the forces that cause the motion.

Rectilinear kinematics refers to straight-line motion.

Speed refers to the magnitude of velocity.

Average speed is the total distance traveled divided by the total time. This is
different from the average velocity which is the displacement divided by the
time.

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

14

The acceleration, a = dv/dt, is negative when the particle is slowing down or

decelerating.

A particle can have an acceleration and yet have zero velocity.

The relationship it ads = vdv, is derived from a = dv/dt and v= ds/dt, by

eliminating dt.

In summary, the equations of rectilinear kinematics should be applied using the following
procedure
Coordinate System

Establish a position coordinate s along the path and specify its fixed origin and
positive direction.

Since motion is along a straight line, the particle's position, velocity. and
acceleration can be represented as algebraic scalars. For analytical work the
sense of s, v, and a is then determined from their algebraic signs.

The positive sense for each scalar can be indicated by an arrow shown alongside
each kinematic equation as it is applied.

Kinematic Equations

If a relationship is known between any two of the four variables a, v, s and t,

then a third variable can be obtained by using one of the kinematic equations,
ads = vdv, a = dv/dt and v= ds/dt which relates all three variables.

Whenever integration is performed, it is important that the position and velocity

be known at a given instant in order to evaluate either the constant of
integration if an indefinite integral is used, or the limits of integration if a
definite integral is used.

Remember that Eqs. (2.9) through (2.11) have only a limited use. Never apply
these equations unless it is absolutely certain that the acceleration is constant.

EXAMPLE 2.1
The car in Fig. 2.2 moves in a straight line such that for a short time its velocity is defined by
v = (3t2 + 2t) m/s, where t is in seconds. When t = 0, s = 0. Determine its position and
acceleration when t = 3 seconds.
v

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

15

Fig. 2.2
Solution
The position coordinate extends from the fixed origin O to the car, positive to the right. Now
we will now determine the position and acceleration of the car.
Since v = f(t), the car's position can he determined from v = ds/dt, since this equation relates v,
s, and t. Noting that s = 0 when t = 0, we have
ds
= 3t 2 2t
dt

v
Hence
s

ds
0

or

s=t +t

(3t

2t)dt

Note that rather than using definite limits on the integral the same result can be obtained by
evaluating a constant of integration. For example, integrating ds = (3t2+2t) dt yields
s = t3 + t2 + C
Using the initial condition that at t = 0, s = 0, we get C = 0.
Clearly, when t = 3s,
s = (3)3+(3)2 = 36 m
Similarly, knowing v = f(t), the acceleration is determined from a = dv/ dt, since this equation
relates a, v, and t.
a
Hence

dv
d
=
(3t2 2t)
dt
dt

a =6t +2

When t = 3 s, a = 6(3)+2 = 20 m/s2

Note that the formulas for constant acceleration cannot be used to solve this problem. Why?
EXAMPLE 2.2
A small projectile is fired vertically downward into a fluid medium with an initial velocity of
60 m/s. Due to the resistance of the fluid the projectile experiences a deceleration equal to
a = (-0.4v3) m/s2, where v is in m/s. Determine the projectile's velocity and position at t = 4 s
after it is fired.
Solution

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

16

Since the motion is downward, the position coordinate is positive downward, with origin
located at the surface of fluid medium. In this case a = f(v) and so we must determine the
velocity as a function of time using a = dv/dt, since this equation relates v, a, and t. (Note
again why we can not use the relation v = v0 + at). Separating the variables and integrating,
with v0 = 60 m/s when t = 0, yields
dv
= -0.4v3
dt

a
v

dv
60 0.4v3 = 0 dt
1 1 1 v
|
=t0

-0.4 -2 v2 v0
Hence

1
v
0.8t
2

(60)

1/ 2

m/s

Note that the positive root is taken, since the projectile is moving downward. When t = 4 s,
one gets easily
v = 0.559 m/s
Knowing v = f(t), we can obtain the projectile's position from v = dsldt, since this equation
relates s, v, and t. Using the initial condition s = 0, when t = 0, we have
1/ 2

ds
v
=
0.8t
2
dt
(60)

1
0 (60)2 0.8t

ds

1/ 2

dt

Hence
1
s

0.4

1
0.8t

2
(60)

1/ 2

1

60

When t = 4s, we get easily

s = 4.43 m

2.3 General Curvilinear Motion

Curvilinear motion occurs when the particle moves along a curved path. Since this path is
often described in three dimensions, vector analysis will be used to formulate the particle's

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

17

position, velocity, and acceleration. In this section the general aspects of curvilinear motion
are discussed, and in subsequent sections three types of coordinate systems often used to
analyze this motion will be introduced.
P
s
r
O
Fig. 2.3 Position
Consider a particle located at point P on a space curve defined by the path function s, Fig. 2.3.
The position of the particle, measured from a fixed point O, will be designated by the position
vector r = r(t). This vector is a function of time since, in general, both its magnitude and
direction change as the particle moves along the curve.
Suppose that during a small time interval t the particle moves a distance s along the curve
to a new position P', defined by r' = r + r, Fig. 2.4. The displacement r represents the
change in the particle's position and is determined by vector subtraction, i.e., r=r'-r.
P
r

r
O

s
P

Fig. 2.4 Displacement

Again, during the time t. the average velocity of the particle is defined as
vavg

r
t

(2.19)

The instantaneous velocity of the particle at time t is obtained by choosing shorter and shorter
time interval t and correspondingly shorter and shorter

vector increment r. The

instantaneous velocity is thus represented by the vector

d
r
=
r = r&
t 0 t
dt

v lim

(2.20)

As t and r become shorter it is clear that the direction of r approaches the tangent to the

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

18

curve at point P, therefore, the direction of v is also tangent to the curve, Fig. 2.5. The
magnitude of v, which is called the speed may be obtained by noting that the magnitude of the
displacement r is the length of the straight line segment from P' to P, Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.5 Velocity

Realizing that this length, r, approaches the arc length s as t 0. we have
r
s ds
= lim

= s&
t 0 t
t 0 t
dt

v lim

Thus. the speed can be obtained by differentiating the with respect to time the length s of the
arc described by the particle.
Consider the velocity v of the particle at time t and also its velocity v at a later time t + t ,
Fig. 2.6. The average acceleration of the particle during the time interval t is defined as the
quotient of v and t or
aavg

v
t

(2.21)

where v = v' - v.

Fig.2.6
To study this time rate of change, the two velocity vectors in Fig. 2.6 are plotted in Fig. 2.7
such that their tails are located at the fixed point O' and their arrowheads touch points on the
curve. This curve is called a hodograph, and when constructed, it describes the locus of points
for the arrowhead of the velocity vector in the same manner as the path s describes the locus
of points for the arrowhead of the position vector, Fig. 2.8.

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

19

Fig. 2.7

Fig. 2.8

This curve is called a hodograph of the motion, and when constructed, it describes the locus
of points for the arrowhead of the velocity vector in the same manner as the path s describes
the locus of points for the arrowhead of the position vector, Fig. 2.8.
The instantaneous acceleration at time t is obtained by choosing smaller and smaller value for
t and v in Eq. (2.21). It is clear that in the limit v will approach the tangent to the
hodograph, and so
v
dv
&
=
=v
t 0 t
dt

a lim

(2.22)

According to Eq. (2.20) we can also write this result as

a

d2r
dt 2

(2.23)

By definition of the derivative, a acts tangent to the hodograph, Fig. 2.8, and therefore, in
general, a is not tangent to the path of motion. To clarify this point, realize that v and
consequently a must account for the change made in both the magnitude and direction of the
velocity v as the particle moves from P to P', Fig. 2.6. Just a magnitude change increases (or
decreases) the "length" of v, and this in itself would allow a to remain tangent to the path.
However, in order for the particle to follow the path, the directional change always "swings"
the velocity vector toward the "inside" or "concave side" of the path. and therefore a cannot
remain tangent to the path. In conclusion. v is always tangent to the path and a is always
tangent to the hodograph.

2.4 Rectangular Components of Velocity and Acceleration

When the position of a particle P is described at any time instant by its rectangular
coordinates x, y and z, it is convenient to resolve the velocity v and the acceleration a of the
particle into rectangular components.

Fig. 2.9

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

20

In such case the motion of a particle is described along a path that is represented using a fixed
x, y, z frame of reference. At a given instant the particle P is at point (x, y, z) on the curved
path s, Fig. 2.9, its location is then defined by the position vector
r = xi + yj + zk

(2.24)

Because of the particle motion and the shape of the path, the x, y, z components of r are
generally all functions of time, i.e., x = x(t). y = y(t), z = z(t), so that r = r(t).
It is easy to determine the magnitude and direction of r. The direction of r is specified by the
components of the unit vector ur = r/r and the magnitude of r is defined as
r

x2 y2 z2

(2.25)

Fig. 2.10
The first time derivative of r yields the velocity v of the particle. Hence,
v=

d
d
d
d
r=
(x i) (y j) (z k)
dt
dt
dt
dt

It is necessary to account for changes in both the magnitude and direction of each of the
vector's components, therefore, the derivative of the i component of v is
d
dx
di
(xi)
ix
dt
dt
dt
The second term on the right side is zero, since the x, y, z reference frame is fixed, and
therefore the direction (and the magnitude) of i does not change with time. Differentiation of
the j and k components may be carried out in a similar manner, hence. we obtain
v=

d
r = x&i y&j z&k
dt

(2.26)

It follows from this equation that the scalar components of the velocity are
vx x&,

vy y&,

vz z&

(2.27)

The "dot" notation x&, y&, z& represents the first time derivatives of the parametric equations
x = x(t), y = y(t), z= z(t), respectively. A positive value for vx indicate that the vector
component vx is directed in the positive direction of i and the sense of each of the other vector
components may be determined in a similar way from the sign of the corresponding scalar

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

21

components. If desired the magnitude and direction of the velocity may be obtained. The
velocity has a magnitude defined as the positive value of
v vx2 vy2 vz2

(2.27)

and a direction that is specified by the components of the unit vector uv = v/v. This direction is
always tangent to the path, as shown in Fig. 2.10.
In the similar manner acceleration of the particle is obtained by taking the first time derivative
of Eq.2-26 (or the second time derivative of Eq.2-24). Using dots to represent the derivatives
of the components, we have
a=

dv
= axi ay j az k
dt

(2.28)

where
&
&
ax v&x x
&
&
ay v&y y

(2.29)

&
az v&z z&
Here ax, ay, az represent respectively, the first time derivatives of the functions vx = vx(t),
vy = vy(t ), vz = vz(t), or the second time derivatives of the functions x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t).
Note that the use of rectangular components to describe the position, the velocity and the
acceleration of a particle is particularly effective when the component ax of the acceleration
depends only upon t, x and/or vx, and when, similarly, ay depends only upon t, y, and/or vy, and
az upon t, z and/or vz. Equations (2.29) may then be integrated independently, and so may Eqs.
(2.27). In other words, the motion of the particle in the x direction, its motion in the y
direction, and its motion in the z direction may be considered separately.
The acceleration has a magnitude defined by the positive value of
a

ax2 ay2 az2

(2.30)

and a direction specified by the components of the unit vector ua = a/a. It is worthy to
emphasize that a represents the time rate of the change made in both the magnitude and
direction of the velocity, therefore, in general a will not be tangent to the path.
The free-flight motion of a projectile is often studied in terms of its rectangular components,
since the projectile's acceleration always acts in the vertical direction. It may be shown that
when air resistance is neglected, the only force acting on the projectile is its weight, which
causes the projectile to have a constant downward acceleration of approximately g=9.81 m/s2.
Therefore the components of the acceleration are
&
& 0 ay y
&
& g az z&
& 0
ax x

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

22

Denoting by x0, y0, z0 the coordinates of the gun, and by (vx)0, (vy)0, (vz)0 the components of the
initial velocity v0 of the projectile, we integrate twice in t and obtain
vx x& (vx )0

vy y& (vy )0 gt

vz z& (vz )0

x x0 (vx )0t

1
y y0 (vy )0t gt2 z z0 (vz )0t
2

If the projectile is fired in the x-y plane from the origin O, we have x0 = y0 = z0=0 and (vz)0 =0,
and the equations of motion reduce to
vx (vx )0

vy (vy )0 gt

vz 0

x (vx )0t

1
y (vy )0t gt2 z 0
2

These equation show that the projectile remains in the x-y plane and that its motion in the
horizontal direction is uniform, while its motion in the vertical direction is uniformly
accelerated. Therefore the motion of a projectile may be replaced by two independent
rectilinear motions which are easily visualized if we assume that the projectile is fired
vertically with an initial velocity (vy)0 from a platform moving with a constant horizontal
velocity (vx)0. The coordinate x of the projectile is equal at any instant to the distance traveled
by the platform, while its coordinate y may be computed as if the projectile were moving
along a vertical line.
It may be observed that the equations defining the coordinates x and y of a projectile at any
instant are the parametric equations of a parabola. Thus, the trajectory of a projectile is
parabolic. This result, however, ceases to be valid when the resistance of the air or the
variation with altitude of the acceleration of gravity is taken into account.
Important Points

Curvilinear motion can cause changes in both the magnitude and direction of the
position, velocity, and acceleration vectors.

The velocity vector is always directed tangent to the path.

In general, the acceleration vector is not tangent to the path, but rather, it is
tangent to the hodograph.

If the motion is described using rectangular coordinates, then the components

along each of the axes do not change direction, only their magnitude and sense
(algebraic sign) will change.

Procedure for Analysis

Coordinate system

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

23

A rectangular coordinate system can be used to solve problems for which the motion can
conveniently be expressed in terms of its x, y, z components.
Kinematic quantities
Since rectilinear motion occurs along each coordinate axis, the motion of each component is
found using v = ds/dt and a = dv/dt; or in cases where the motion is not expressed as a
function of time, the equation a ds = v dv can be used.
Once the x, y, z components of v and a have been determined, the magnitudes of these vectors
are found from the Pythagorean theorem and their directions from the components of their
unit vectors.
EXAMPLE 2.3
At any instant the horizontal position of the weather balloon, Fig. 2.11, is defined by x=8t m,
where t is in seconds. If the equation of the path is y = x2/10, determine when t = 2 s:
(a) the distance of the balloon from the station at A,
(b) the magnitude and direction of the velocity,
(c) the magnitude and direction of the acceleration.
Solution
(a) Position
When t = 2, x = 8(2) = 16 m, and so y = (16)2 /10 = 25.6 m
The straight-line distance from A to B is therefore
r

(16)2 (25.6)2 30.2 m

Fig. 2.11

(b) Velocity

Using Eqs. (2.27) and application of the chain rule of calculus the components of velocity
when t = 2 s are
vx x&

d
(8t) 8 m/ s
dt

vy y&

d 2
(x / 10) 2xx&/ 10 2(16)(8)/ 10 25.6 m/ s
dt

The magnitude of velocity when t = 2 s, is therefore

v

(8)2 (25.6)2 26.8 m/ s

The direction is tangent to the path, Fig. 2.12, where

v tan1

vy
vx

tan1

25.6
72.6o
8

Fig. 2.12

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

24

(c) Acceleration.
The components of acceleration are determined from Eqs. (2.29) and application of the chain
rule. We have
&
&
ax v&x x
ay v&y

d2(8t)
0
dt2

d(2xx&/ 10)
&
&/ 10 2(8)2 / 10 2(16)(0)/ 10 12.8 m/ s2
2(x&&
)x / 10 2xx
dt

Thus
a

(0)2 (12.8)2 12.8 m/ s2

The direction of a is

a tan1

ay
ax

tan1

12.8
90o
0

Note: It is also possible to obtain vy and ay by first expressing y = f(t) = (8t)2 /10 = 6.4t2 and
then taking successive time derivatives.
EXAMPLE 2.4
The motion of a box B moving along the spiral conveyor shown in Fig. 2.13 is defined by the
position vector r = (0.5 sin(2t)i + 0.5 cos(2t)j - 0.2tk) m, where t is in seconds and the
arguments for sine and cosine are in radians (rad). Determine the location of the box when
t = 0.75 s and the magnitudes of its velocity and acceleration at this instant.

Fig. 2.13
Solution
Evaluating r when t = 0.75 s yields
r = (0.5 sin (1.5 rad)i + 0.5 cos (1.5 rad)j - 0.2(0.75)k
= (0.499i + 0.0354j - 0.150k) m

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

25

The distance of the box from the origin O is

r

(0.499)2 (0.0354)2 (0.150)2 0.522 m

The direction of r is obtained from the components of the unit vector ur = r/r
ur = (0.499i + 0. 0354j - 0.150k)/0.522 = 0.955i + 0.0678j - 0.287k
Hence, the coordinate direction angles , , , Fig.2.13, are
= cos-1(0.955) = 17.2
= cos-1 (0. 0678) = 86.1o
= cos-1 (-0.287) = 107
The velocity is defined by
v=

dr
= [0.5sin(2t)i 0.5cos(2t)j 0.2tk
dt
= (1cos(2t)i 1sin(2t) j 0.2k) m/ s

Hence, when t = 0.75 s the magnitude of velocity, or the speed, is

v= [(1 cos (1.5 rad)]2 + [l sin (1.5 rad)]2 + (-0.2)2 = 1.02 m/s
The velocity is tangent to the path as shown in Fig. 2.13. Its coordinate direction angles can
be determined from uv = v/v.
The acceleration a of the box can be determined easily
a=

dv
= [-2sin(2t)i 2cos(2t)j] m/ s2
dt

It is clear that the acceleration is not tangent to the path.

2.5 Normal and Tangential Components

In previous sections we saw that the velocity of a particle is a vector tangent to the path of the
particle but that, in general, the acceleration is not tangent to the path. It is sometimes
convenient to resolve the acceleration into components directed, respectively, along the
tangent and the normal to the path of the particle. When the path along which a particle is
moving is known, it is possible to describe the motion using n and t coordinates which act
normal and tangent to the path. respectively, and at the instant considered have their origin
located at the particle.
Planar Motion. We shall first consider the particle P shown in Fig.2.14a which is moving in
a plane along a fixed curve, such that at a given instant it is at position s, measured from point
O. We attach to the particle a coordinate system that has its origin at a fixed point on the
curve, and at the instant considered this origin happens to coincide with the location of the
particle. The t axis is tangent to the curve at P and is positive in the direction of increasing s.

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

26

We will designate this positive direction with the unit vector ut. A unique choice for the
normal axis can be made by noting that geometrically the curve is constructed from a series of
differential arc segments, Fig. 2.14b. Each segment ds is formed from the arc of an associated
circle having a radius of curvature and center of curvature O'. The normal axis it is
perpendicular to the t axis and is directed from P toward the center of curvature O', Fig. 2.14a.
This positive direction, which is always on the concave side of the curve, will be designated
by the unit vector un. The plane which contains the n and t axes is referred to as the osculating
plane, and in this case it is fixed in the plane of motion. The osculating plane may also be
defined as that plane which has the greatest contact with the curve at a point. It is the limiting
position of a plane contacting both the point and the arc segment ds. It is clear that the
osculating plane is always coincident with a plane curve, however. each point on a threedimensional curve has a unique osculating plane.

Fig. 2.14a

Fig. 2.14b

Fig. 2.14c

Fig. 2.14d

Fig. 2.14e

Fig. 2.14f

Now consider the velocity of the particle. Since the particle is moving, s is a function of time.

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

27

As known the particle's velocity v has a direction that is always tangent to the path,
Fig. 2.14c, and a magnitude that is determined by taking the time derivative of the path
function s = s(t), i.e., v = ds/dt. Therefore we may express this vector as the product of the
scalar v and unit vector ut , i.e.
v = v ut

(2.31)

where v s&.
To obtain the acceleration of the particle we shall differentiate Eq. (2.31) with respect to t.
Thus,
&t
a v&ut v u

(2.32)

&t note that as the particle moves along the arc ds in

In order to determine the time derivative u
time dt, ut preserves its magnitude of unity; however. its direction changes, and becomes ut .
Fig. 2.14d. As shown in Fig. 2.14e. we require ut ut dut . Here dut stretches between
the arrowheads of ut and ut which lie on an infinitesimal arc of radius ut = 1. Therefore, dut
has a magnitude of dut = (1)d, and its direction is defined by un. Consequently. dut = d un,
&t &un . Since ds =d, Fig. 2.14d, then
and therefore the time derivative becomes u

& s&/ , and therefore

s&
v
&t &un un un
u

Substituting into Eq. (2.32), a can be written as the sum of its two components,
a at ut anun

(2.33)

where at v&, and

an

v2

These two mutually perpendicular components are shown in Fig. 2.14f in which case the
magnitude of acceleration is the positive value of
a at2 an2

(2.34)

Three-Dimensional Motion. If the particle is moving along a space curve, Fig. 2.15, then at a
given instant the t axis is uniquely specified; however, an infinite number of straight lines can
be constructed normal to the tangent axis at P. As in the case of planar motion, we will choose
the positive n axis directed from i toward the path's center of curvature O'. This axis is
referred to as the principal normal to the curve at P. With the n and t axes so defined, Eqs.
(2.31) to (2.34) can be used to determine v and a. Since ut and un are always perpendicular to

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

28

one another- and lie in the osculating plane, for spatial motion a third unit vector, ub defines a
bi-normal axis b which is perpendicular to ut, and un, Fig. 2.15.
Since the three unit vectors are related to one another by the vector cross product, e.g.,
ub = ut x un
It may be possible to use this relation to establish the direction of one of the axes, if the
directions of the other two are known. For example, no motion occurs in the ub direction, and
so if this direction and ut are known. then un can be determined where in this case un = ut x ub.
Remember, though, that un is always on the concave side of the curve.

Fig. 2.15
Procedure for Analysis
Coordinate System

Provided the path of the particle is known, we can establish a set of n and t
coordinates having a fixed origin which is coincident with the particle at the
instant considered.

The positive tangent axis acts in the direction of motion and the positive normal
axis is directed toward the path's center of curvature.

The n and t axes are particularly advantageous for studying the velocity and
acceleration of the particle, because the t and n components of a are expressed by
Eqs. (2.33).

Velocity

The particle's velocity is always tangent to the path.

The magnitude of velocity is found from the time derivative of the path function
v s&

Tangential Acceleration

The tangential component of acceleration is the result of the time rate of change in
the magnitude of velocity. This component acts in the positive s direction if the
particle's speed is increasing or in the opposite direction if the speed is decreasing.

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

29

The relations between at , v, t and s are the same as for rectilinear motion, namely,
at v&, at ds = v dv

If at is constant, at = (at )c the above equations, when integrated, yield

s = s0 v0t + (at )ct2

v = v0 + (at )c t
v2 = v02 + 2(at )c (s s0)

Normal Acceleration

The normal component of acceleration is the result of the time rate of change in the
direction of the particle's velocity. This component is always directed toward the
center of curvature of the path. i.e., along the positive n axis.

The magnitude of this component is determined from

v2
an =

If the path is expressed as y = f(x), the radius of curvature at any point on the
path is determined from the equation
[1 (dy / dx)2 ]3/ 2
=
[d2y / dx2 ]

The derivation of this result is given in any standard calculus text.

EXAMPLE 2.4

Fig. 2.16a

Fig. 2.16b

The boxes in Fig. 2.16a travel along the industrial conveyor. If a box as in Fig. 2.16b starts
from rest at A and increases its speed such that at = (0.2t) m/s2, where t is in seconds,
determine the magnitude of its acceleration when it arrives at point B.
Solution

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

30

Coordinate System
The position of tile box at any instant is defined from the fixed point A using the position or
path coordinate s, Fig. 2.16b. The acceleration is to be determined at B, so the origin of the n,
t axes is at this point.
Acceleration
To determine the acceleration components at = v& and an =

v2
, it is first necessary to

formulate v and v&so that they may be evaluated at B. Since vA = 0 when t = 0, then
at = v& 0.2t
v

(1)

dv 0.2tdt
v 0.1t2

(2)

The time needed for the box to reach point B can be determined by realizing that the position
of B is sB = 3 + 2(2)/4 = 6.142 m, Fig. 2.16b, and since sA = 0 when t = 0 we have
v
6.142

ds
0.1t2
dt
ds

tB

0.1t dt
2

6.142 0.0333tB3
tB = 5.690 s
Substituting into Eqs. (1) and (2) yields
(aB )t v&B 0.2(5.690) 1.138m/ s2

Fig 2.16c

vB 0.1(5.69) 3.238m/ s
2

At B, B = 2 m, so that
(aB )n

vB2 (3.238m/ s)2

5.242m/ s
B
2

The magnitude of aB, Fig. 2.16c, is therefore

aB (1.138)2 (5.242)2 5.36m/ s2

2.6 Cylindrical Components

In some engineering problems it is often convenient to express the path of motion in terms of
cylindrical coordinates, r, , z. If motion is restricted to the plane, the polar coordinates r and

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

31

are used. These components are called radial and transverse components.
Polar Coordinates. We can specify the location of particle P shown in Fig. 2.17a using both
the radial coordinate: r, which extends outward from the fixed origin O to the particle, and a
transverse coordinate , which is the counterclockwise angle between a fixed reference line
and the r axis. The angle is generally measured in degrees or radians. We attach at P two unit
vectors: ur and u which define positive directions of the r and coordinates. Here ur extends
from P along increasing r, when is held fixed, and u extends from P in a direction that
occurs when r is held fixed and is increased. Note that these directions are perpendicular to
one another.

ur

Fig. 2.17a

ur
ur

Fig. 2.17b

v
vr

Fig. 2.17c

Fig. 2.17d
Fig. 2.17

Using the unit vector ur at any instant the position of the particle is defined by the position
vector
r = r ur

(2.35)

Velocity. The instantaneous velocity v is obtained by taking the time derivative of r, hence
&r
v r& r&
ur ru

(2.36)

To evaluate u&r notice that u r changes only its direction with respect to time, since by
definition the magnitude of this vector is always unity. Hence, during the time t, a change r
will not cause a change in the direction of ur , however, a change will cause ur to become

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

32

ur where u 'r u r u r , Fig. 2.17b. The time change in ur is then ur. For small angles
this vector has a magnitude ur = 1() and acts in the u direction. Therefore,

ur =

u and we get easily

&r &u
u

(2.37)

Substituting into the above equation for v, the velocity can be written in component form as
&
v r& vr ur v u

(2.38)

where
vr r&
v r &
These components are shown graphically in Fig. 2.17c. The radial component vr is a measure
of the rate of increase or decrease in the length of the radial coordinate, i.e., r& whereas the
transverse component v can be interpreted as the rate of motion along the circumference of a
circle having a radius r. In particular. the term & is called the angular velocity. since it
indicates the time rate of change of the angle .
Since vr and v are mutually perpendicular, the magnitude of velocity is simply the positive
value of
v (r&)2 (r &)2

(2.39)

and the direction of v is, of course, tangent to the path at P, Fig. 2.17c.
Acceleration. Differentiating Eq. (2.38) again with respect to time to obtain the acceleration
we write
&
& r&
&
&r r&
& r &u
&
a v
ur r&
u
&u r&
u
We can process as before and get the acceleration in component form as
& ar ur a u
a v

(2.40)

where
& r&2
ar r&
& 2r&
a r&
&

(2.41)

& is called the angular acceleration since it measures the change made in the
The term &
angular velocity during an instant of time.
Clearly, the magnitude of acceleration is simply the positive value of
& 2r&
& r&2)2 (r &
a (r&
&)2

(2.42)

and the direction is determined from the vector addition of its two components. In general, a

Chapter 2. Particle Kinematics

33

will not be tangent to the path, Fig. 2.17d.

Cylindrical Coordinates. If the particle P moves along a space
curve as shown in Fig. 2.18, then its location may be specified
by the three cylindrical coordinates, r, and z. The z coordinate
is identical to that used for rectangular coordinates. Since the
unit vector defining its direction, uz is constant. the time
derivatives of this vector are zero, and therefore the position,
velocity, and acceleration of the particle can be written in terms
of its cylindrical coordinates as follows:
rP r ur z uz
v r&
ur r u z&
uz

(2.43)

& 2r&
& r&)ur (r&
&
a (r&
&)u z&
uz

(2.44)

Fig 2.18