Applied Mathematics, 2014, 5, 2226-2234

Published Online August 2014 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/am

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/am.2014.515216

Relationships between Some k -Fibonacci

Sequences
Sergio Falcon
Department of Mathematics, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Email: sfalcon@dma.ulpgc.es
Received 15 May 2014; revised 23 June 2014; accepted 13 July 2014
Copyright 2014 by author and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
In this paper, we will see that some k -Fibonacci sequences are related to the classical Fibonacci
sequence of such way that we can express the terms of a k -Fibonacci sequence in function of some
terms of the classical Fibonacci sequence. And the formulas will apply to any sequence of a certain
set of k -Fibonacci sequences. Thus we find k -Fibonacci sequences relating to other k -Fibonacci
sequences when k is linearly dependent of k =

k + k2 + 4
.
2

Keywords
Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers, k -Fibonacci Numbers, Pascal Triangle

1. Introduction
k -Fibonacci sequence

{F }

k ,n n0

was found by studying the recursive application of two geometrical trans-

formations used in the well-known four-triangle longest-edge (4TLE) partition. This sequence generalizes the
classical Fibonacci sequence [1] [2].

1.1. Definition
For any positive real number k , the k -Fibonacci sequence, say { Fk , n }nN is defined recurrently by
Fk ,0 0,=
Fk ,1 1 .
Fk=
kFk , n + Fk , n 1 for n 1 with initial conditions=
, n +1
From this definition, the polynomial expression of the first k -Fibonacci numbers are presented in Table
1:
If k = 1 , the classical Fibonacci sequence {0,1,1, 2,3,5,8,} appears and if k = 2 , the 2-Fibonacci se-

How to cite this paper: Falcon, S. (2014) Relationships between Some k-Fibonacci Sequences. Applied Mathematics, 5,
2226-2234. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/am.2014.515216

S. Falcon

Table 1. Polynomial expression of the first k-Fibonacci numbers.

Fk ,1 = 1
Fk ,2 = k
Fk =
k 2 +1
,3
Fk ,4= k 3 + 2k
Fk ,5 =k 4 + 3k 2 + 1

quence is the classical Pell sequence

{0,1, 2,5,12, 29, 70,} .

1.2. Metallic Ratios

The characteristic equation of the recurrence equation of the definition of the k -Fibonacci numbers is

r 2 kr 1 =0 and its solutions are k =

k + k2 + 4
k k2 + 4
and k =
.
2
2

As particulars cases [3]:

1+ 5
is known as Golden Ratio and it is expressed as .
2
2) If k = 2 , then 2 = 1 + 2 is known as Silver Ratio.

1) If k = 1 , then 1 =

3 + 13
and it is known as Bronze Ratio.
2
From now on, we will represent the classical Fibonacci numbers as Fn instead of F1,n .

3) If k = 3 , it is 3 =

Binet identity takes the form [1] Fk , n =

kn ( k )
k k

with k k =

k2 + 4 .

1.3. Theorem 1
Power nk for n 1 is related to k by mean of the formula

=
kn Fk , n k + Fk , n 1

(1)

k Fk , n k + Fk , n 1 .
Proof. By induction. For n = 1 , it is obvious. Let us suppose this formula is true until:=
Then, and taking into account k2 k k 1 =
0:
n

kn +1 = kn k = ( Fk , n k + Fk , n 1 ) k

Fk , n +1 k + Fk , n
= kFk , n k + Fk , n 1 k + Fk ,=
n

Obviously, the formulas found in [1] [2] can be applied to any k -Fibonacci sequence. For example, the Identities of Binet, Catalan, Simson, and DOcagne; the generating function; the limit of the ratio of two terms of the
sequence, the sum of first n terms, etc. However, we will see that some k -Fibonacci sequences are related to
a first k -Fibonacci sequence so that we will can express the terms of a k -Fibonacci sequence according to
some terms of an initial k -Fibonacci sequence. And the formulas will be applicable to any sequence of a given
set of k -Fibonacci sequences. For instance, we will express the terms of the 4-Fibonacci sequence in function
of some terms of the classical Fibonacci sequence and these formulas will be applied to other k -Fibo-naccisequences, as for example if k = 11, 29, 76,199,

2. k -Fibonacci Sequences Related to the k -Fibonacci Sequence

In this section, we try to find the relationships that can exist between the values of k and the coefficients a
and b such that k= a + b k .
We can write this last equation as

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S. Falcon

k + k 2 + 4
k + k2 + 4
=a+b
k + k 2 + 4 = 2 a + b k + k 2 + 4
2
2
k= 2a + bk
2
2 4
4 b 2 k 2 + 4 k 2 + 4 b 2 k=
k +=

k =

) (

because k .
Main problem is to solve the quadratic Diophantine equation
each value of k .

(k

+ 4 b 2 k 2 =
4 for k and b for

2.1. Theorem 2
The positive characteristic root b k2 n +1 generates new k -Fibonacci sequences, for n = 1, 2 , Proof. From
2 n +1
Formula (1) it is obtained =
Fk ,2 n + Fk ,2 n +1 k .
k
For n = 1 it is

k + k2 + 4 1
= k k 2 + 3 + k 2 +1
2
2
2

4 k k 2 +3
k k 2 + 3 +=
( )

k3 =Fk ,2 + Fk ,3 k =k + ( k 2 + 1)
1
2
k k +3 +
2

) ( (

) (

k2 + 4

))

Then, k3 generates the k k 2 + 3 -Fibonacci sequence.

In the same way, we can prove that k5 generates the k k 4 + 5k 2 + 5 -Fibonacci sequence, k7 generates the k k 6 + 7 k 4 + 14k 2 + 7 -Fibonacci sequence, etc. Particularly, ( k =
1) generates the sequences
F1 , F4 , F11 , F29 , .

2.2. Theorem 3
For n 2 it is verified

k2 n +1 =
( k 2 + 2 ) k2n1 k2n3

(2)

Proof. Taking into account both Table 1 and Formula (1), Right Hand Side (RHS) of Equation (2) is

( RHS ) =
(( k 3 + 2k ) k + ( k 2 + 1)) k2n3
(( k 2 + 2) k2 1) k2n3 =
(( k 2 + 2) ( k k + 1) 1) k2n3 =
=
k4 k2 n 3 =
k2 n +1
( Fk ,4 k + Fk ,3 ) k2n 3 =

It is worthy of note that Equation (2) is similar to the relationship between the elements of the k -Fibonacci
sequence Fk , n + 2 =k 2 + 2 Fk , n Fk , n 2 . Other versions of this equation will appear in this paper. Moreover, if
we are looking for the characteristic roots of this equation, then we find

r2 k 2 + 2 r +1 = 0 r =

k 2 + 2 k 4 + 4k 2
k k2 + 4
= k
+1 =
2
2

k k + 1 =
k2

k2
k k + 1 =

And Fk , n + 2 will be function of k2 with the coefficients depending of initial conditions for n = 0 and
n =1.

2.3. k-Fibonacci Sequences Related to an Initial f-Fibonacci Sequence

From two previous theorems, the k -Fibonacci sequences related to an initial k -Fibonacci sequence have as
the positive characteristic root k2 n +1 or that is the same, the sequence of characteristic roots

{ } = {
2 n +1
k

, k3 , k5 , generates the k -Fibonacci sequences related to the first k -Fibonacci sequence.

The values of the parameter of these sequences are

k , k ( k 2 + 3) , k ( k 4 + 5k 2 + 5 ) , k ( k 5 + 7 k 4 + 14k 2 + 7 ) ,
{k=
n}

2228

and Equation (2) for this sequence takes the

S. Falcon

similar form kn +1 = k 2 + 2 kn kn 1 .
Next we present the first few values of the parameter kn :
a) k1 = k
b) k=
k 3 + 3k
2
c) k3 =k 5 + 5k 3 + 5k
d) k4 =k 7 + 7 k 5 + 14k 3 + 7 k
e) k5 =k 9 + 9k 7 + 27 k 5 + 30k 3 + 9k

But these polynomials verify the relationship

=
kn Fk ,2 n + Fk ,2 n 2

(3)

where Fk , n are expressed in Table 1.

The coefficients of these polynomials generate the triangle in Table 2:
Last column is the sum by row of the coefficients, and it is a bisection of the classical Lucas sequence
{2,1,3, 4, 7,11,18, 29, 47,} and we will see again in this paper.
c

ar ,c ar 1,c 1 + ar 1 j ,c j . For instance, 1 + 5 + 14 + 30 of the second

If ar ,c is a term of this table, then=
j =0

diagonal plus 27 of the row 5 is the 77 of the row 6.

All the first diagonal sequences are listed in [4], from now on OEIS, but the unique antidiagonal sequences
listed in OEIS are:

a) {1,1,1,1,1,} : A000012
b) {3,5, 7,9,11,} : A005408 {1}
c) {5,14, 27, 44, 65,} : A014106
d) {7,30, 77,156, 275,} : A030440
From this study, it is easy to find the values of b mentioned at the beginning of this section, because

bn
=

{bn }

Sequence

kn2 + 4
Fk ,2 n 1 .
=
k2 + 4

also verifies the recurrence law given in Equation (2): bn +1 = k 2 + 2 bn bn 1 .

In this case, the triangle of coefficients is in Table 3 and the formto generate these numbers is the same as in
table of kn . This triangle is formed by the odd rows of 2-Pascal triangle of [2]. The sequence of the last column
is a bisection of the classical Fibonacci sequence {1,1, 2,3,5,8,13, 21,} .
First diagonal sequences and the antidiagonal sequences are listed in OEIS.
k b k
Finally, for the values of an is enough to do an = n n and therefore, applying Formula (3) and the de2
finition of the k -Fibonacci numbers, an $ = Fk ,2 n 2 .
Table 2. Triangle of the coefficients of kn.
1

1
1

2
1

3
1

4
1

5
6

4
5

7
9

11

14
27

11
7

30

44

77

2229

29
9

55

76
11

199

S. Falcon

In this case, the triangle of the coefficients of the expressions of an is in Table 4.

Last column is the other bisection of the classical Fibonacci sequence.
The diagonal sequence {1, n,} indicates the number of terms in the expansion of

( x1 + x2 + + xn )

and

n + j 1
it is a j , n =
.
j

In this table, it is verified:

r

ar j ,c j 1 + ar 1,c 1

a) ar ,c
=

j =0

0,1, 1 , if
a2n +1 a2n =

b)

( mod 3) , respectively.

n 0,1, 2

c) The diagonal sequences are listed in OEIS.

n + 2r
d) The elements of rth diagonal sequence, for r = 0,1, 2, verify the relation an , r =

2r + 1
Then we will apply the results to the k -Fibonacci sequences, for k = 1, 2,3, 4 .

3. k -Fibonacci Sequences Related to the Classical Fibonacci Sequence

In this section we try to find the relations that could exist between the values of k and a and b in order
that the positive characteristic root k is k = a + b .
k 2a + b
=
In this case, Equation (2) takes the form 2
.
2
2
2
k + 4= 5b 5b k = 4

4
3.1. Integer Solutions of Equation 5b 2 k 2 =
The integer solutions of Equation 5b 2 k 2 =
are bn F=
4=
L2 n +1 , being Ln the classical Lucas se2 n +1 , k n
quence {2,1,3, 4, 7,11,18, 29, 47,} .
n
Proof. Applying Binnet Identity, and taking into account Ln = Fn +1 + Fn 1 Ln = n + ( ) , it is

5b 2 4 = 2 n +1 ( )
=

2 n +1

2 n 1 2

+ ( )

4 = 4 n + 2 2 ( 1)

2 n 1 2

2 n +1

+ 4 n 2 4 = 4 n + 2 2 + 4 n 2

= L22 n +1

Table 3. Triangle of the coefficients of bn.

1

4
1

5
15

13

10

28

35

1
15

34
1

89

Table 4. Triangle of the coefficients of an.

1

3
1

4
1

5
6

3
3

6
8

10

10
21

8
4

20

36

56

2230

21
5

35

55
6

144

Consequently, the values of the parameter k can also be expressed as kn =F2 n + F2 n + 2 =L2 n +1 .
Integer solutions of this equation are expressed in Table 5, where 1 =

3.2. On the Sequences

S. Falcon

1+ 5
= is the Golden Ratio.
2

{an } , {bn } , and {kn }

We will show some properties of the sequences of Table 5.

The sequence of values of a , {0,1,3,8, 21,} , A001906 is the sequence { F2n } of even Fibonacci numbers, and is known as Bisection of Fibonacci sequence. Its elements, an , have the property that 5an2 + 4 are
perfect squares and these numbers form the sequence {2,3, 7,18, 47,} , A005248 that is the Bisection of
the classical Lucas sequence. The sequence of sums of two consecutive terms of this sequence is 5 times the
following sequence.
The sequence of values of b , {1, 2,5,13,34,} , A001519 is the sequence of odd Fibonacci numbers,
{F2 n +1} , and is also known as Bisection of Fibonacci sequence. The sequence of sums of two consecutive
terms of this sequence is the preceding sequence A005248 {2} .
The sequence of values of k , {1, 4,11, 29, 76,} , A002878 is the sequence of odd Lucas numbers, or,
that is the same, is the sum of two even consecutive Fibonacci numbers, { F2 n + F2 n + 2 } and is known as
Bisection Lucas Sequence. The sequence of sums of two consecutive terms of this sequence is 5 times the
preceding sequence A001906 {0} .
All these sequences verify the recurrence law given in Equation (2), p=
3 pn pn 1 .
n +1
As a consequence of this situation, if we represent as { 1,n }n the sequence of values of , then, Equation
(2) is the relation=
1.n F2 n +1 + F2 n .

3.3. Relationships between the k -Fibonacci Sequences If k = L2 n +1 and the Classical

Fibonacci Sequence
Applying Subsection 2.3 when k = 1 in Equation (3), the sequence
quence { 1 , 4 , 11 , 29 ,} .
Consequently:

F4, n =
F11, n =
F29, n =

4n ( 4 )

20

( 11 )
n
11

( 29 )

3 n

( )
5n

( )
7n

845

5 n

7 n

13 5

2 n +1

is the se-

F5 n
1
F11 = {0,5,55, 610,}
5
F5

5 5

F3n
1
F4 = {0, 2,8,34,144,}
2
F3

2 5

125
n
29

3n ( )

{, , ,} = { }

F7 n
1
F29 =
{0,13,377,10946,}
13
F7

4. k -Fibonacci Sequences Related with the Pell Sequence

Repeating the previous process, we can solve the Diophantine equation 8b 2 k 2 =
4 and being
=
k 2a + 2b .
Table 5. Integer solutions of the Diophantine equation 5b2 k2 = 4.
kn = L2n+1

bn = F2n+1

an = F2n

1,n

1= 0 + 1 1

4 = 1 + 2 1

11

11= 3 + 5 1

29

13

29 = 8 + 13 1

76

34

21

76= 21 + 34 1

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S. Falcon

The values obtained are showed in Table 6:

{an } , {bn } , and {kn } .

4.1. On These Quences

We will show some properties of the sequences of Table 4.

{an } = {0, 2,12, 70, 408,} , A001542 is the sequence of even Pell numbers. Its elements have the property
that 8an2 + 4 are perfect squares, being

8an2 + 4 =
{2, 6,34,198,1154,} , A003499 . The sequence of sums of

two consecutive terms of this sequence is the sequence {8bn } .

{bn } = {1,5, 29,169,985,} , A001653 is the sequence of odd Pell numbers. Its elements have the property that 2 pn2 1 are perfect squares.
{kn } = {2,14,82, 478, 2786,} , A077444 . Its elements are the Pell-Lucas numbers, kn =P2 n + P2 n + 2 =LP2 n +1 .
This sequence can be obtained by summing up two consecutive terms of the sequence A001542.
Much more interesting is the sequence obtained by dividing by 2: {1, 7, 41, 239,1393,} , A002315 . This
sequence has been studied in [5] and
n has been determined as the values whose square coincide with the sum
of the 4n + 1 first Pell numbers, S4 j +1 = an2 and it is known as the Newman-Shanks-Williams Primes. It
j = 0 6a
verifies the recurrence law a=
2, n +1
2, n a2.n 1 with initial conditions a2,1 = 1 and a2,2 = 7 . The sequence of sums of two consecutive terms of this sequence is 8 times {6,35, 204,1189,} , A001109 . Its elements verify the property 8sn2 + 1 are perfect squares, {17,99,577,} , A001541 {1,3} .
All these sequences verify the recurrence law (2), p=
6 pn pn 1 .
n +1
As in the preceding section, if we represent the sequence of values of as { 2,n } , then these terms verify
2, n P2 n +1 2 + P2 n , being 2 = 1 + 2 the Silver Ratio.
the recurrence relation=

4.2. Relationships between the k -Fibonacci Sequences for k = 2, 14, 82, 478, and the
Pell Sequence
Taking into account 22 2 2 1 =0 , it is easy to prove

} {

, 23 , 25 , = 22 n +1

{ 2 , 14 , 82 , 478 ,}

is the geometric sequence

Consequently:
F14, n =
F82, n =

14n ( 14 )

200

( 82 )

F478, n =

n
82

1682
n
478
( 478 )

228488

23n ( 2 )

3 n

5 8

5n
2

( 2 )
29 8

F2,7 n
F2,7

F2,3n

F2,5n

5 n

F2,3
F2,5

P3n
1
F14 = {0,5, 70,985,}
5
P3

P5 n
1
F82 =
{0, 29, 2378,195025,}
29
P5

P7 n
1
F478 =
{0,169,80782,}
169
P7

5. k -Fibonacci Sequences Related to the 3-Fibonacci Sequence

Repeating the previous process, we can solve the Diophantine equation 13b 2 k 2 =
4 being =
k 2a + 3b .
The values obtained are showed in Table 7.
Table 6. Integer solutions of the Diophantine equation 8b2 k2 = 4.
kn = P2n + P2n+2

bn = P2n+1

an = P2n

2,n

2= 0 + 1 2

14

14= 2 + 5 2

82

29

12

82= 12 + 29 2

478

169

70

478= 70 + 169 2

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S. Falcon

{an } , {bn } , and {kn }

5.1. On These Quences

We will show some properties of the sequences of Table 7.

{an } = {0,3,33,360,3927,} , A075835 , is the sequence of even 3-Fibonacci numbers. Its elements have the
property that 13an2 + 4 are perfect squares, {2,11,119,1298,} , A057076 . The sequence of sums of two
consecutive terms is 13 times the following sequence.
{bn } = {1,10,109,1189,} , A078922 , is the sequence of the odd 3-Fibonacci numbers.
{kn } = {3,36,393, 4287, 46764,} is the sequence of the odd 3-Lucas numbers
kn =F3,2 n + F3,2 n + 2 =L3,2 n +1 . This sequence can also be expressed as 3 times the sequence
{1,12,131,1429,...} , A097783 .
All these sequences verify the recurrence law (Equation (2)), p=
11 pn pn 1 .
n +1

=
3, n F3,2 n +1 3 + F3,2 n being 3 =
The sequence { 3,n } verify the relationship

3 + 13
the Bronze Ratio [3].
2

5.2. Relationships between the kFibonacci Sequences for k = 3, 36, 393, 4287, and the
3-Fibonacci Sequence
0 , it is easy to prove
Taking into account 32 3 3 1 =

} {

, 33 , 35 , = 32 n +1

{ 3 , 36 , 393 , 4287 ,}

is the geometric sequence

Consequently:

F36, n =
F393, n =

36n ( 36 )

1300
n
393
( 393 )

F3,7 n
F3,3

F4287 =

3 n

10 13

154453

F4287, n =

33n ( 3 )

35n ( 3 )

F3,3n
F3,3

5 n

109 13

F36 =

F3,5 n
F3,5

1
{0,10,360,12970,}
10

F393 =

1
{0,109,11881,}
109

1
{0,1189,5097243,}
1189

6. Conclusions
There are infinite k -Fibonacci sequences related to an initial k -Fibonacci sequence for a fixed value of k .
Between these sequences, the following relations are verified:
1) The relationship k , n= a + b k is verified if and only if both following relations happen:
Relationship between a , b , and k : k=
2a + kb
n
2
2
2
k
+
4
b

k
=
4
Diophantine equation:
2) Relationship between the positive characteristic root k , n and the k Fibonacci numbers:
kn +1 Fk , n +1 k + Fk , n
=
3) Second sequence related to the k Fibonacci sequence:=
k k k2 + 3
2
4) Two first values of b are b1 = 1= Fk ,1 and b2 = k + 1 = Fk ,3
5) Two first values of a are a0= 0= Fk ,0 and a1= k= Fk ,2
6) Recurrence law for the sequences {an } , {bn } , and {kn } : pn +1 =k 2 + 2 pn pn 1

Table 7. Integer solutions of the Diophantine equation 13 b2 k2 = 4.

kn

bn = F3,2n+1

an = F3,2n

3,n

3= 0 + 1 3

36

10

36 = 3 + 10 3

393

109

33

393= 33 + 109 3

4287

1189

360

4287
= 360 + 1189 3

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S. Falcon

It is worthy of remarking the fact the last sequence { k2 n +1}

indicates the kn -Fibonacci sequence related to

the initial k -Fibonacci sequence { F1 , F2 , F3 , F4 ,} generated by the respective positive characteristic root,
k2 n +1 . From this sequence, we can obtain the sequence of k -Fibonacci sequences related to Fn : taking into
account the positive characteristic root of this sequence is k2 n +1 , the sequence of r -Fibonacci sequences rer 2 n +1
lated to this has as positive characteristic root, k ( ) for r 1 . For instance: from the sequence of k -Fibonacci sequences related with the classical Fibonacci sequence (see Section 2), F1 , F4 , F11 , F29, F76 , we can obtain the sequences of k -Fibonacci sequences related to
4-Fibonacci sequence: { F4 , F76 .F1364 , F24476 ,}
11-Fibonacci sequence:
29-Fibonacci sequence:

{F11 , F1364 ,}
{F29 , F24476 ,} .

References
[1]

Falcon, S. and Plaza, A. (2007) On the Fibonacci k-Numbers. Chaos, Solitons Fractals, 32, 1615-1624.

[2]

Falcon, S. and Plaza, A. (2007) Thek-Fibonacci Sequence and the Pascal 2-Triangle. Chaos, Solitons Fractals, 33,
38-49.

[3]

Spinadel, V.W. (1999) The family of Metallic Means. Vis Math, 1.

http://members.tripod.com/vismath/

[4]

Sloane, N.J.A. The Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. http://oeis.org

[5]

Falcon, S. and Diaz-Barreiro, J.L. (2006) Some Properties of Sums Involving Pell Numbers. Missouri Journal of Mathematical of Sciences, 18, 33-40.

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