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Big Idea 2 - Review
Big Idea 2 - Review
Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce
and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
Living systems require both free energy and matter to maintain order, grow and reproduce.
Organisms employ various strategies to capture, use and store free energy and other vital
resources. Energy deficiencies are not only detrimental to individual organisms; they also can
cause disruptions at the population and ecosystem levels.
Biological systems must both capture free energy and then transform the energy into usable
forms. Autotrophic cells capture free energy through photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.
Photosynthesis traps free energy present in sunlight that, in turn, is used to produce
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide. Chemosynthesis captures energy present in inorganic
chemicals. Cellular respiration and fermentation harvest free energy from sugars to produce free
energy carriers, including ATP. The free energy available in sugars drives metabolic pathways in
cells. Photosynthesis and respiration are interdependent processes.
Cells and organisms exchange matter with the environment. For example, water and nutrients are
used in the synthesis of new molecules; carbon moves from the environment to organisms where
it is incorporated into carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids or fats; and oxygen is necessary for
more efficient free energy use in cellular respiration. These processes release matter to the
environment as waste products. For example, cellular respiration will release carbon dioxide. In
addition, programmed cell death (apoptosis) plays a role in normal development and
differentiation (e.g., morphogenesis). Differences in surface-to-volume ratios affect the capacity
of a biological system to obtain resources and eliminate wastes.
Membranes allow cells to create and maintain internal environments that differ from external
environments. The structure of cell membranes results in selective permeability preventing
molecules with certain characteristics from passing through the membrane while allowing others
to pass. Processes that maintain dynamic homeostasis by allowing the movement of molecules
across membranes include osmosis, diffusion and active transport. In eukaryotes, internal
membranes partition the cell into specialized regions. Each region provides a localization of
chemical reactions allowing the cell processes to operate with optimal efficiency.
Feedback mechanisms maintain dynamic homeostasis within an organism by regulating
responses to changes in both internal and external environments. Negative feedback loops
maintain optimal internal environments while positive feedback mechanisms amplify responses.
Changes in a biological systems environment, particularly the availability of resources,
influence an organisms responses and activities. Organisms use various means to obtain
nutrients and remove wastes. Homeostatic mechanisms across phyla reflect both continuity due
to common ancestry and change due to evolution and natural selection. Examples of
homeostatic mechanisms that have evolved in plants and animals include defense mechanisms as
well as the timing and coordination of developmental, physiological and behavioral event
regulation. These mechanisms increase the fitness of individuals and long-term survival of
populations.
Know the general description of and the inputs and products series of coordinated
enzyme catalyzed reactions in Cellular respiration within eukaryotes that harvest free
energy from simple carbohydrates. (glycolysis, Krebs Cycle)
The electron transport chain captures free energy from electrons(delivered by NADH and
FADH2 in a series of coupled reactions that establish an electrochemical gradient across
membranes of the chloroplast, mitochondria and prokaryotic plasma membranes as
electrons move to the terminal electron acceptor (oxygen or NADP+). The flow of
protons back through membrane-bound ATP synthase by chemiosmosis generates ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
Diffusion is the process through which materials move through membranes and throughout the
cytoplasm without the expenditure of energy. The plasma membrane and organelle membranes
are selectively permeable, limiting the movement of materials through them. Phospholipids fatty
acids of the plasma membrane with their hydrophobic characteristics limit the movement of
polar substances such as water. Aquaporins (specialized protein channels for the movement of
water) increase the rate of osmosis, the diffusion of water. Other channel proteins facilitate the
movement of other materials such as ions while transport proteins facilitate the movement of
larger molecules (e.g., carbohydrates)
In diffusion, solutes move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Water also moves down its concentration gradient. Water moves from areas of high potential
(high free water concentration) and low solute concentration to areas of low potential (low free
water concentration) and high solute concentration. Solutes decrease the concentration of free
water because water molecules surround the solute molecules.
The following terms are used to describe solutions separated by selectively permeable membranes:
Hypertonic higher solute concentration (and lower water potential) compared to the
other solution. Water will move into this solution.
Hypotonic lower solute concentration (and high water potential) compared to the other
solution. Water will move to the other solution.
Isotonic identical solute concentration (and water potential) compared to the other
solution
In cells that have a cell wall (e.g., fungal and plant cells), water movement is affected by solute
concentration and turgor pressure. Turgor pressure is a resistance to water movement that
builds up as water moves into the cell and pushes the cell membrane against the cell wall. In this
case the cell wall prevents the cell from bursting.
Water Potential () can be calculated to predict the movement of water into and through plant
tissues such as roots, shoots and leaves. Water potential is the free energy per mole of water.
Water moves from an area of higher water potential (higher free energy) to an area of lower
water potential (lower free energy). Water potential can be used as a measure of the tendency of
water to diffuse from one compartment to another.
There are two major components in the calculation of water potential:
pressure potential (P)- results from the exertion of pressure either positive or
negative (tension) on a solution.
The water potential of pure water in an open beaker is zero ( = 0) because both the
solute and pressure potentials are zero (S = 0; P = 0).
An increase in positive pressure raises the pressure potential and the water potential.
The addition of solute to the water lowers the solute potential and decreases the water
potential. This means that a solution at atmospheric pressure has a negative water
potential due to the solute potential.
The solute potential (S) = iCRT,
where i is the ionization constant,
C is the molar concentration,
R is the pressure constant (R = 0.0831 liter bars/mole-K),
T is the temperature in K (273 + C).
Comparing solutions with similar concentration but with different ionization constants.
1) What is the water potential of the following solutions?
a. A 0.15 M solution of sucrose at atmospheric pressure in an open container (P =
0) and 25C . Sucrose does not ionize (i = 1)
= P + S
= 0+ S
(S) = iCRT
= - 1(0.15mole/L)( 0.0831 liter bars/mole-K)(298K)
= - 3.7 bars
(1 bar is a metric measure of pressure equal to 1 atmosphere at sea level)
Terms
With these calculations and your understanding of diffusion and osmosis you predicted the
relative rate of diffusion in each of the different sized cubes.
Using different sized cubes made with 2% agar, 0.1 M NaOH, and the pH indicator dye
phenolphthalein you were able to observe the relative rates of diffusion in the different sized
cubes. Each cube was placed in a 0.1 M HCl solution. As the HCl diffused into the cube the
pink cube would turn colorless.
You reflected upon the relationship of cell size and shape as important factors determining the
rate of diffusion. In particular you reviewed cells with specialized functions such as epithelial
cells that line the small intestine and plant root hairs.
Small cells have a greater surface area to volume ratio than do larger cells. This allows the small
cells to more efficiently move material in and out of the cytoplasm and maintain homeostasis.
Similarly, cells with convolutions have a greater efficiency than do cells without convolutions.
This is important in the nutrient procurement of epithelial cells that line the small intestine and
plant root hairs.
1 M Sucrose (a disaccharide)
Water
1 M NaCl
1 M Glucose (a monosaccharide)
5% Ovalbumin (a polypeptide)
Factors that affected diffusion include: disaccharides and polypeptides are too large to fit
through the pores in the dialysis tubing. Monosaccharaides can fit through the pores within the
dialysis tubing as can NaCl and water. NaCl ionizes and therefore has an ionization constant of 2
while glucose does not and has an ionization constant of 1.
Cell Wall
Hypertonic Solution
Isotonic Solution
Cell Membrane
If you applied saltwater to the roots of a plant, water would diffuse out of the root cells to the
area with lower water potential. In order for a plant to control turgor pressure it must regulate the
flow of solute particles or ions across its cell membrane.
In order to determine the water potential of plant cells you placed pieces of potato cut with a cork
borer into known sucrose solutions with varying concentration. You measured the percent
change in mass of the potatoes and by graphing the data determined the solute concentration of
the potato cells.
Percent Change in Mass of Potato Cores in Sucrose
Solutions
AP Lab 5 Photosynthesis
Rate of photosynthesis can be determined by measuring the
Bromthymol Blue
Yellow Green Blue
(pH 6)
(pH 7.5)
When CO2 is dissolved in water, it forms H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and causes the pH of the
solution to drop. As CO2 is removed from the water, the pH of the solution increases.
When CO2 is removed from a solution containing bromthymol blue, it changes from
yellow to green, and the color change may be qualitatively observed or quantitatively
measured using a spectrophotometer.
Spectrophotometer: Wavelength Yellow Absorption will Increase / Transmission will
Decrease
DPIP
Blue
Colorless
Reduction
(gains electrons)
Detection of O2 Production
Oxygen can directly be observed by counting bubbles or
collecting gas in an inverted tube. If the tube is graduated,
quantitative data can be obtained.
As well, if leaf disks are infiltrated with carbonated fluid will
rise as oxygen is produced and the air spaces within the leaf fill
up oxygen gas.
Procedure
Results
Negative Control
Experimental
Calculate 1/ET50 value based on multiple trials this is equivalent to the rate of
photosynthesis. The 1/ET50 value is used because as the rate of photosynthesis increases,
the time for disks to rise decreases. It is an inverse relationship.
Further Investigation
Design an experiment to test the effect of a variable such
as pH, light intensity, temperature, or level of CO2 on the
rate of photosynthesis.
Bromthymol Blue
Blue Green Yellow
(pH 7.5)
(pH 6)
When CO2 is dissolved in water, it forms H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and causes the pH of the
solution to drop.
As CO2 is added to a solution containing bromthymol blue, it will change from blue to
yellow, and the color change may be qualitatively observed or quantitatively measured
using a spectrophotometer.
Spectrophotometer: Wavelength Blue Absorption will Increase / Transmission will
Decrease
Detection of O2 Consumption
A respirometer allows O2 consumption to be monitored. As O2 is consumed water or a soap
bubble will move down the pipette leading toward the chamber of the respirometer. The amount
of movement represents the amount of O2 (mL) consumed by the organism in the chamber since
all CO2 in the chamber is removed by KOH in the cotton in the bottom of the respirometer.
Respirometer measures
O2 consumption and can
only be used in respiration
experiments.
Experimental Design
Controls
Experimental Set-up
Control Set-up
Both set-ups must have the same amounts of absorbent and non-absorbent cotton.
Both set-ups must have the same volume of gas. Therefore, the volume of peas and beads
must be the same. The number of beads does not matter, but the volume of the beads
must match the volume of the seeds.
Pea seeds do NOT carry out photosynthesis. They consist of an embryonic plant that only
respires along with the cotyledon (2n) that serves as a food source. The embryo and
cotyledon are surrounded by the testa (seed coat).
Corrected Data
A negative control should not
show any change and it is
known that glass beads do not
respire.
If the volume in negative
control does change, the data
values must be changed to
reflect a situation where there
is no change in the control.
Pressure Changes
due to Temperature
Fluctuation
P = Pressure
V = Volume
As the temperature increases, the pressure and/or volume of the gas increases.
7. Let the respirometers equilibrate for 10 minutes before submerging under water. This allows
time for the CO2 to be removed from the respirometers and for the respirometers to adjust to the
temperature of the water bath.
Temp
o
C
Time
(min)
Reading
at time
X
25
Initial0
14.4
25
0 to 5
14.1
0.3
13
0.9
0.6
25
5 to
10
14.0
0.4
11.1
2.8
25
10 to
15
13.9
0.5
10.3
25
15 to
20
13.9
0.5
8.8
Diff.
Reading
at time
X
Diff.
Corrected
Diff.
Diff.
Corrected
Diff.
14.1
0.1
-0.2
2.4
13.9
0.3
-0.1
3.6
3.1
13.7
0.5
0.0
5.1
4.6
13.5
0.7
0.2
13.9
14.2
Collect the standardized data (corrected differences) from the multiple trials carried out by all the
lab groups in your class and calculate the average data.
Non-Germinating Peas Average Data from Multiple Trials
Time
(min)
Group
1
Group
2
Group
3
Group
4
Group
5
Group
6
Group
7
Group
8
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.03
0.00
0.01
0.00
Average
Data
(Mean)
0.014
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.025
0.00
0.017
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.05
0.02
0.04
0.00
0.020
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.00
0.06
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.031
10
15
20
Group
1
Group
2
Group
3
Group
4
Group
5
Group
6
Group
7
Group
8
0.02
0.06
0.08
0.09
0.05
0.09
0.04
0.05
Average
Data
(Mean)
0.060
0.06
0.12
0.14
0.06
0.10
0.18
0.075
0.09
0.103
0.09
0.19
0.23
0.07
0.15
0.27
0.11
0.13
0.155
0.13
0.25
0.24
0.07
0.19
0.38
0.135
0.17
0.196
10
15
20
Use the data collected from multiple trials to create a graph with standard error bars.
Use a t-test to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between the rate of
respiration in germinating and non-germinating pea seeds.
Average Oxygen
Consumption (mL)
Germinating Peas
0.1
0.05
0
Non-germinating
Peas
-0.05 0
-0.1
10
15
Time (min)
20
25
Inferences
Imagine that you are given 25 germinating pea seeds that have been placed in
boiling water for five minutes. You place these seeds in a respirometer and
collect data. Predict the rate of oxygen consumption (cellular respiration) for
these seeds and explain your reasons.
Enzymes necessary for respiration will denature at high temperatures and most likely will not
renature correctly when cooled. As a result, boiled peas are not expected to respire.
Rare
Imagine that you are asked to measure the rate of respiration for a 25g reptile
and a 25g mammal at 10oC. Predict how the results would compare and
justify your prediction.
Reptiles are cold blooded animals (ectotherms or poikilotherms) and mammals are warm
blooded animals (endotherms). The respiratory rate within the cells of the reptile will
occur more slowly than the respiratory rate of the cells within the mammal when the
environmental temperature is 10oC.
Warm blooded animals maintain a relatively constant internal body temperature and
convert ATP energy produced during respiration into body heat. As well, they have
adaptations such as fur or hair to slow the loss of body heat. As a result, warm blooded
animals carry out respiration within their cells at a relatively constant rate.
Cold blooded animals do not maintain a constant internal body temperature. As the
environment cools, their body temperature drops and the rate of respiration within their
cells slows down significantly. Cold blooded organisms may change their behavior to
adjust their body temperature and often sit in the sun to warm up on cold days.
What difficulties would there be if you used a living green plant in this
investigation instead of germinating seeds?
Leaves of plants carryout photosynthesis and produce oxygen gas. This oxygen gas is
directly used in respiration within leaf cells.
As a result of oxygen production within leaf cells, the decrease in the oxygen level within the
respirometer would be lower than the actual amount of oxygen used in respiration.
Note Some oxygen would be consumed because not all plant tissues are photosynthetic.
Roots, non-green stems, and flowers do not carry out photosynthesis. As well, the cotyledons
(seed leaves) inside of seeds do not carry out photosynthesis.
Note Even though carbon dioxide is removed from the respirometer by KOH, the light
reactions of photosynthesis that produce oxygen by lysing water molecules most likely will
continue during the duration of the experiment. As well, stored carbon dioxide within the leaf
can be used to keep the dark reactions operational for a short period of time.
Further Investigation
Design an experiment to test the effect of a variable such as pH, light intensity, temperature,
or level of CO2 on the rate of respiration.
Compare the photosynthetic rates of seeds from different species of plants.
Compare the photosynthetic rates of different species of insects.