PROTESTANT REFORMATION

In England the imposition of protestant religion is related to the history. There were very important political
reason, not religious one like in Germany.
Henry VIII was a fervent catholic, one of the popes favorite monarchs. He wasnt attached by protestant
revolution, but at a certain point he needs to solve a problem and goes protestant.
-

The protestant reformation in England goes hand in hand with the transformation of England in a
nation. They decided to have their own version of protestant religion (not like German protestants).
So, in order to be English you need to be Anglican! A national religion is adopted. This is the age of
the beginning and the spread of English language.

Henry VIII was married with Catherin of Aragon (daughter of the king of Spain), very catholic queen, but
they didnt have a son. Henry became obsessed by the idea of having a male heir, but his wife wasnt able
to give him one. He wants to get rid of her. On the other hand, there were Anne Boleine, a very ambitious
woman, who was pregnant of 3 months. She was protestant.
Henry decided to divorce and used a technical excuse: she had been married with his dead brother before
being married with Henry. Henry says that in the Bible theres a sentence that says that no woman can
marry two brothers. Henry says this to the pope. Were going against God. This is why my wife doesnt
produce a child.
BUT: to get marry they had to go to the pope (julius) to be allowed. Clement VII, whom Henry asks for the
divorce, says that he cant annul the marriage because it was the pope before him to allow that.
Henry gets furious; he doesnt accept a no as answer. In 1529 he summons the Parliament because he
wants to obtain the annulment through the Parliament. Little by little, the English nation becomes
independent from a religious point of view. It takes 5/6 years to transform England into a protestant
country.
-

Which was the real problem??

What was annoying was the fact that the pope could exercise a very strong power in england and
having a catholic church was like having a nation inside the nation.
Pope had the power to decide questions about religion, he had the right to decide about legal
matters connected to the church. He had an enormous power and was difficult to digest for English
politicians and in particular for the king.
1/3 lands of England were property of the Church. They had to pay taxes to the pope and not to the
king!!! Unacceptable. It was a limitation of the kings power. He was afraid of this.
The pope also had the final word on the appointment of bishops, who were very powerful figures.
The authority of the pope was a real problem for England. The pope who was a foreigner exercised
too much power.

1531: ACT OF SUBMISSION

1534: ACT OF SUPREMACY or Treason act. Abolition of papal authority. The king becomes the supreme
head of church with absolute power.
Little by little the authority of the pope was eliminated, enormous amounts of money and lands passed
from the catholic church to the English crown. It was a political issue, a matter of power. New religious
rules were introduced in England. All these new religious practices were forced to English people. They
were forced to adopt a new religion. It was a shock, a very dramatic event for the population. It was a
violation of identity. 1534-36: Beginning of dissolution and suppression of English monasteries, closed
down in order to raise money.

1535: execution of Thomas More

1536-38: most of the traditional catholic feasts were abolished.
1538: act of appeals (England as an empire)
1536-1543 acts of union between wales and England.

German Protestant reformation

Martin Luther (theology teacher in Wittemberg): 31st October 1517 hang on the door of the Church of
Wittemberg his 95 thesis. He protests for the selling of indulgents.
There are 5 SOLAS. The most important is SOLA FIDE (salvation by faith): from his point of view, good deeds
does not count. It is possible to obtain salvation only through faith in Jesus.
Another important point was the fact that each person car read the Bible and interpret by himself (for
catholic Bible was in latin or greek, only priests could read it). So, Bible becomes to be translated.
Thanks to the press of Guttemberg, great speed of spreading. Luthers thesis were read by a lot of people.

THOMAS MORE
He was born in 1477 and died prisoned in the tower of London for treason against the king. Decapitated in
1535. However, he had been one of the closest co-worker of Henry the VIII, he was his 1st minister. He was
the most famous English intellectual and a close friend of Erasmus of Rotterdam. He studied law and had a
political career at court, becoming lord chancellor of the king (the highest political position). He had always
been against divorce and never accepted Henrys divorce. He remained catholic and refused to follow the
king in order to preserve his integrity. In 1516 (before the reformation!) he published a book, Utopia, in
Luven, Belgium, in latin (language of intellectuals, it means that More wanted the book to circulate) with
the Erasmus supervision. He invents the word utopia and begin a new literary genre.
UTOPIA
Utopia comes from U-TOPOS: a non-place/nowhere.
The book is divided in 2 parts. It is written in a dialogic form (Platonic dialogue: 3 people talking, each one
gives his opinion). More appears as a character himself:
-

More
A friend of him
Raphael Hytholodeus: He went to a bar and met the two friends. He talks (in latin) about a journey
and a place he came across.

1st book: POLITICS (political institutions). It is also about philosophy

2nd book: UTOPIA and the intellectuals role.
Raphael is a strange person: he looks like an outsider, a traveler without nationality.

Utopia was founded by a man named Utopos, the 1st king of Utopia, that at the beginning was a peninsula
connected to the rest of the world. When Utopos decided to found Utopis, his first act was to cut Utopia off
to the rest of the World. Isolationism was done in order to reach perfection. In order to be perfect you
need to be apart. What happens? Utopia doesnt have history! Utopia doesnt change, history is static
because perfection must be static!
Utopia (Raphael explain):
-

is formed by 54 city-states and all this states are identical (same language, costumes, traditions)
theres one king elected, not by everyone, but by an oligarchy (the council of the great and good)
theres no private property, nobody owns
theyre forced to move to another house after 5 years because they dont have to attach to a
property. All the houses are identical, 3 floors, the doors have no locks and no keys
theres no crime
criminals are not put into prison, but exposed to the public: idea of shame seems to be the main
controlling factor. Theres a very strong moral sense
there are many different religions and theres religious tolerance
everybody wears the same clothes. They all wear the same cape of the same color. The only
distinction is male/female. Fashion do not change through years
possessing gold or silver is a sign of shame
any sign of wealth or social power is a shame
everybody works 6 hours per day. Occupation is distributed equally
people will do the job of their father, but they can change. If they want to change they have to
change family, being adopted by the family who do that job
there are slaves: people who dont respect the rules (if you travel without permission, commit an
adultery or a crime). They look after the worst jobs
people are invited to apply their time in useful things, theyre supposed not to have rest. Theyre
active all the time
people are allowed to travel but they need to get a permission and when they leave, they had to
say the exact day of return. Theres no freedom of movement
MARRIAGE are regulated: 22 years for men, 18 for women. Before you get married, it is possible for
the bride to see each other naked.
Adultery is punished, sex is a biological need, theres no pleasure, just a physical activity without
emotions
Families are not seen as a social unit, emotional feelings seem not to exists.

In Utopia theres no choice! Everything is prescribed. It is a sort of dictatorship, communism. Its not an
ideal society! Its an hyper rationalistic type of society, pushed to absurd. Exaggerated!
More describes a world which is the exact opposite of his contemporary England. Theres an implicit critic
of the England and Europe he was living in. In Utopia freedom is eliminated, everything is rational.

BRITISH EMPIRE AND COLONIALISM

British identity is connected to the creation of the british empire, so the british empire is the main tool for
the spreading of british identity. Identity begins to advance as an idea under Elizabeth 1st and especcially
under James 1st. the british empire is no the first one (roman, greek) and its not the first even among the
empires of the modern world, buti t will become the biggest. Portugal and Spain had come first, britain
comes 100 years after.
-

Difference between state and empire:

the STATE is formed by contiguous territories
the EMPIRE implies that youre reffering to territories which are separated by oceanic distance, the
empire is that part which is located in far parts of the world. (this definition does not work for
roman and austro-ungarian empires. Portugal and Spain were the first empires and pioneers of
discoveries)

At the beginning wasnt interested in dicoveries and didnt partecipate. The first 2 Tudor kings, Henry VII
and Henry VIII werent interested. The only exception for England is:
-

In 1496, Henry VII (1st Tudor!) decided to commision a trip to a navigator, JOHN CABOT. He wanted
to discover Asia sailing the west. We have a document: the royal patent that Henry VII gave to John
Cabot on 5th March 1496 to give him the authority to sail, only to fine, discover and investigate!
Not to colonize! There wasnt the idea of taking possession.
Cabot went and landed on the coast he called new found land, Canada.

The first english expedition, which is not yet imperialistic, began in Canada. Someone consider this moment
as the initial foundation of english empire, but Cabot didnt implant banners or flags in Canada. This will be
done only 100 years later, in 1583 Sir Humpfry Gilbert will claim that piece of land as part of England. There
were already an imperialistic mentality, something had changed.
Henry VII didnt pay any other navigation. Henry VIII wasnt interested in external expansion because he
was too concentrated in the consolidation of his absolutistic internal power. With Elizabeth 1st things begin
to change.
Henry VIII
He wanted to establish his authority in Wales, Ireland and Scotland, so he focused in England. He inherited
a lot of land from the Church after the Protestant reformation, so he wanted to create a powerful
monarchy. He was actively involved in internal colonialism.
Wales
It was quite easy to colonize. With the ACT OF UNION of 1536 Wales became part of the English (united)
Kingdom. Protestan reformation was taken easily to Wales, without difficulties. English monarch never tries
to soppress gaelic language. Wales was assimilated.
Ireland
Ireland was more problematic. It was a catholic nation so it was impossible to bring protestant reformation.
Irish population was celtic, old english catholic. They were roman catholic. There were no stopped rebellion
against England. Strong hand and more power will be used for Ireland. James I paid people to go there and
colonize Ireland, establishing with their families. Plantation of English colonizer.

Scotland
Scotland was an indipendent kingdom. There was the Stuart monarchy. It was used a marriage policy.
Henry VIII hadnt had a heir. After his daughter Elizabeth, i twill become king James VI of Scotland who
married Henrys sister.
Mythological argument
One of the most used arguments was a mythological one. There had been a famous writer in the XII
century, JOEFFREY of MONMOUTH who wrote the Historia Rerum Britannia. He collected different legends
and came up with this history of britain:
-

Britain takes its name by an ancient king named Brutus (1st king of Britain). He came from Troy like
Eneas, as one of the refugeers of the Troy war. When he dies, he leaves his kingdom divided into
his 3 sons: Locri (England); Albanakt (Scotland); Kamber, the youngest (Wales).

The idea behind this myth is that whoever tries to reunite the kingdom, wanted to restablish an ancient
mythological unity.

Elizabeth I
Is under Elizabeth that England begins to be interested in external expansion. She was heir of a very solid
monarchy but England was 100 years late from Portugal, Spain and France imperialism. The way she begins
to act externally is a kind of competition with Spain.
15th and 16th century was the age of discoveries. Modernity begins in this period (science, religious
diversification, discovery of far away land)
COLONIALISM: occupy an other land which may not be populated in order to explote it economically.
Money is the first reason. Aim: find new rutes to trade spices and silk.
1571: all Africa to Far east and Asia.
1492 Colombo discoveries America. It was an aggressive occupation with warriors and army.
The main difference between spanish and english empire was the type of participation, people who took
part. England adopted companies to finance money for the establishment of the empire. Empire was not
sponsored by the crown beacuse it was very expensive. Spanish colonizer, explorations, boats, everything
was paid by kings. Elizabeth only gives a patent, a political protection, the placet but not money. It was
not the parliament who gives money, but private people who thought it would be a good business to
finance.
Religious reasons: there were also people who decided to leave England in order not to change religion.
They looks for regions and territory where they can follow and practice their religion freely.
Pirates: Elizabeth paid pirates to attack and steal to spanish and portugues ships. They were called the SEA
DOGS (Sir Francis Drake, El Drago; Sir Walter Raleigh; Sir John Hawkins, all connected with families
relations).
ROANOAKE, 1584: first english colony, in North Carolina. Only males went there. Very har life conditions, it
wasnt successfull. Some sailors went back to england and when they return to America, all the other
colonizer were dissapeared.
JAMESTOWN, 1607: by Virgina Company. Encharged by James I, so it was called Jamestown.

2 companies most famous:

-

Virginia company of London (to North America)

East indian company (to india)

Writers are important because they take part to the creation of the imperialistic ideology!

EDMUND SPENSER
Contributes to the construction of the ideology of the nation. He had to show his talent as a literate man to
have commisions in public career. He was secretary of men such as the bishop of Rochester. He was
secretary of the queen in Ireland, he took part to the colonization of Iraland and stayed there until he was
chased by rebels who fired his house.
-

View of the present state of Ireland (published in 1633): he proclames the english government as
superior then the irish, feudal one.
Its a frightening text, one of the most horrorifying document of the imperialistic practice. It is
shown as a mission to civilize and subdue a land of barbarious. He writes that irish language has to
be eliminated because they were an inferior race, they belongs to an inferior level of humanity
Spenser was one of the most active supporters of the imperialistic form of british in Ireland.

POETRY: he was highly ambitious in poetry. Taking insipration from Virgil he writes The
shepheards calendar a collection of 12 eclogues (short pastoral poems) with different topics for
each month of the year. The most famous is April which is dedicated to Elizabeth and which will be
developed in the Fairy queen.

Spenser was the first national poet of England. The Fairy Queen is the first english epic poem dedicated
completely to the queen.
THE FAIRY QUEENE
Spenser wrote this poem because england did not had a poem like Eneide for the foundation of the nation.
He wanted to bring England at the same level of the powerful states in Europe. It describes the
mythological origins of the nation. Spenser talks about a national literature as identity of the nation. This
poemi s a sort of act of foundation for english history.
His project was to write 12 books but he actually wrote only 6 and a 7th unfinshed.
12 is the number of the virtues established by Aristotele and then christianized by Tommaso DAquino.
Every book should to be dedicated to a christian virtue. Virtues are impersonized allegorically by 12 knights
whose adventures are narrated in each single book. All knights are united by one event: they met
eachother at the court of Gloriana, the fairy queen. The kingdom where they live is called Fairy land and it
is the allegory for England. There are different levels of reading this poem: allegorical, political, moral,
religion.
The first 3 books were published in 1590.
1. Sanctity
2. Temperance
3. Chastity

The last 3 ones, published in 1596:

4. Friendship
5. Justice

6. Courtesy

7. Constance

(unfinished)

Every book is divided into 12 poems, like Virgil Eneide.

Elizabeth is impersonized by Gloriana, the Fairy queen (regina delle fate).
It has an Ahistorical setting: supernatural elements, dreamy world. Language is intentionally artificial. It
creates the idea of being somewhere else. Spenser uses a very archaic type of style, a sophisticated and
artificial language, archaic words because he wanted to comunicate that these stories had taken place in a
remote past. Verse are called: Spensarian stanzas: iambic pentameter rhymed with the last longer verse
(ababbcbc)
It has different genres: its a hybrid. Epic, allegorical writing, romance (poema cavalleresco). But it doesent
have a social function. Epic heroes fight to defend the nation, save somebody else life. Romance knights
fight to prove their own honour, to become better, reach perfection. In Spenser theres an ideological
function. Each knight rappresent allegorically a virtue. Its also political and moral.

RICHARD HAKLUYT
He was a clergy man who supported english imperialism. It wasnt uncommon to have clergymen who gave
sermons. Colonization was presented as a right thing. He published several volumes of reports by travellers
to foreign countries.
Principal navigations, voyages and discoveries of the english nation (1588)
This is the mos famous text useful to focus on the ideological elements of english imperialism and
colonization. This text inspired Johnatan Swift.
It is a collection of documents, narrations, letters, poems which concerned the explorations, the discoveries
and the settlments of english sea travellers. Very long book! 2 editions: in the 1st celebrates about 100
voyages, in the 2nd one he increases the number, more than 200 voyages.
He covers more or less 1600 years of english navigations: he writes a history of sea adventures of the
english nation. His intention was to collect, narrate and celebrate the grat voyages of english sailors.
-

This is a book that contributed to the formation of the sense of english nation.

Its a nationalistic enterprise because 15th and 16th centuries were ages of discoveries all over Europe and
many others writers wrote books about discoveries.
-

Hakluyt, without thinking in terms of nationality, is the first and only one who has a nationalistic
intent. He doesnt want to celebrate navigation, but he wants to promote english navigation:
courage, glory and skillfullness of english sailors. He sais: hard love for my country

Comes out a very admirable image of England: a country of very brave and experienced people.
-

There was also a religious idea: english travellers had success because they were protected by God
himself and by the Providence. A book which promotes the expansion of english territories; it
become it become one of the ideological must during the victorian period.

It is important because, unlike the other stories, this is a specifical english collection. A text were england
begins to emerge as an aggressive commercial nation; it i salso important because unlike other books, it
comunicates the idea that in England there were people from all social classes, the entire population
contributed to the creation of the empire.

Common experience of the foundation of the english empire.

An other important thing is that there were 2 major groups who were responsible for the organization and
for financing these imperial adventures:
1. Merchants. The commercial side, financiation tended to concentrate on east (India, Russia,
commercial colonies). For example, the East Indian Company is a commercial company. Then, this
businessmen litttle by little, become also the administrators of the colonies
2. Gentlemen (nobility). This was the other face of english empire, financed by gentlemen who tended
to travel to west (America). Virginia Company, less commercial! Gentlemen wanted to make their
nation full of glory.
Exploration and colonization in Britain had 2 faces: Commercial enterprise by merchants; cultural
enterprise by gentlemen.

Discourse of western planting (1585)

Written under Elizabeth reign. It has a very log subtitle: A particular discourse concerning the great
necessitiy and many fold comodities that are like to grow to this realm os England by the western
discoveries. Very articulated justification of colonization that underlines necessity and utility of
colonization.
Idea taken from Aristotele: idea of self sufficiency, COMMUNITAS PERFECTA.
What do we need to have is the perfect community. Sufficentia omnium rerum necessarium et vita beata.
-

If England wants to become a communitas perfecta and have a vita beata, one way to find the self
sufficiency is the establishment of colonies! The necessity of colonies was in order to become self
sufficiency, find new markets and raw materials.

This is an ideological justification of colonization, taken out from Aristotele.

The other element he brings into his argument in favour of colonization is the spreading of the word of
christ: diffusion of protestant religion. Hakluyt talks about native american sas sauvage and infidels, and the
mission was the spreading of protestant religion. Were going to save their souls.
-

Convertion of infidels and barbarian people was an act of clemency. English people were saving their
souls.

Purchas and his pilgrims (1617)

Deeply anti-catholic. In his vision the mission was not only to convert the infidels to protestant religion but
it was also a mission to fight against paganism and catholics, who were devils for him and for english
protestants of 1600. The pope was the embodiement of the AntiChrist.
A strong anticatholic feeling comes out from this book and its with him that England becomes the Chosen
Nation. Theres an exasperation of british imperialism in an anticatholic vision.
-

Sense of superiority comes out from Purchas. England has a sacred place in history. The history of
England is connected to the salvation of humanity.

Difference with the ideological base of the spanish empire. It was the pope who donate lands to the
spanish crown. Spain believe to be entitled by the pope to domain South America.

In elizabethian time ritualistic violence was a common practice. Political tensions, lots of executions that
were a sort of public spectacle. It was public in ordere to be educational. But it was an extreme practice
In shakespeare, bad men die fighting, but the figure who began a new cicle are more prepared for their job
but less interesting. (Mcbeth..)

JULIUS CESAR
Its a Roman play, like The rape of Lucretia, Titus Andronicus, Coriolanus, Anthony and Cleopatra.
Rome=centre of universe! Roman history is rappresented as a history connoted by violence and blood. An
Elizabethian person will see the play through the lent of their time.
JC was a very well-known figure. One of the most famous roman personality. Hes an ambitious character,
ascent to power. The protagonist is not ephonimus, not Julius Cesar, but Brutus. He kills the Rex, the leader,
knowing that is a good thing, it is the right thing to do for the survival of the republic.
It is narrated a crucial historic event: the end of the republic and the beginning of the Empire. Shakespear
was attracted by historical moment of change. He tries to rappresent what it means to live in a moment of
tragic, dramatic passage. He himself lives in a moment of change and transformation: the protestant
transformation!
Bruto is almost a son for Cesar. He is less in doubt from a moral point of view, but from the personal one is
more difficult. More complicated than Mcbeth.
VALUES
-

Ethics of death: is not a crime if connected to ethic.

Theres a proper way of dying. The most heroic way of dying is suicide.
Death gives you power. Mistake of Brutus! Cesar becomes even more powerful after his death.

In this play female characters are almost absent, only 2 but passive.
-

Profecy and dreams are very important elements. Never underestimates irrational elements.

REFERENCE TO ENGLAND
The first thing JC says in the play is about infertility. JCs 4th wife isnt able to give him a son. He was 65
years old as Elizabeth when the play was written. Both are getting old without an heir. Obvious paralel!
Theme of plotting (complotto). Elizabeth was obsessed by plot from 1580 on when a catholic attent to kill
the queen.
-

Old lider without heir and in threat.

What to do with Marc Anthony? Elizabeth hasnt decided her successor yet.

SOURCES
The translation of Life of the nobles gree and romans by Plutarco.
-

Plutarcs idea of history: history is moved, originated by the achivment of great men, great actions.
He doesnt care about society and population. They dont determin history.

In plutarcs text time goes to JCs triumph to his death: gap of 4 months. Shakespear compresses time: 1
night, 2 days.

SUPERNATURAL ELEMENTS
Is very relevant. Everytime theres a character who is not able to read signs, who makes mistakes of
interpretation, this will bring them into tragedy. We always are given a chance to change facts, maybe its
hard, but if you dont change, youre gone.
Dreams, premonitions, ghosts, not good, not bad, just neutral.
-

Function of dreams is ambiguous. They produce the opposite effect. Theyre functional to the
tragedy itself

JC dont listen to premonition, doesnt care, ignore it. (MB listens too much, anticipate the profecy. Theyre
both mistake of misinterpretation).
Il fantasma in Plutarco e Appiano anonimo, non JC. Forse lo stesso spirito di Bruto, il suo lato cattivo e
buono. Shake dice: sei angelo o demonio?

THEMES
-

unreliability of political opinion, instability of roman society, insecurity, cahotic.

power of word. Rome is the city of rethoric.
Honor: ideal of romans.
Maleness and strenght. Phisical weakness cant live with maleness. Contrast: JCs immense power
clashes with phisical weackness. His body isnt an adeguate box for his strenght.
Obsession with names: JC said more than 200 times, Brutus 137. Both talk abou themselves in 3rd
person.
Music: if someone doesnt listen to music is not in harmony. Theres something wrong with him.
Pride of being roman.
Reason rules passions! Passion should be checked by reason. Brutus is a stoic. He has a highly
theoretical mind. (STOICISM: control of emotions, courage, never fear, discipline, ethic. Lo stoico si
allena a non dormire come segno di coraggio, non come shake, un indizio di colpevolezza)
Issue of proper bury. Relevance of the way you consider dead person.
Relationship between death and life. Relevance of death. Dying must have a decency. The most
heroic way of dying is committing suicide, its a ethical way of dying.

LA GUERRA
Bruto impersona i valori della Roma repubblicana. Modello di integrit e onest. Molto stimato. Modello
per eccellenza di romano! Va in macedonia, pur non avendo esperienza militare, viene accolto dallesercito.
Cassio va in Siria, riesce a guadagnare lappoggio dei soldati e diventa comandante della legione. Muove
verso lAsia Minore. I due si incontrano l (secondo Sheak. a Sarni, invece a Smirne). Litigano perch Bruto
aveva comandato con grande lealt ma Cassio no, aveva permesso ai soldati di rubare. Bruto rimprovera i
malversatori di Cassio e alla fine i due fanno pace. Antonio e Ottaviano vanno in oriente per dare la caccia
ai due e hanno fortuna perch nellattraversare ladriatico, nessuna flotta dei repubblicani si accorge di
loro. Esercito pi grande ma messo peggio dei repubblicani che avevano approvvigionamenti da vicino e
aspettano per vedere se il nemico si arrende. I cesariani soffrono la fame. Scoppia la guerra. Cassio viene
sconfitto da Antonio, Bruto vince Ottaviano. Cassio muore, si fa uccidere dal suo padrone Pindaro. Bruto,
pur non volendo, cede al volere dellesercito e fa unaltra battaglia e viene disastrosamente sconfitto.

Episodio che manca in Shake, plutarco dice: il giorno del compleanno di Cassio, incontra Bruto,
pensano di farcela ma non si sa mai. (Cassio epicureo, legato al caso, alla fortuna, la sorte pu
essere avversa). Bruto dice che non ha paura della sfortuna. Lui era pronto a morire quando ha
ucciso cesare. Ha gi avuto la possibilit di una seconda vita.

Stratone aiuta Bruto al suicidio. Antonio gli fa il funerale perch ammira il valore di Bruto.

CHARACTERS
BRUTUS and PORTIA:
-

Hes a stoic, rational man

Doesnt ask about the letter authenticity. The letter tells what he wants to hear, his desire.
Hes the lider of the group
Is a responsible men. Doesnt want to include MarcAnthony in the conspiration. He thinks that it
will be too bloody in public opinion. (Cassius see the danger. Hes aware of the possibility of
MarcAntony to be dangerous. He wants to kill him)

Distinction between privat life and political life

-

Brutus does not make Portia part of the plan (different from MB, but Portia commit suicide as Lady
MB, with different reason and modality)
Portia internalize principles of society as right, patriarchal culture.
Her suicide is a much more cruel solution: eats fire (ingoia carboni ardenti!)

In both houses (brutus+portia; JC+Calphurnia) sleep is disturbed:

-

JC no able to sleep not for inner problem but his wife talks and streams.
Female characters try to protect their husbands but do not success. They gives messages from
supernatural, but are ignored.

FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS
Very balanced play.
Act I: completely ouside, in the street Act II : houses (Brutus and JCs)
Act III: 2 orations addressed to plebeians, political crowd, in front of cesars corp death as spectacle
-

People pass from approvation of Brutus to the want of killing him. Plebeians are negative because
they change idea very fast, only according to word, speech. Completely negativized.

Paradigma di retorica classica:

-

Una delle chiavi lironia. Quando si dice una cosa, intendendo il contrario. Brutus is an
honourable men
I due cominciano le orazioni nello stesso modo
Simple language, non c ipotassi, alta e raffinata consapevolezza retorica.
Preterizione: non ti dico cheper.
Romans should be speaking in high rethorical language, sophisticated BUT: easy vocabulary. Shake
choose to do the opposite thing. JC is the less latinate of his tragedies.

Brutus speech: prose. Anthony: poetry.

Thomas Kyd The Spanish Tragedy

ANDREA, a Spanish courtier, has been killed in battle by Balthazar, Prince of Portugal. During his
lifetime he was lover of Bel-Imperia, daughter of the Duke of Castile. Now when Andrea's ghost
appears before Pluto to be apportioned its proper place in the world of shadows, Pluto permits the
ghost, accompanied by the spirit of Revenge, to return to earth to see vengeance wrecked on his
slayer.
Andrea's slayer falls prisoner to Lorenzo, Bel-Imperia's brother and to Horatio, son of Hieronimo,
marshall of Spain. The King awards the ransom to Horatio and the custody of the royal prisoner to
Lorenzo. In the Duke's household, Balthazar inevitably falls in love with Bel-Imperia, and the King
conceives the idea that a marriage between these two would unite the kingdoms of Spain and
Portugal more firmly than a dozen wars.
Bel-Imperia, however, has secretly taken Horatio for her lover because he was Andrea's friend and
had given Andrea's body burial rites. Lorenzo, keen to forward Balthazar's suit, bribes Bel-Imperia's
servant to betray her meeting with Horatio. Lorenzo and Balthazar with their servants hang Horatio
and imprison Bel-Imperia so that she cannot spread the truth.
Hieronimo goes raving mad when he finds his son's body, but not too mad to plan a crafty revenge.
Gossip begins to spread as to Lorenzo's part in Horatio's death. Lorenzo hires one servant to kill the
other and then permits the first servant to be hanged for his crime. Thus he thinks to get rid of all
witnesses. But a letter recounting the details of the slaying is found on the servant's body and
brought to Hieronimo.
When, with many plausible speeches, Bel-Imperia is released for the royal betrothal ceremonies,
Hieronimo manages speech with her long enough to plan for their double revenge. He arranges that
a play of which he is the author shall be acted for the entertainment of the royal guests with
Lorenzo, Balthazar, Bel-Imperia and himself as actors. During the course of the performance
Hieronimo fatally stabs Lorenzo and Bel-Imperia kills Balthazar and herself. Before he attempts to
hang himself, Hieronimo explains to his audience that the deeds of blood are real, not sham, and the
reason for them. The party rushes down from the royal box to prevent his self-destruction before
they can learn the names of his fellow conspirators. During the confusion Hieronimo finds an
opportunity to stab the Duke of Castile himself. Thus the ghost of Andrea receives full satisfaction
for Andrea's untimely death.