Thng tin s

Gio trnh dnh cho sinh vin i hc ngnh

in t - Vin thng
TS. Nguyn Hu Thanh
Khoa in t Vin Thng
Trng i hc Bch khoa H ni
Tel. 8464408
Email: thanhnh@mail.hut.edu.vn
Phin bn: 08/01/2007 22:59

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Cc t vit tt
ADC

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Analog Digital Converter

ADPCM

Adaptive Differential PCM

CAS

Channel Associated Signaling

CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access

CODEC

Coder Decoder

DAC

Digital Analog Converter

DPCM

Differential PCM

DSSS

Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum

ESD

Energy Spectral Density

ETSI

European
Telecommunications
Standards Institute

FAS

Frame Alignment Signal

FDMA

Frequency Division Multiple Access

FHSS

Frequency-Hoping Spread Spectrum

IEEE

Institute
of
Electronics
Electrical Engineering

ISI

Inter Symbol Interference

ITU

International
Union

MFAS

Multi-Frame Alignment Signal

Modem

Modulation Demodulation

NRZ

Non-Return-to-Zero

PAM

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PCM

Pulse Code Modulation

PDF

Probability Density Function

pdf

probability distribution function

PPM

Pulse Position Modulation

PSD

Power Spectral Density

PWM

Pulse Width Modulation

RZ

Return-to-Zero

SDR

Signal to Distortion Ratio

TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access

and

Telecommunication

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Bng i chiu thut
ng Anh - Vit
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Ting Vit
Ting Anh
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Mo chng ph
Aliasing
Trm lp khuych i

Amplifier Repeater

Bng tn thng di

Band Pass

Bng tn c s

Baseband

Trm gc

Base Station

Knh

Channel

Va p

Collision

Cuc ni

Connection

Nhiu xuyn m

Cross Talk

Qu trnh khi phc tn hiu

Decision Process

Gii iu ch

Demodulation

Mch d

Detection

Cn bng

Equalisation

bt nh

Equivocation

M ho iu khin li

Error Control Coding

Mt ph nng lng

Energy Spectral Density

th mt

Eye Diagram

Ly mu nh phng

Flat Topped Sampling

Khung

Frame

p ng tn s

Frequency Response

Giao thoa gia cc k hiu

Intersymbol Interference

Modem

MODEM

iu ch

Modulation

a khung

Multi-frame

a truy nhp

Multiple Access

B ghp knh, b hp knh

Multiplexer

Ly mu t nhin

Natural Sampling

Hiu ng xa - gn

Near Far Effect

M ng truyn

Line Coding

Kt ni, lin kt

Link

Mt ph cng sut

Power Spectral Density

Hm mt xc sut
T m gi nhiu
iu ch bin xung
iu ch xung m
iu ch v tr xung

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Probability Density Function

Pseudonoise Code
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Position Modulation

iu ch rng xung

Pulse Width Modulation

Lng t ho

Quatisation

B lc cos nng

Raised Cosine Filter

B lc khi phc

Reconstruction Filter

Redundancy

Trm lp khi phc, trm lp ti sinh

Regenerative Repeater

Trm lp

Repeater

Ly mu

Sampling

u thu, phn thu

Sender

T s tn hiu trn mo

Signal to Distortion Ratio

u thu, phn thu, ch

Sink

M ho ngun

Source Coding

K hiu

Symbol

Ghp knh phn chia theo thi gian

Time Division Multiplexing

B pht, khi pht

Transmitter

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Mc lc ..
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1. ................................................... Gii thiu chung v h thng thng tin

1.1. .................................................................... Mt s khi nim chung

1.1.1..................................................................................... nh ngha

1.1.2....................................... Cc khi nim thng dng trong thng tin s

1.1.3............................................................. Gii thiu ni dung mn hc

1.1.4........................................................................... Ti liu tham kho

1.1.5.Thng tin, mi trng truyn tin v mt s yu cu chung trong h thng thng tin
Cc yu cu khi truyn thng tin qua mt h thng vin thng ....................... 4
Ngun tin ............................................................................................................. 3
Mi trng truyn tin .......................................................................................... 3
1.2. ..................... Cc dch v vin thng - Chun trong h thng vin thng

1.2.1...................................................... Mt s dch v vin thng c bn

1.2.2................................... Mt s t chc cung cp cc chun vin thng

1.3. ............................................................ Mng s DN (Digital Network)

1.3.1.......................................... u im ca truyn tin s so vi tng t

1.3.2................................................................. Cc phng thc lin lc

n cng (Simplex) ............................................................................................ 5

Bn song cng (Half duplex) .............................................................................. 6
Song cng (Duplex) ............................................................................................ 6
1.3.3................................................... Cc tham s c bn trong mng s

1.3.4............................................ Cc thnh phn cu thnh mt mng s

CODEC................................................................................................................ 8
B ghp knh .................................................................................................... 10
Modem............................................................................................................... 10
a truy nhp ...................................................................................................... 11
2. ............................................. Mt s kin thc chung v bin i Fourier

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2.1. ............................................................................... Bin i Fourier
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2.1.1............... Bin i Fourier mt.dng sng t min thi gian sang tn s
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2.1.2...................................................................
Bin i Fourier ngc
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. Mt s tnh cht ca bin i Fourier
2.1.3..................................................
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2.1.4..................... nh ngha mt s hm hay s dng trong phn tch ph

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Mt ph nng lng .................................................................................... 14

Mt ph cng sut ....................................................................................... 14
Hm Delta Dirac ................................................................................................ 14
Tch chp ........................................................................................................... 15
2.1.5...........................................................Mt s nh l bin i Fourier

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2.2. ........................................... Dng ph ca mt s tn hiu thng gp

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2.2.1.................................................................. Ph ca tn hiu hnh sin

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2.2.2.......................................................................... Ph xung ch nht

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2.2.3.................................................................... Ph ca xung tam gic

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2.3. ......................................................Ph ca cc dng sng tun hon

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2.3.1......................................................................... Chui Fourier phc

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2.3.2............................................. Ph vch ca cc dng sng tun hon

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2.3.3......................................................... Ph ca sng vung tun hon

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2.4. ............................................................................................ Bi tp

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3. ................................................................................ Ly mu v PCM

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3.1. ................................................................................. iu ch xung

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3.2. .............................................................................Qu trnh ly mu

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3.2.1........................................... Ly mu t nhin v ly mu nh phng

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3.2.2......................................... Ly mu bng tn c s v nh l Nyquist

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3.2.3............................................................... Nhiu chng ph (aliasing)

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3.2.4.............. Qu trnh ly mu trong thc t, khi phc tn hiu v t l S/N

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3.2.5...........................................................................Ly mu thng di

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Tn hiu bng tn c bn v tn hiu bng tn thng di ............................... 29

Ly mu tn hiu bng tn thng di................................................................ 29
3.3. ..................................................................... Qu trnh lng t ho

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3.3.1................................................................. Lng t ho xung PAM
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. T s tn hiu trn tp m lng t ho
3.3.2..............................................
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3.4. .................................................................
iu ch xung m PCM
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3.4.1.............................................SN R ca phng php PCM tuyn tnh
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q

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3.4.2..................................................... SNR sau gii m PCM ti u thu

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3.4.3.................................................................... M ho PCM phi tuyn

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3.5. ........................................ Cc k thut gim bng truyn tn hiu thoi

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3.5.1...................Mi lin h gia tc v rng bng tn ca tn hiu s

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3.5.2......................................................................... K thut Delta PCM

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3.5.3............................... K thut PCM vi phn Differential PCM (DPCM)

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3.5.4.................... K thut DPCM t thch ng Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM)

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3.5.5............................................. iu ch Delta Delta Modulation (DM)

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3.5.6............iu ch Delta t thch ng Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM)

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3.6. ............................................................................................ Bi tp

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4. ........................ Truyn tn hiu trn bng tn c bn v m ng truyn

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4.1. .......................................................Mt s cng c ton hc cn thit

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4.1.1................................................................ RMS (Root Mean Square)

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4.1.2...................................................................... K vng (Expectation)

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4.1.3..................................................................... Phng sai (Variance)

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4.1.4............................................... Phn b Gauss (Gausian Distribution)

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4.2. .............................. Cc vn khi truyn tn hiu trn bng tn c bn

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4.2.1.......................................... M hnh knh truyn v h thng thu pht

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4.2.2........................................... Hin tng ISI (Intersymbol Interference)

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4.2.3.................................................................. th mt (eye diagram)

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4.2.4..................................... Sa dng xung v qu trnh lc knh Nyquist

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4.2.5.................................................. B lc cos nng (raised cosine filter)

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4.2.6..............................................................Nhiu xuyn m (cross talk)

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4.3. .............................. nh hng ca nhiu v ISI ln cht lng tn hiu

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4.3.1............................................................ Khi phc tn hiu ti u thu

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4.3.2.................................. Tnh ton li ng truyn cho tn hiu hai mc

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4.3.3.............................. Tnh ton li ng truyn cho tn hiu nhiu mc
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. lu khi truyn tn hiu qua nhiu chng
4.3.4.................................... Li tch
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4.4. .............................................................................
M ng truyn
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. Gii thiu chung v m ng truyn
4.4.1................................................
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4.4.2........................................... Cc m ng truyn n cc (unipolar)

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4.4.3....................................................................... M lng cc (polar)

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4.4.4...................................................................................... M dipolar

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4.4.5.......................................................... M Bipolar-RZ v Bipolar-NRZ

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4.4.6.................................................Qu trnh ng b xung v m HDBn

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4.4.7.........................................................M CMI (coded mark inversion)

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4.4.8....................................................................................... M nBmT

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4.5. .............................. Cc phng php truyn v tch thng tin ng b

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4.5.1...........................................................Truyn ng b trong thoi s

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4.5.2............................................................... Khi phc tn hiu ng b

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4.6. ............................................................................................ Bi tp

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5. .................................................................................... M ho ngun

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5.1. ......................................................................... Thng tin v entropy

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5.1.1..................................................................................... t vn

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5.1.2......................................................................... Khi nim lng tin

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5.1.3......................................................... Entropy ca ngun tin nh phn

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5.2. ............................................................ Entropy c iu kin v d

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5.3. ................................................................ Tn hao thng tin do nhiu

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5.4. ............................................................................................ Bi tp

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6. ...................................................................................... M ho knh

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6.1. ................................................................. Gii thiu v m ho knh

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6.2. ............................................................................................ Bi tp

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7. ............................................................................. K thut ghp knh

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7.1. ...................................................................................... Tng quan

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7.2. .......................................................... K thut ghp knh theo tn s

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7.2.1............................................................................. Nguyn l chung

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7.2.2.............................................. Mt s hiu ng trong thng tin di ng
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7.2.3...........................................................
FDMA trong thng tin di ng
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7.2.4..............................................................
u nhc im ca FDMA
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. Ghp knh trong thng tin quang
7.2.5......................................................
.

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7.3. ...................................................... K thut ghp knh theo thi gian

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7.3.1............................................................................. Nguyn l chung

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7.3.2........................................................... TDMA trong thng tin di ng

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7.3.3........................Th d v cu trc khung thi gian trong h thng GSM

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7.3.4.............................................................. u nhc im ca TDMA

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7.3.5........................................................................ Ghp knh thng k

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7.4. .............................................................................. Ghp knh PCM

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7.5. .............................................................. K thut ghp knh theo m

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7.5.1............................................................................. Nguyn l chung

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7.5.2............................................. Phng php tri ph trc tip DSSS

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7.5.3............................................. Phng php tri ph nhy tn FHSS

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7.6. ............................................................................................ Bi tp

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8. .............................................................................................. Ph lc

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8.1. .......................................................... Gi tr hm erf di dng bng

109

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Mc lc hnh
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Hnh 1 ng truyn, kt ni v cuc ni ............................ 2
Hnh 2 Qu trnh pht trin cc dch v vin thng .............. 4
Hnh 3 Cc phng thc truyn thng tin ............................ 6
Hnh 4 S khi h thng thng tin s............................... 8
Hnh 5 Qu trnh bin i tng t - s ................................ 9
Hnh 6 Chn byte trong TDM............................................... 10
Hnh 7 Chn bit trong TDM .................................................. 10
Hnh 8 Ghp knh v a truy nhp ..................................... 12
Hnh 9 Ph tn hiu hnh sin................................................. 16
Hnh 10 Tn hiu xung ch nht .......................................... 17
Hnh 11 Ph ca xung ch nht.......................................... 17
Hnh 12 Xung tam gic......................................................... 18
Hnh 13 Ph ca xung tam gic .......................................... 18
Hnh 14. Dng sng vung tun hon ................................ 20
Hnh 15 Dng tn hiu xung vung tun hon trong min thi gian v min tn s

21

Hnh 16 Cc phng php iu ch xung ......................... 23

Hnh 17 Min tn s v thi gian trong qu trnh ly mu t nhin

24

Hnh 18 Minh ho min thi gian v tn s ca xung PAM hoc ly mu nh phng 25

Hnh 19 Nhiu chng ph ny sinh do nh l Nyquist khng c tho mn 26
Hnh 20 c tnh ph tn s ting ni ca n ng v ph n

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Hnh 21(a) Hm truyn t ca b lc khi phc l tng; (b) Hm truyn t ca b lc khi phc
khng l tng (th d lc RC) ............................................ 27
Hnh 22 B lc thng thp RC ............................................. 29
Hnh 23 Tn hiu thng di v c s ................................... 29
Hnh 24 So snh ly mu theo tn hiu thng di v theo Nyquist

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Hnh 25 Hm mt xc sut ca xung PAM vi bin lin tc

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Hnh 26 Qu trnh lng t ho tn hiu PAM ................... 31
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. xc sut ca tn hiu sau lng t ho
Hnh 27 Hm mt
32
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. t ho pht sinh tp m (t)=g (t)-g(t)32
Hnh 28 Sai s lng
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. gia xung PAM, lng t ho v tn hiu PCM 35
Hnh 29 Mi quan h
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q

Hnh 30 M ho PCM tuyn tnh v phi tuyn .................... 38

Hnh 31 Nn v dn nn ...................................................... 38
Hnh 32 Qu trnh xy dng hm nn trong companded PCM

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Hnh 33 c tnh ca hm A-law vi cc h s A khc nhau40

Hnh 34 Tr tuyt i ca hm A-law xp x ........................ 40
Hnh 35 M ho v gii m delta PCM ............................... 42
Hnh 36 M ho v gii m DPCM...................................... 43
Hnh 37 Mt thut ton tin on c s dng trong DPCM

43

Hnh 38 M ho v gii m DM ........................................... 45

Hnh 39 Dng sng DM v tp m lng t ho, tp m dc
Hnh 40 SNR vi cc gi tr v t s

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f S f H khc nhau46

Hnh 41 S xut hin thnh phn mt chiu u thu do li47

Hnh 42 M ho ADM .......................................................... 48
Hnh 43 Dng sng ADM vi bc lng t ho thay i 49
Hnh 44 Phn b Gauss....................................................... 55
Hnh 45 p ng tn s ca cp ng 2km ....................... 56
Hnh 46 M hnh knh truyn v h thng thu pht ........... 56
Hnh 47 Tn hiu pht ra t ngun ...................................... 57
Hnh 48 Hin tng ISI ........................................................ 58
Hnh 49 Dng th mt ...................................................... 59
Hnh 50 Hm truyn ca b lc Nyquist ............................. 59
Hnh 51 Dng sng tn hiu tho mn p ng tn s Nyquist

60

Hnh 52 p ng tn s ca b lc cos nng .................... 61

Hnh 53 Hm truyn t ca c tuyn cos nng trong min thi gian.
Hnh 54 Nhiu xuyn m u gn v u xa ..................... 62
Hnh 55 Ph ca NEXT........................................................ 63
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Hnh 56 Hm phn b xc sut (pdf): (a) Tn hiu nh phn; (b) Tn hiu v nhiu
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Hnh 57 M NRZ ..................................................................
66
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. nhiu mc ....................................... 67
Hnh 58 Dng tn hiu
.
Hnh 59 Hm phn.b xc sut ca tn hiu nhiu mc v nhiu
68
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Hnh 60 ng truyn nhiu chng s dng trm lp khuych i

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Hnh 61 ng truyn nhiu chng s dng trm lp khi phc

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Hnh 62 Li xy ra ti trm lp khuych i v trm lp khi phc

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Hnh 63 c tnh ph cng sut ca mt s m ng dy73

Hnh 64 Dng sng ca cc m ng dy tng ng vi tn hiu PCM

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Hnh 65 Mo tn hiu NRZ n cc do thnh phn tn s thp b kh

76

Hnh 66 ng b dng tn hiu 64kbit/s .............................. 80

Hnh 67 Khi phc ng h bng phng php chnh lu 81
Hnh 68 Khi phc tn hiu ng h dng b giao ng cng hng 82
Hnh 69 Entropy ca tn hiu nh phn ng vi cc phn b xc sut khc nhau
Hnh 70 Nguyn tc ghp knh theo tn s ....................... 96
Hnh 71 Hiu ng a ng v ISI a ng ................... 97
Hnh 72 Wavelenght Division Multiplexing .......................... 98
Hnh 73 Nguyn l ghp knh theo thi gian ..................... 99
Hnh 74 Cu trc khung thi gian ca h thng GSM ..... 100
Hnh 75 Ghp knh vi bng truyn c nh v ghp knh thng k 101
Hnh 76 Cu trc phn lp cc chun tc ti Bc M, Nht v chu u
Hnh 77 Cu trc khung ca ng PCM 2Mbit/s ........... 103
Hnh 78 Khe thi gian 0 mang tn hiu lin kt khung ..... 103
Hnh 79 Cu trc a khung ................................................ 104
Hnh 80 Tn hiu trc v sau tri ph DSSS .................. 105
Hnh 81 M ho DSSS s dng t m 11bit gi nhiu ... 105
Hnh 82 Nhiu bng hp trong DSSS ............................... 106
Hnh 83 Tn hiu trc v sau tri ph FHSS .................. 106
Hnh 84 Nhiu bng hp trong FHSS ............................... 107
Hnh 85 Phng php truy nhp knh trong FHSS......... 107

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Mc lc bng
biu
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. tn ca mt s tn hiu c bn ........ 6
Bng 1. rng bng
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Bng 2 Bng m 4B3T........................................................... 7
Bng 3 Mt s nh l bin i Fourier ................................ 16
Bng 4 c tnh ca mt s m ng truyn thng dng72
Bng 5 Quy lut m ho ca HDB3 .................................... 78
Bng 6 M 4B3T .................................................................. 79
Bng 7 Xc sut thng ip v lng tin tng ng......... 87
Bng 8 Bng ma trn chuyn i ........................................ 90

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Chng

1. Gii thiu chung v h thng

thng tin

1.1.

Mt s khi nim chung

1.1.1.

nh ngha
nh
ngha
Khi
nim
Vin
thng
(Telecommunication): Vin thng l qu trnh truyn thng tin

(communication) t ngun pht ti ngun thu qua mt khong

cch no (tele).
Trong qua trnh trao i thng tin, c th mt hay nhiu ngun pht
cng gi thng tin n mt hay nhiu ngun thu.
nh ngha Khi nim thng tin s (Digital
Communications): Cc h thng thng tin s m ho v truyn

thng tin bng mt tp hp hu hn cc k hiu, khng ph

thuc vo kiu ngun tin.
C th coi tp hp hu hn cc k hiu ny l mt bng ch ci da
vo h thng thng tin th hin ngun tin.
1.1.2.

Cc khi nim thng dng trong thng tin s

Ngun: ngun pht thng tin (sender, transmitter, source)

u thu: phn nhn thng tin c gi t u pht (sink,

destination, receiver)

Cuc ni (connection): l knh thng tin logic gia ngun v ch.

ng truyn (line): thng c s dng m ch ng

truyn vt l gia hai thit b trong mt h thng thng tin.

Kt ni, lin kt (link): l knh thng tin logic ni gia hai thit b

trong mt h thng thng tin (c th l u cui hoc nt mng).

Knh truyn (channel): tng t nh kt ni (link).

Nt mng (network node): l mt thit b c nhim v thit lp,

duy tr v chuyn mch cc lin kt logic trn cc ng truyn vt

l.

Mng (network): l mt tp hp ca nhiu nt mng c ni vi

nhau bng cc ng truyn.

Hnh 1 ng truyn, kt ni v cuc ni

Hnh 1 gii thch cc khi nim trn.
1.1.3.

Gii thiu ni dung mn hc

Chng 1 trnh by tng quan v mng vin thng, s khi v cc

thnh phn cu thnh ca mt h thng vin thng. Chng ny cng
gii thiu cc dch v vin thng thng dng hin nay cng nh mng
s DN (digital network).
Chng 2 nhc li cc khi nim c bn v phn tch ph v bin i
Fourier, cc kin thc ny ht sc quan trng trong vic phn tch nh
lng c tnh hot ng ca cc h thng vin thng.
Chng 3 i vo trnh by chi tit k thut iu ch xung m PCM.
y l k thut m ho c bn chuyn ho tn hiu t tng t
thnh s trc khi truyn i.
Chng 4 nghin cu c tnh ca cc knh truyn dn s v nh
hng ca chng ln tn hiu nh hin tng nhiu giao thoa, mo.
Tip theo l cc phng php m ho thng tin gim thiu cc hin
tng trn cng nh phng php khi phc thng tin u thu.
Chng 5 trnh by cc k thut ghp knh: FDM (tn s), TDM (thi
gian), CDMA (m). Chng ny c bit i su vo k thut ghp
knh TDM vi ng PCM s cp 30/32 v h thng truyn dn
PDH/SDH.
Chng 6 i su vo phng php m ho tn hiu phi thoi tng t
nh tn hiu audio (cht lng cao) , video, tn hiu FDM .v.v.
1.1.4.

Ti liu tham kho

Ngoi cc thng tin cung cp trong gio trnh ny, sinh vin c th
tham kho thm mt s ti liu sau:
1)

Digital Communications Ian Glover, Peter Grant; Prentice

Hall 2000.
2)

Digital Communication Systems Peyton Z. Peebles;

Prentice Hall 1987.

3)

Digital Communications John G. Proakis; McGraw Hill 1995

2

4)

H thng vin thng - Tp I Thi Hng Nh, Phm Minh Vit;

Nh xut bn gio dc 2001.

5)

H thng vin thng - Tp II Thi Hng Nh, Phm Minh Vit;

Nh xut bn gio dc 2001.

6)

Principles of Digital and Analog Communications Jerry

D. Gibson; MacMillan Publishing Company 1990

7)

Digital Communications, Design for the Real World Andy

Bateman; Addison-Wesley 1999

1.1.5.
Thng tin, mi trng truyn tin v mt s yu cu chung trong
h thng thng tin
Ngun tin

Thng tin c th c truyn di dng t nhin (nguyn bn),

khng qua bin i.

Thng tin c th c thay i lm cho thch hp vi:

Knh truyn

Cc thit b nm trong mng

Lm tng thch gia u pht v u thu

Ngoi ra, thng tin c th c nn trc khi truyn ln knh

truyn. Nn c tc dng hn ch lng thng tin tha c truyn
i, tuy nhin vn m bo c vic phc hi thng tin u thu.

Thng tin c bin i thng qua m ho hoc iu ch.

Mi trng truyn tin
Thng tin c th c truyn di dng:

Dng in

Sng in t (sng radio)

Dng nh sng

V vy, cc mi trng truyn tin thng dng bao gm:

Dy ng, gm c:

Cp ng trc

Cp xon

Truyn thng tin qua khng gian: sng siu cao tn (viba), truyn
thng tin qua v tinh, trong h thng thng tin di ng, truyn bng
tia hng ngoi, tia laser .v.v.

Truyn thng tin qua mi trng quang dn: cp si quang.

Do tnh cht ca cc mi trng truyn dn khc nhau nn mi mi

trng yu cu mt phng php iu ch thng tin khc nhau. Trong
thc t, thng tin c th c truyn t ngun ti ch thng qua nhiu
mi trng truyn dn khc nhau.
3

Cc yu cu khi truyn thng tin qua mt h thng vin thng

Qu trnh truyn thng tin qua mt h thng vin thng cn phi c
thit lp v duy tr vi cht lng chp nhn c. Cht lng ca
cc dch v vin thng c phn nh thng qua mt s tiu chun
sau:
1)

Tc ca ng truyn: Phn nh tc truyn thng tin t

ngun ti ch.
2)

Tc p ng ca h thng: Phn nh tnh p ng kp thi

ca mt h thng thng tin khi c mt yu cu t u vo. Th d:

tc kt ni mt cuc gi ca h thng in thoi.
3)

Tnh chng li: Phn nh tin cy ca thng tin truyn qua mt

h thng, di tc dng ca cc yu t bn ngoi nh nhiu, qu

ti thng tin, suy gim v mo trn ng truyn.
4)

Tr: Th hin khong thi gian thng tin c truyn t ngun

pht ti u thu.
5)

Gi thnh: Gi thnh ca mt dch v vin thng, lun lun i lin

vi cht lng ca dch v. Yu cu i vi mt dch v vin thng

l gi c v cht lng chp nhn c.
1.2.

Cc dch v vin thng - Chun trong h thng vin thng

1.2.1.

Mt s dch v vin thng c bn

Hnh 2 Qu trnh pht trin cc dch v vin thng

Hnh 2 th hin qu trnh pht trin ca cc dch v vin thng v
thng tin. Cc yu cu ca ngi s dng v dch v vin thng c
bn (nh thoi qua mng c nh .v.v.) l mt nhn t rt quan
trng thc y s pht trin ca cng ngh vin thng. S pht trin
ny, n lt n, cng vi nhng tin b trong cng ngh in t v
my tnh li cho ra i cc dch v vin thng hon ton mi (nh dch
v m thoi hi ngh, truyn hnh, mua hng qua mng .v.v.). S tc
ng qua li ny li lm cho cng ngh vin thng cng nh nhu cu
pht trin cc dch v mi din ra cng nhanh v su rng.
4

1.2.2.

Mt s t chc cung cp cc chun vin thng

Nhm xy dng mt h thng vin thng ton cu, cc thit b ca cc

nh sn xut khc nhau cn phi tng thch vi nhau v c kh nng
to thnh mt mng thng nht. tho mn c yu cu ny, cn
phi c mt h thng chun m tt c cc nh sn xut thit b vin
thng, nh cung cp dch v vin thng phi tun theo.

ITU (International Telecommunications Union): L t chc vin

thng quc t quan trng nht. N a ra rt nhiu chun c s

dng trong h thng vin thng hin nay. Th d nh cc chun
lin quan n vic m ho v nn tn hiu m thanh, cc chun v
truyn s liu (X.25, X.21), chun xy dng h thng truyn m
thanh thoi qua mng Internet (H.323) .v.v.

ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute): C

quan chun vin thng chu u.

IEEE (Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineering): Vin in

- in t ca M. a ra mt s chun nh chun dng cho mng

LAN (802.x).
1.3.

Mng s DN (Digital Network)

1.3.1.

u im ca truyn tin s so vi tng t

Truyn dn tn hiu s c nhiu u im so vi truyn tin tng t, c

th:

Thng tin c th c nn mt cch hiu qu v d dng, do c

th tit kim c bng truyn (v mt bng tn v tc truyn).

H thng truyn tin s c tnh chng li cao hn hn h thng

tng t. l do tn hiu s l s kt hp ca mt s hu hn
cc k hiu. Mt khc b khi phc tn hiu (regenerator) trong
thng tin s cho php khi phc li tn hiu trn ng truyn (do
nhiu v suy gim) mt cch hiu qu v chnh xc hn so vi b
khuch i (amplifier) trong h thng tng t.

Vn an ton bo mt thng tin c th c d dng m bo

nh vo cc phng thc m ho s.

Gi thnh ca dch v truyn tin s r hn h thng tng t. l

do chi ph qun l, vn hnh v bo dng mng thng tin s t
hn, mt khc h thng thng tin s li d dng nng cp v thay
th hn h thng tng t.

1.3.2.

Cc phng thc lin lc

n cng (Simplex)
Trong phng thc truyn n cng, thng tin ch c truyn theo
mt hng t thit b pht ti thit b thu. Th d: truyn thanh, truyn
hnh.
5

Bn song cng (Half duplex)

Trong kt ni truyn bn song cng, thng tin c th c truyn theo
hai hng, gia hai thit b trao i thng tin, tuy nhin ti mt thi
im ch c mt thit b pht v mt thit b nhn. Th d: h thng b
m.
Song cng (Duplex)
Trong kt ni song cng, thng tin c th truyn theo hai hng ti
cng mt thi im gia hai thit b trao i thng tin. Th d: in
thoi.

Hnh 3 Cc phng thc truyn thng tin

1.3.3.

Cc tham s c bn trong mng s

rng bng tn (Bandwidth): c hiu l khong tn s cn

thit ca mt knh truyn truyn tn hiu. Th d bng tn ca

tn hiu thoi l 4kHz, tri t 0 4KHz.
Tn hiu thng tin

rng bng tn

Tn hiu thoi

4kHz

m thanh cht lng cao (m nhc .v.v.)

15kHz

Tn hiu truyn hnh (video)

6MHz

Bng 1. rng bng tn ca mt s tn hiu c bn

Bng 1 th hin rng bng tn ca mt s tn hiu c bn nh tn
hiu thoi, tn hiu m nhc v tn hiu video. Bng tn cn phi s
dng mt cch hiu qu nht lm sao nhiu ngun c th c
truyn trn mt bng tn gii hn.

Baud/s: L s k hiu c truyn i trong mt giy.

6

Th d trong m 4B3T (Bng 2), 4 bit c m ho thnh 3 k hiu (+,

- v 0), nh vy nu tc baud l 3baud/s th tc bit l 4bit/s.

Tc truyn b/s: S bit c truyn i trong mt giy. Cc bi

s ca b/s: kbit/s (103bit/s), Mbit/s (106bit/s), Gbit/s (109bit/s), Tbit/s

(1012bit/s).
Tn hiu nh
phn

M 4B3T
T m trc c nng
lng m

T m trc c nng
lng dng

0000

+0-

+0-

0001

-+0

-+0

0010

0-+

0-+

0011

+-0

+-0

0100

0+-

0+-

0101

-0+

-0+

0110

00+

00-

0111

0+0

0-0

1000

+00

-00

1001

++-

---+

1010

+-+

-+-

1011

-++

+--

1100

0++

0--

1101

+0+

-0-

1110

++0

--0

1111

+++

---

Bng 2 Bng m 4B3T

dB (Decibel):

Decibel c tnh bng 20 ln logarit ca t s in p ra (hoc

dng in ra) v in p vo (hoc dng vo):
U
I
dB 20 log r 20 log r
U V
IV

(P.T 1)

T s tn hiu trn tp m S/N:

S U th

N U ta

(P.T 2)

s 2 (t )
Pth
U th
S

10
log

10
log
2 20 log

(dB) (P.T 3)
N dB
n (t )
Pta
U ta

Trong Uth l in p tn hiu v Uta l in p tp m.

Cc thnh phn cu thnh mt mng s

1.3.4.

Hnh 4 S khi h thng thng tin s

Mt mc tiu quan trng nht trong qu trnh thit k mt h thng
thng tin s l gim thiu c gi thnh, phc tp v nng lng
tiu th cng nh gim thiu rng bng tn cn thit truyn tn
hiu. Cc thnh phn c bn ca mt h thng thng tin s c trnh
by Hnh 4.
Phn cn li ca gio trnh ny tp trung vo tng thnh
phn ca h thng thng tin c trnh by hnh trn.

CODEC
CODEC l t vit tt ca coder/decoder (b m ho/gii m).

ADC/DAC: Mt b CODEC tiu biu bao gm mt b bin i

tng t s ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) ti u pht v b

bin i s tng t DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) ti phn
thu.
Mch ADC c cu thnh t mt mch ly mu (sampling), lng t
ho v mch iu ch xung m:
Ly mu: theo mt chu k nht nh cho trc, mch ly
mu c tn hiu tng t (lin tc) u vo v a ra u ra cc
mu bin ri rc ca tn hiu .

Lng t ho: qu trnh lng t ho o bin mu tn

hiu v lm trn tn hiu thnh mt mc bin chun c
nh ngha sn trong mt di bin tn hiu cho trc. y chnh
l qu trnh bin i t tn hiu tng t thnh tn hiu s.

iu ch xung m (PCM): Qu trnh PCM bin i cc mc

lng t ho thnh cc t m, thng thng l t m nh phn.
Trong tn hiu nh phn, 0 v 1 c th hin bng hai mc in
p khc nhau.

Ti phn thu, cc qu trnh din ra nh sau:

Gii m PCM: Tn hiu nh phn u vo c bin i li

thnh xung vi bin l mt trong cc mc lng t ho.

Khi phc tn hiu: Tn hiu tng t (lin tc) c khi
phc bng cch cho cc xung lng t u vo qua b lc thng
thp.

Hnh 5 minh ho ba qu trnh: ly mu, lng t ho v PCM trnh

by trn.

Hnh 5 Qu trnh bin i tng t - s

Thng thng vic bin i tn hiu t tng t sang s s tng
rng bng tn ca tn hiu c truyn, tuy nhin tn hiu s cho php
bn thu khi phc li c tn hiu vi t s tn hiu trn tp m S/N
thp hn so vi tn hiu tng t.
Ngoi chc nng bin i tng t s, mt khi CODEC cn cn phi
c mt s chc nng khc nh m ho ngun, m ho bo mt v m
ho chng li.

M ho ngun: l mt qu trnh loi b cc tn hiu nh phn (bit)

khng cn thit v ti u ho dng bit t tn hiu u ra ca b

ADC, t tng hiu qu s dng knh truyn (bng cch gim
rng bng tn ca tn hiu truyn) v gim tc truyn ca ngun
tin trn ng truyn. Qu trnh gii m ngun din ra ti u thu.

M ho bo mt: l qu trnh m ho thng tin ti u pht nhm

m bo ch c u thu tng ng mi c kh nng ti to li

c tn hiu. Nh vy, m ho bo mt ngn chn cc u thu
khng c php gii m tn hiu. Qu trnh gii m din ra ti u
thu.
9

M ho chng li: Trc khi gi thng tin ln ng truyn, b

CODEC c th thm mt s bit thng tin vo ngun tin ( c

m ho ngun v m ho bo mt) nhm tng tin cy cho
ngun tin. Cc bit chng li cho php khi gii m chng li bn thu
pht hin li, v trong phm vi c th, ti to li c thng tin khi
c li xut hin trong qu trnh truyn tin.
Trong chng mc no , m ho ngun v m ho chng li l hai
qu trnh ngc nhau. M ho ngun loi b cc bit trong ngun tin,
m chng li li thm mt s bit khc vo ngun tin. Tuy nhin chng
ta cn phi hiu rng cc thng tin tha trong ngun tin nguyn bn
(cha c m ho ngun) thng khng cha cc thng tin cho
php bn thu c th pht hin hoc sa c li, do chng l cc
thng tin khng c ch. Trong khi cc bit chng li li tng tin cy
ca thng tin c truyn.
B ghp knh
B ghp knh trong thng tin s c s dng ghp mt vi kt ni
logic s vo mt knh truyn vt l duy nht. B ghp knh s dng k
thut ghp knh theo thi gian TDM (Time Division Multiplexing). K
thut TDM chn ln lt tng t m (byte) hoc chn bit ca cc lin
kt vo knh truyn vt l.

Hnh 6 Chn byte trong TDM

Hnh 7 Chn bit trong TDM

Modem
MODEM l vit tt ting Anh ca t Modulator/Demodulator hay cn
gi l b iu ch/gii iu ch.
10

Ti u pht, modem bin i (hay iu ch) dng tn hiu nh phn

vi cc mc ch sau:

tn hiu c truyn ph hp vi c tnh vt l ca mi trng

truyn dn (cp ng, cp quang, cp ng trc .v.v.).

Tn hiu c truyn vi mt tc cho trc.

Tn hiu c truyn trn mt bng tn vi rng bng cho

trc.

m bo mo trn ng truyn trong phm vi chp nhn

c.

Nh vy trong qu trnh iu ch, modem c th thay i mc in p

ca tn hiu nh phn, ngoi ra n c th sa hnh dng v s dng b
lc hn ch bng tn ca tn hiu. Ton b bng tn tn hiu cng
c th c dch sang mt tn s khc cho ph hp vi c tnh knh
truyn.
Ti u thu, khi gii iu ch bin i dng sng tn hiu trn ng
truyn v li bng tn c bn. Khi cn bng (equalisation) c nhim
v sa mo tn hiu xy ra trong qu trnh truyn. Khi mch d
(detection) chuyn i tn hiu bng tn c sa li thnh dng tn
hiu nh phn.
a truy nhp
a truy nhp cho php nhiu ngun thu/pht cng s dng mt knh
truyn vt l chung (nh cp quang, ng truyn v tinh .v.v.). Yu
cu t ra cho cc c ch a truy nhp:

S dng ti nguyn ng truyn (bng tn, tc truyn) hiu

qu.

Ti nguyn c chia s ng u gia cc knh truy nhp.

Ch rng a truy nhp v ghp knh l hai khi nim khc nhau.
Cc kt ni logic c ghp knh bi b multiplexer vi ti nguyn
c dnh sn cho tng knh logic. Mt khc, b a truy nhp li gii
quyt vn tranh chp v chia s ti nguyn vi cc b a truy nhp
khc theo kiu phn tn (Hnh 8).

11

Hnh 8 Ghp knh v a truy nhp

Phn cn li ca gio trnh ny s i su vo tng phn trong s
khi va trnh by Hnh 4.

12

Chng

2. Mt s kin thc chung v

bin i Fourier

Chng ny nhc li mt s kin thc v bin i Fourier.

2.1.

Bin i Fourier
2.1.1.

Bin i Fourier mt dng sng t min thi gian sang tn s

nh ngha Bin i Fourier ca mt dng sng w(t):

W ( f ) [ w(t )]

[w(t )e

j 2ft

(P.T 4)

]dt ;

Trong W(f) l bin i Fourier ca hm w(t) trong min tn s. W(f)

l mt hm phc c dng:
W(f) = X(f) + jY(f);
Hm W(f) cn c th c biu din trong to cc:

W ( f ) W ( f ) e j ( f ) ;

(P.T 5)

Trong :

W( f )

X 2( f ) Y 2( f ) ;
Y( f )
;
X ( f )

( f ) arctg

W ( f ) c gi l dng pha bin ca ph hay n gin gi l ph.

2.1.2.

Bin i Fourier ngc

Mt dng sng cng c th c bin i Fourier ngc t min tn

s sang min thi gian.

w(t )

W ( f )e

j 2ft

(P.T 6)

df ;

13

Mt s tnh cht ca bin i Fourier

2.1.3.

Nu w(t) l hm thc:

W ( f ) W * ( f ); w(t ) t

(P.T 7)

Trong W *(f) l hm lin hp ca W(f):

W ( f ) X ( f ) jY ( f ) ;

W * ( f ) X ( f ) jY ( f ) ;

Ngoi ra:
W ( f ) W ( f ) ; w(t ) t

(P.T 8)

Nh vy c th kt lun hm ph W ( f ) l hm chn, i xng qua

trc tung.
nh ngha mt s hm hay s dng trong phn tch ph

2.1.4.

Mt ph nng lng
Mt ph nng lng vit tt l ESD (Energy Spectral Density),
c nh ngha nh sau:
2

( f ) W ( f ) (J/Hz)

(P.T 9)

ESD th hin s phn b cng sut tn hiu theo tn s.

Mt ph cng sut
Mt ph cng sut vit tt l PSD (Power Spectral Density), c
nh ngha nh sau:

( f )df (J)

(P.T 10)

PSD th hin cng sut tng cng trong ton b bng tn lm vic ca
tn hiu.
Hm Delta Dirac
Hm Dirac (x) c nh ngha bi:
14

w( x) ( x)dx w(0) ;

(P.T 11)

Trong w(x) l mt hm lin tc bt k ti x=0; x c th l thi gian

hoc tn s.
Mt nh ngha khc cho hm (x):

( x)dx 1

;
x

( x) 0; x 0

(P.T 12)

Trong mt s bi ton, vic s dng tch phn tng ng ca hm

(x) cng rt hu ch:

( x)

j 2xy

(P.T 13)

dy ;

Do (x) l hm chn nn du + hoc -c s dng tu tng

trng hp.
Tch chp
Tch chp w3(t) ca hai hm w1(t) v w2(t):

w3 (t ) w1 (t ) * w2 (t )

w1 ( )w2 (t )d ;(P.T 14)

Tch chp c mt s tnh cht sau:

f g g f ;
f ( g h) ( f g ) h ;
f ( g h) f g f h ;
d
v(t ) w(t ) dv(t ) w(t ) v(t ) dw(t ) ;
dt
dt
dt

15

2.1.5.

Mt s nh l bin i Fourier
t

a1w1 (t ) a 2 w2 (t )

a1W1 ( f ) a 2W2 ( f )

w(t T )

W ( f )e j 2ft

w1(t ) * w2 (t )

W1 ( f )W2 ( f )

w1(t ) w2 (t )

W1 ( f ) * W2 ( f )

(t t 0 )

e j 2ft0

k (t kT )

f0

n ( f nf0 )

Bng 3 Mt s nh l bin i Fourier

2.2.

Dng ph ca mt s tn hiu thng gp

2.2.1.

Ph ca tn hiu hnh sin

C tn hiu hnh sin vi dng sng nh sau:

v(t ) A sin 0t ; vi 0 2f 0 ;

S dng cng thc bin i Fourier v hm delta Dirac (P.T 4 v P.T

13):
A
V( f )
2j

j 2 ( f f o )t

A
dt
2j

j 2 ( f f 0 )t

dt ;

Nh vy:
V( f )

A
A
( f f0 ) ( f f0 ) ;
2
2

(P.T 15)

Hnh 9 Ph tn hiu hnh sin

Nhn vo P.T 15, chng ta c th kt lun ph ca tn hiu hnh sin l
ph ri rc gm 2 vch ti v tr f0 v f0, vi bin A/2 (Hnh 9).
16

2.2.2.

Ph xung ch nht

Tn hiu xung ch nht (Hnh 10) c biu din bng phng trnh
sau:

1; t 2
t
;
w(t ) ( )
T
T
0; t
2

(P.T 16)

Bin i Fourier:
W( f ) T

sin(fT )
T sinc(fT ) ;
fT

(P.T 17)

Trong : hm sinc(x) c nh ngha:

1; x 0

sin(
x)
;
sinc( x)
;x 0

(P.T 18)

Hm sinc(x) cn c gi l hm ly mu (sampling function).

Hnh 10 Tn hiu xung ch nht

Hnh 11 Ph ca xung ch nht

Dng ph ca xung ch nht c minh ho trn Hnh 11.
17

2.2.3.

Ph ca xung tam gic

Tn hiu xung tam gic c biu din bi phng trnh:

t
t
1 ; t T
;
w(t ) ( ) T
T
0; t T

(P.T 19)

Bin i Fourier ta c:
2

sin(fT )
2
W( f ) T
T sinc (fT ) ;

fT

(P.T 20)

Hnh 12 Xung tam gic

Hnh 13 Ph ca xung tam gic

2.3.

Ph ca cc dng sng tun hon

2.3.1.

Chui Fourier phc

Chui Fourier phc s dng hm m phc c biu din nh sau:

18

 n (t ) e jn o t ;

(P.T 21)

Trong n l s nguyn bt k, 0 2 / T0 vi T0=(b-a) l khong

gi tr cn phn tch Fourier.
nh l - Bt k dng sng vt l no c nng lng hu hn

cng c th c biu din trn khong a<t<a+T0 bng chui

Fourier hm m phc:
w(t )

n cn e jn t ;

(P.T 22)

Trong cc h s Fourier phc cn c xc nh bi:

cn

1 a T0
w(t )e jn0t dt ;
T0 a

vi 0 2f 0
2.3.2.

(P.T 23)

2
;
T0

Ph vch ca cc dng sng tun hon

nh l - Nu dng sng w(t) tun hon vi chu k T0 th ph

ca dng sng l:
W( f )

n cn ( f nf0 ) ;

(P.T 24)

Trong :
f0

1
;
T0

0 2f 0 ;
cn

1 a T0
w(t )e jn 0 t dt ;
T0 a

nh l - Nu w(t) l mt hm tun hon vi chu k T0 v c

biu din bi:

w(t )

n h(t nT0 ) n cn e jn t ;
0

19

(P.T 25)

trong :

T0

w
(
t
);
t

2
h(t )
T0
0; t
2

th cc h s Fourier cn l:
cn f 0 H (nf 0 ) (P.T 26) vi H ( f ) [h(t )] ; f0=1/T0.

T hai nh l trn ta c kt lun: ph ca cc tn hiu tun hon lun

l ph ri rc (ph vch).
Ph ca sng vung tun hon

2.3.3.

Hm ca sng vung (Hnh 14) c biu din nh sau:

f (t )

t nT
;

(P.T 27)

f(t) cn c th c biu din di dng:

t
f (t )

n (t nT ) ;

(P.T 28)

Trong (.) l hm xung vung c nh ngha P.T 16.

Hnh 14. Dng sng vung tun hon

C:

(t kT0 )
k

f 0 n ( f nf0 ) ; (P.T 29)

Trong f0=1/T0;
Nh vy:

t
t nT

n (t nT ) ;

20

n (

t nT
1
) sinc(f ).

n ( f T ) ;
n

Cui cng ta c:

n (

t nT
) sinc(f )

n ( f T ) ;
n

(P.T 30)

Hnh 15 biu din dng tn hiu xung vung tun hon trong min thi
gian v min tn s.

Hnh 15 Dng tn hiu xung vung tun hon trong min thi gian v min tn s
2.4.

Bi tp
1)

Cho chui xung tam gic tun hon f(t) vi chu k l T v rng
xung l . Hy v ph ca dng sng ny. Trong :

f (t )

n (

t nT

);

Gi :

Vi cc hm tun hon f(t) c dng:

f (t )

n f 0 (t nT ) , trong f0(t) l hm s tnh trong mt chu

k (0,T) th ta lun c:
f (t ) f 0 (t )

n (t nT ) ;
21

Bi gii:

t nT
n

n (
) sinc 2 ( f ) n ( f )
T
T

2)

V ph Fourier ca dy xung vung tun hon vi bin l A (V)

v rng t=0,05s, chu k T ln lt l 0,25s; 0,5s v 1s. So snh
dng ph ca cc dy xung . ([1], Pg. 67)

3)

V dng ph ca cc tn hiu sau trong min tn s, sau tm

dng sng tng ng ca chng trong min thi gian: (a)
0,1sinc(3f); (b) ( f 2) ( f 4) ; (c) ( f 10) ( f 10) ([1],
Pg.88)

Bi gii:

(b)
f 1,0; f 4 1 2 f 2

;
0; f 2
4

f
f
1 ; f 2
;
( )
2
2
0; f 2

Dng cng thc bin i Fourier ngc:

(t )

W ( f )e j 2ft df ;

Mt khc: a1W1 ( f ) a 2W2 ( f )

a11 (t ) a2 2 (t ) ;

Ta c:

(t )

[( f 2) ( f 4)]e j 2ft df ;

Do:
( f 2) v ( f 4) u l hm chn nn:

w(t )

W ( f )e

j 2ft

df

W ( f )e

j 2ft

df

W ( f )e

j 2ft

df ; v th

dng ca xung vung trong min tn s chnh l dng sinc(x) trong

min thi gian. Mt khc dng xung tam gic trong min tn s chnh
l sinc2(x) trong min thi gian.
Ngoi ra cn c ch sau:

e jt cos(t ) j sin( t ) v e jt cos(t ) j sin( t )

22

Chng

3.1.

3. Ly mu v PCM

iu ch xung

Hnh 16 Cc phng php iu ch xung

Qu trnh iu ch xung l qu trnh trong bin , rng hoc v
tr ca xung trong mt chu k ly mu thay i ph thuc vo bin
ca tn hiu u vo g(t). Theo nh lut Nyquist, tc ly mu trong
qu trnh iu ch xung phi t nht gp i tn s ln nht ca ph tn
hiu u vo.
Hnh 16 th hin cc phng php iu ch xung khc nhau: (a) iu
ch bin PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation), (b) iu ch rng
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation), (c) iu ch v tr PPM (Pulse Position
Modulation).
Do phng php iu ch PAM a ra cc xung vi bin thay i,
phng php ny thng yu cu t s S/N cao hn so vi phng
php PWM v PPM. Nguyn nhn l do nhiu tc ng vo nh xung
thng gy mo bin nhiu hn l nhiu tc ng vo sn xung,
lm bin i rng xung.
3.2.

Qu trnh ly mu
Theo mt chu k nht nh cho trc, mch ly mu c tn hiu
tng t (lin tc) u vo v a ra u ra cc mu bin ri rc
ca tn hiu .
Ni chung qu trnh iu ch xung v qu trnh ly mu l ging nhau.
c bit trong trng hp rng tn hiu xung PAM rt hp. Tuy
23

nhin cn phi phn bit hai qu trnh ly mu khc nhau l qu trnh

ly mu t nhin (natural sampling) v ly mu nh phng (flat
topped sampling).
3.2.1.

Ly mu t nhin v ly mu nh phng

Hnh 17 Min tn s v thi gian trong qu trnh ly mu t nhin

Tn hiu trong qu trnh ly mu t nhin (Hnh 17 e) l tch ca tn
hiu bng tn c bn (Hnh 17 a) v xung mu chu k Ts (Hnh 17 c).
Trong ly mu t nhin, nh ca xung tn hiu sau ly mu vn c
bin thay i, ph thuc vo bin ca tn hiu u vo (Hnh 17
e). Ph ca tn hiu mu s(t) c dang ri rc nh ta kho st
2.3.3 (Hnh 17 d) bao gm cc xung Dirac cch nhau mt chu k 1/Ts.
Do tch trong min thi gian s thnh tch chp trong min tn s, ph
ca tn hiu ly mu s l nh ph c s ca tn hiu u vo c di
i cc khong bi s ca 1/Ts v vi bin ph bng bin ca ph
xung ly mu (Hnh 17 f).
Mt khc, trong qu trnh ly mu trnh by trn, nu xung u ra
c lm bng nh th chng ta s c dng xung PAM hoc
xung nh phng trnh by phn trc (3.1). Trong min thi gian,
qu trnh ly mu nh phng c th c minh ho nh sau (Hnh 18
a, c, e, g, i): u tin xung u vo (Hnh 18 a) s c nhn vi chui
cc xung Dirac ( rng rt b) (Hnh 18 c), ta c chui xung Dirac vi
bin thay i (18 e), kt qu c tch chp vi xung vung c
rng , u ra ta s c cc xung nh bng (Hnh 18 i). Tng t
min tn s, ta c ph ca tn hiu u vo v nh ca n (Hnh 18 f)
s c nhn vi ph c dng sinc(f) ca xung vung ly mu (Hnh
18 h).
R rng khi phc li tn hiu mt cch trung thc (khng mo)
chng ta ch cn thnh phn ph c bn t -fh n fh trong Hnh 17 f v
Hnh 18 j. Trong trng hp ny ta cn mt b lc thng thp, c
24

gi l b lc khi phc (reconstruction filter), tuy nhin ta cn cn

1
phi nhn tn hiu vi
trong khong fh n fh cho bin
sinc(f )
ph ca tn hiu u ra l chnh xc, khng b mo (Hnh 18 k). Ch
l qu trnh ny - c gi l qu trnh cn bng (equalisation) - ch p
dng cho phng php ly mu nh phng.

Hnh 18 Minh ho min thi gian v tn s ca xung PAM hoc ly mu nh phng

3.2.2.

Ly mu bng tn c s v nh l Nyquist

Ph nh ca tn hiu sau khi ly mu c phn b u vi chu k

1/Ts (Hnh 17f, 18j). C th nhn thy tn hiu c th c khi phc li
bng cch s dng b lc thng thp vi iu kin cc ph nh
khng nm chng ln nhau, c ngha l:
fs 2 fH

(P.T 31)

Phng trnh trn chnh l nh l Nyquist, trong fH l tn s ph

cc i ca tn hiu, fS l tn s ly mu. Ngc li, nu tn s ly
mu khng tho mn P.T 31, th ph nh v ph c s ca tn hiu ly
mu s b chng ln nhau, do s khng khi phc li c tn hiu.

25

nh l Nyquist - Nu mt tn hiu c thnh phn ph khng

ln hn fH th tn hiu c th c m t bng nhng xung ri

rc c chu k khng ln hn 1/(2fH).
3.2.3.

Nhiu chng ph (aliasing)

Hnh 19 Nhiu chng ph ny sinh do nh l Nyquist khng c tho mn

Hnh 19 trnh by nhiu xy ra do chng ph khi fS<2fH. K c khi s
dng mt b lc thng thp c tn s gii hn trn fH cng khng khi
phc li c tn hiu. Lc ny phi s dng b lc thng thp vi tn
s ct fS/2. B lc thng thp ny s ct cc thnh phn ph bc cao
ca tn hiu u vo, tuy nhin ni chung mo vn nh hn so vi
trng hp b chng ph.
3.2.4.

Qu trnh ly mu trong thc t, khi phc tn hiu v t l S/N

Khi xc nh tn s ly mu trong thc t, cn phi ch mt s im.

Th nht, do tn hiu thng gii hn theo thi gian nn ph ca

n l v hn, v vy tn s fH thng thng l tn s ln nht m
ph vn c bin ng k. Th d trong trng hp ting ni,
fH=3,4kHz theo chun chu u (Hnh 20).

26

Hnh 20 c tnh ph tn s ting ni ca n ng v ph n

Th hai, mt b lc thng thp khi phc tn hiu u thu vi

c tuyn hm truyn t hnh ch nht, sn dc ng khng c
trong thc t (Hnh 21).

Hnh 21(a) Hm truyn t ca b lc khi phc l tng; (b) Hm truyn t ca b lc

khi phc khng l tng (th d lc RC)
Nh vy iu kin ly mu ca tn hiu bng tn c s trong thc t
c biu din nh sau:
27

f S 2,2 f H ;

(P.T 32)

Mo chng ph c nh ngha l t s gia cng sut phn tn hiu

khng b chng ph vi cng sut phn b chng ph.
Trong trng hp b lc khi phc tn hiu l l tng nh Hnh 21 a,
ta c t s tn hiu trn mo SDR (Signal to Distortion Ratio) c
tnh nh sau (xem Hnh 19):
fS
2 G ( f ) df
;
SDR 0

f S G ( f ) df
2

(P.T 33)

Trong G(f) l hm mt ph cng sut PSD ca hm sng g(t).

Nu b lc khi phc tn hiu khng l tng v c hm truyn t
(hay cn gi l p ng tn s) c biu th bng hm H(f) th P.T 33
s c m rng thnh:

SDR

0 G( f ) H ( f )

df

0 G( f f S ) H ( f )

(P.T 34)

;
df

Trong H ( f ) l m un ca hm truyn t H(f). Du xp x c

s dng phng trnh trn vi ngha cc ph nh vi tn s trung
tm t 2fS tr ln c coi nh b trit tiu hon ton bi b lc, do
ch xt hm ph nh th nht G(f-fS) (xem Hnh 19).
f
Ch rng trong b lc khng l tng, tn s gii hn f g s l tn
2
1
s m ti : H ( f g )
hay H dB ( f g ) 3 (dB).
2
Th d: b lc thng thp RC (Hnh 22) c hm p ng tn s:

H( f )

1
;
1 j 2RCf

Trong R, C l gi tr in tr v in dung ca b lc. M un ca

hm H(f) l:
H( f )

1
1 (2RC ) f
2

28

Hnh 22 B lc thng thp RC

p ng tn s ca lc RC c dng nh Hnh 21 b.
3.2.5.

Ly mu thng di

Tn hiu bng tn c bn v tn hiu bng tn thng di

Tn hiu bng tn c bn v tn hiu bng tn thng di c phn
bit bi bt phng trnh sau:
Tn hiu bng tn c bn:

B f L (Hz)

(P.T 35)

Tn hiu bng tn thng di:

B f L (Hz)

(P.T 36)

Trong B l rng bng tn ca tn hiu, fL l thnh phn tn s

thp nht ca ph tn hiu (Hnh 23).

Hnh 23 Tn hiu thng di v c s

Ly mu tn hiu bng tn thng di
Cc mu tn hiu va xt phn trc l cc tn hiu bng tn c
s. Trong thc t, chng ta cn cn phi ly mu cc tn hiu c tn s
f fL
trung tm f c H
ln gp nhiu ln rng bng tn ca tn
2
hiu. V mt nguyn tc, c th ly mu cc tn hiu ny theo nh lut
Nyquyst vi f S 2 f H tuy nhin trong thc t ta c th ly mu vi tn
s thp hn nhiu.
Khi ly mu tn hiu thng di, tn s ly mu s c gii hn trn v
gii hn di. nh l ly mu tn hiu thng di c pht biu nh
sau:

29

nh l Nyquist tng qut - Mt tn hiu thng di vi ph

khng ln hn fH Hz v khng nh hn fL Hz c th c biu

1
din bng cc xung ri rc vi chu k ly mu TS
tho mn
fS
iu kin:
Q
Q 1
2 B f S 2 B
;
n
n 1

(P.T 37)

f
trong B f H f L , Q H , n l s nguyn dng tho mn
B
n Q.

Xt P.T 37 chng ta c:

f
Nu: Q H l s nguyn, do n Q ta c th chn n=Q. Trong
B
trng hp ny c fS=2B.

Nu: Q khng phi l s nguyn, c th chn n=int(Q), c ngha l

gi tr nguyn gn Q nht. Vi gi tr n cng b th tn s ly mu
s cng ln mt cch khng cn thit.
Nu: Q<2 tc l fH<2B v fL<B. Lc ny iu kin n Q tng
ng vi n=1. Do :

2 BQ f S ;
f
do Q H :
B

2 fH fS ;

y chnh l nh lut Nyquist cho bng tn c s.

Hnh 24 So snh ly mu theo tn hiu thng di v theo Nyquist

Hnh 24 so snh tn s ly mu tn hiu thng di v tn s ly mu
theo nh l Nyquist cho bng tn c s. Trong fBP l tn s ly mu
thng di, fnq l tn s ly mu theo P.T 31.
30

3.3.

Qu trnh lng t ho
3.3.1.

Lng t ho xung PAM

Sau bc ly mu, v mt thi gian, tn hiu lin tc tr thnh cc

xung mu ri rc. Tuy nhin v mt bin , cc xung PAM vn c tnh
cht lin tc, ngha l hm mt xc sut ca bin ca xung PAM
vn phn b lin tc trong mt khong cho php no . Trong Hnh
25, p() l hm mt xc sut PDF (Probability Density Function) ca
bin xung PAM trc lng t ho, ngha l:
p( ) p( 0 ) ;

(P.T 38)

l hm lin tc i vi cc gi tr ca .

Hnh 25 Hm mt xc sut ca xung PAM vi bin lin tc

Trong qu trnh lng t ho, xung PAM (
Hnh 26 a) c lm trn v quy vo mt mc bin trong mt tp
hp cc mc bin cho trc (
Hnh 26 b). Lc ny xung c lng t ho khng cn l tng t
m l s v c dng nh
Hnh 26 c. Cc mc bin chnh lch nhau mt lng l q v c
gi l mc lng t ho. Hm mt xc sut ca tn hiu cng
chuyn thnh dng ri rc nh Hnh 27.

Hnh 26 Qu trnh lng t ho tn hiu PAM

31

Hnh 27 Hm mt xc sut ca tn hiu sau lng t ho

3.3.2.

T s tn hiu trn tp m lng t ho

Hnh 28 Sai s lng t ho pht sinh tp m q(t)=gq(t)-g(t)

Lng t ho l mt bc c bn trong qu trnh iu ch xung m
PCM, tuy nhin bn thn n cng lm gim cht lng ca tn hiu.
T
Hnh 26 c th d dng nhn thy tn hiu sau lng t ho khng cn
th hin mt cch chnh xc bin ca tn hiu u vo nh xung
tng t m ch l dng xp x ca tn hiu . Hnh 28 cho thy tn
hiu lng t ho l tng ca hai thnh phn l tn hiu tng t u
vo v phn sai s q(t)=gq(t)-g(t) gia tn hiu lng t ho v tn hiu
tng t. q(t) l tn hiu ngu nhin v c th coi l mt dng tp m q(t) c gi l tp m lng t ho. T ta c t s tn hiu
trn tp m lng t ho SNqR (Signal to Quantisation Noise
Ratio) tnh theo cng sut:
32

SN q R

q2

Nu ta c M mc lng t ho, mi mc lng t ho c rng l q

(xem Hnh 28), ngoi ra gi thit rng:

Qu trnh lng t ho l tuyn tnh, c ngha l cc mc lng t

ho u c rng khng i l q.

Hm mt xc sut PDF ca bin tn hiu i xng qua trc

tung (mc 0V) nh trn Hnh 27.

Xc sut bin ca xung ri vo mc lng t ho no l

bng nhau, tc l 1/M.

Lc t s tn hiu trung bnh trn tp m lng t ho trung bnh

c tnh nh sau:

SN q R

(P.T 39)

q2

Trong 2 l bnh phng trung bnh ca bin tn hiu u vo,

q2 l bnh phng trung bnh ca tp m lng t ho. Nu k hiu

p(x) l hm mt xc sut ca x th hm bnh phng trung bnh
c tnh:

x2

(P.T 40)

p( x)dx ;

Trong P.T 39, c:

M 2 1 2 2
q (V );
12

(P.T 41)

q2

q2
(V2);
12

(P.T 42)

Suy ra:

SN q R

2
q2

M 2 1;

(P.T 43)

Nu M ln ta c:
SN q R M 2 ;

(P.T 44)

33

Mq
(Hnh 28 a) nn ta c th tnh t
2
s tn hiu nh trn tp m lng t ho trung bnh:

Do tn hiu c bin cc i l:

( SN q R ) peak

2peak
q2

( Mq / 2) 2

q2

3M 2 ;

(P.T 45)

Do:
s 2 (t )
Pth
S

10
log
2 ;
10 log

N dB
n (t )
Pta

Trong s(t) l mc in p tn hiu, n(t) l mc in p tp m. Nu

tnh theo dB ta c:
SN q R 20 log10 M (dB);

(P.T 46)

( SN q R) peak 4,8 SN q R (dB);

34

(P.T 47)

3.4.

iu ch xung m PCM

Hnh 29 Mi quan h gia xung PAM, lng t ho v tn hiu PCM

Sau khi xung PAM c lng t ho, ngi ta khng truyn trc
tip xung lng t ho i m truyn cc t m biu th bin ca
xung c truyn. Qu trnh bin i t bin thnh t m c gi
l qu trnh iu ch xung m hay PCM.
Th d, nu c 8 mc lng t ho th cc mc ny c th c m
ho bi 3 bit nh phn. Cc bit nh phn thng thng c biu din
bi hai mc in p (th d l 0V v 5V). Hnh 29 th hin mi quan h
gia PAM, tn hiu lng t ho v tn hiu PCM u ra b ADC.
35

Nhc im ca tn hiu PCM l n lm tng rng bng tn cn

thit truyn chui tn hiu. R rang nu truyn tn hiu PAM th ch
cn truyn mt xung trong khong thi gian Ts (Hnh 29 b, c), tuy nhin
truyn tn hiu PCM th trong khong thi gian Ts cn phi truyn 3
xung (Hnh 29 e). u im ca tn hiu PCM so vi PAM c
lng t ho l kh nng chng nhiu v tp m cao hn, do cc mc
tn hiu (0, 1 hoc +, 0, -) c phn bit cao hn.
3.4.1.

SNqR ca phng php PCM tuyn tnh

y ta ch xt t s tn hiu trn tp m ca phng php lng t

ho tuyn tnh.
Gi s s mc lng t ho l M, s bit yu cu trong mt t m l:
n log 2 M . Do t s tn hiu nh trn tp m (theo P.T 45) c
tnh nh sau:
( SN q R ) peak 3M 2 3(2 n ) 2 ;

(P.T 48)

Gi l t s cng sut tn hiu nh trn cng sut tn hiu trung bnh:

2peak

ta c:

SN q R

( SN q R ) peak

3(2 n ) 2

(P.T 49)

Nu tnh theo dB ta c:
( SN q R) dB 4,8 6n dB (dB);

3.4.2.

(P.T 50)

SNR sau gii m PCM ti u thu

Ti u thu, nu khng c li xut hin trn ng truyn th t s tn

hiu trn tp m SNR ca tn hiu sau khi gii m PCM s chnh l t
s tn hiu trn tp m lng t ho theo P.T 48-50. Tuy nhin trong
qu trnh truyn, nu trn ng truyn hoc ti u thu xut hin
nhiu th c kh nng s thay i bin xung trong mt t m no
s ln h thng khi phc nhm tn hiu (t 1 thnh 0 hoc
ngc li). H qu l li ny s nh hng ti t s SNR ti u thu,
mc nh hng ph thuc vo v tr ca bit li trong t m:

Nu bit b li l bit t quan trng nht (LSB) th sai s s l mt mc

lng t ho.
36

Nu bit b li l bit quan trng nht (MSB) th sai s s l 2 n 1 mc

lng t ho.

Trc khi tnh ton nh hng ca nhiu ln t s SNR sau gii m, ta

gi thit rng:

Xc sut 2 bit li tr ln cng xy ra trong mt t m l khng

ng k.

Gi thit xc sut xut hin li ti cc bit trong mt t m l bng

nhau v bng Pe.

Gi n l sai s bin khi bit n b li (n cng ln th bit v tr cng

quan trng):

1 q
2 2q

(P.T 51)

...

n 2 n 1 q
Trong q l bin ca mt mc lng t ho. T P.T 51, c bnh
2
phng trung bnh ca sai s trong n mc lng t ho de
c
tnh nh sau (de decoding error):
2
de
Pe
2
de
Pe

n
2
k 1 k

Pe [q 2 (2q) 2 (4q) 2 ... (2 n 1 q) 2 ] ;

q 2 (4 n 1) 2
(V );
3

(P.T 52)

Nh vy t s tn hiu trn tp m tng cng (tp m lng t ho ti

u pht v tp m li bit ti u thu) c tnh nh sau:

SNR

2
2
q2 de

(P.T 53)

p dng P.T 41, 42, 43, 53 ta c:

SNR

M 2 1
1 4( M 2 1) Pe

SN q R
1 4SN q R Pe

; (P.T 54)

Kt lun: Sau khi c m ho PCM, bin xung nh phn ca

tn hiu khng cn mang thng tin nh xung PAM, do tn hiu ny

to iu kin cho cc b khi phc tn hiu (regenerator) nm trn
ng truyn c th kh nhiu tch t v ti to li dng tn hiu ti
mi lin kt (xem Hnh 1).
37

3.4.3.

M ho PCM phi tuyn

Trong phng php m ho tuyn tnh, ngi ta gi thit rng xc

sut bin xung PAM ri vo mt mc lng t ho no l bng
nhau. Trong thc t gi thit ny khng ng.

Hnh 30 M ho PCM tuyn tnh v phi tuyn

Trong trng hp hm PDF ca bin tn hiu ly mu phn b
khng ng u v c tnh cht khng i theo thi gian, ta c th thy
rng ci thin t s SNqR, mc bin no c xc sut xy ra ln
nht cn c tp m lng t ho b nht. Mt phng php thc
hin mc tiu l m ho PCM phi tuyn (companded PCM). Nu
xc sut tn hiu c bin b hay xy ra, xc sut tn hiu c bin
ln t xy ra th cn phi thit k h thng sao mc lng t ho b c
bin lng t ho q b, mc lng t ho ln c bin lng t
ho q ln (Hnh 30). Ngoi phng php m ho PCM phi tuyn, ta
cng c th nn tn hiu trc khi m ho tuyn tnh, ti u thu s
din ra qua trnh dn tn hiu sau khi gii m PCM (Hnh 31).

Hnh 31 Nn v dn nn
Thng thng c tnh ca ng nn tn hiu tun theo hm logarit.
(Hnh 32 a) Thng thng tn hiu u vo ly c gi tr m v dng,
do ng c tnh nn cn phi l mt hm l (Hnh 32 b). Hn
na c tnh ny cn phi l hm lin tc i qua gc to , do
on c tuyn gn im 0 s c thay th bng mt ng thng
(Hnh 32 c).

38

Hnh 32 Qu trnh xy dng hm nn trong companded PCM

Trong h thng in thoi s ang c s dng rng ri hin nay,
c tuyn nn ca tn hiu thoi ca chu u tun theo lut A, hay cn
gi l A-law c th hin bng hm F(x):

1 ln( A x )
;1 A x 1
sgn( x)
1

ln
A
F ( x)
sgn( x) A x ;0 x 1 A

1 ln A

(P.T 55)

Trong : sgn(x) c gi l hm signum, c biu din:

1; x 0
sgn( x)
;
1; x 0

(P.T 56)

x peak l gi tr bin chun ho u vo.

A l mt hng s nh ngha cong ca hm logarit. Vi A=1 c

tuyn l tuyn tnh. Gi tr thng thng ca A l A=87,6 tng ng
vi t s SNqR tng thm c 24dB cho tn hiu bin thp
(|x|<1/A) v 38dB cho tn hiu bin ln (|x|>1/A). C th nhn thy
phn trn ca P.T 54 c dng logarit, phn di l dng tuyn tnh
(Hnh 33). Trong A-law, tn hiu PCM 11bit tuyn tnh (2048 mc)
c nn xung cn 8bit phi tuyn (256 mc). Do tn hiu thoi
3,6kHz vi tn s ly mu 8kHz (theo Nyquist) s c tc 64kbit/s
thay v 88kbit/s.

39

Hnh 33 c tnh ca hm A-law vi cc h s A khc nhau

Thng thng P.T 55 ca hm A-law c tnh xp x bng 16 hm
tuyn tnh tng ng vi 16 segment nh trn Hnh 34. Trong mu
8bit PCM, 1 bit s th hin cc (dng hoc m), 3 bit nh v segment
v 4 bit th hin v tr ca bin tn hiu trn segment .

Hnh 34 Tr tuyt i ca hm A-law xp x

Ti Nht bn v M, lut nn logarit tng t nh chu u cng
c s dng, tuy nhin vi mt vi khc bit. Phng trnh sau y
th hin lut nn -law ca M v Nht:
F ( x) sgn( x)

ln(1 x )
ln(1 )

;0 x 1 ;

40

(P.T 57)

A-law v -law c ITU-T quy nh trong chun G.711 l chun

m ho cho tn hiu thoi s.
3.5.

Cc k thut gim bng truyn tn hiu thoi

3.5.1.

Mi lin h gia tc v rng bng tn ca tn hiu s

nh l Shannon Vi mt knh truyn dn c bng tn nht

nh, ngi ta ch c th truyn c mt dng thng tin c tc

gii hn bi cng thc:
C 2W log 2 M (bit/s);

(P.T 58)

Trong C l dung lng ti a ca knh truyn dn, c tnh bng

baud/s, W (Hz) l rng bng tn ca knh truyn v M l s mc
iu ch ca tn hiu. Nu truyn tn hiu nh phn: M=2, t ta c:

C 2W (bit/s);

(P.T 59)

Nh vy tc gii hn ca tn hiu nh phn ln gp i bng tn ca

knh truyn. Nu tnh n tc ng ca nhiu, tc ti a ca mt
knh truyn tn hiu nh phn c tnh theo cng thc ShannonHartley:
C W log 2 (1

S
) (bit/s);
N

(P.T 60)

Do rng bng tn ca tt c cc ng truyn dn vt l u gii

hn nn tc truyn tn hiu cng c gii hn. V vy bng tn ca
knh truyn l mt ti nguyn cn phi s dng mt cch hp l v
hiu qu. Do cn phi nghin cu v pht trin cc k thut
gim tc truyn dn ca cc knh lin lc.
Cn ch rng cng thc Shannon-Hartley chng minh c v mt
l thuyt gii hn v tc ca mt dng tin c gi trn mt knh
truyn c dung lng hu hn. Trong thc t cha c h thng no c
th t c gii hn m cng thc ny vch ra.
3.5.2.

K thut Delta PCM

Mt phng php lm gim tc truyn ca tn hiu thoi l ch

truyn s chnh lch gia hai tn hiu PCM lin tip nhau ch khng
truyn c mt mu PCM nh trong phng php m ho PCM truyn
thng. K thut n gin nht ca phng php truyn chnh lch ny
l k thut delta PCM.

41

Thc t ch ra cho thy tn hiu thoi c tnh cht ph thuc ln nhau,

c ngha l bin ca cc mu tn hiu lin tip thng thay i mt
cch t t. V vy hiu s ca bin gia hai mu lin tip nhau ni
chung l b hn bn thn bin ca tng mu, do s k hiu cn
thit trong mt t m trong phng php delta PCM s b hn s k
hiu trong mt t m ca phng php PCM. Phng php delta
PCM c cc u nhc im nh sau:

u im: do s k t trong mt t m t hn nn tc truyn ca

dng tn hiu gim, tit kim c bng truyn.

Nhc im: Tnh cht ca tn hiu thoi nh nu trn ch c

ngha thng k. Trong cc trng hp c th, khi bin tn hiu
thay i tht thng th tn hiu delta PCM c sai s ln hn
phng php m ho PCM truyn thng.

Hnh 35 M ho v gii m delta PCM

Hnh 35 trnh by s khi b m ho v gii m delta PCM. im
khc bit b m ho delta PCM l c thm mt b tr hai mu lin
tip nhau. Khi m ho v gii m PCM hon ton ging nh k thut
PCM.
3.5.3.

K thut PCM vi phn Differential PCM (DPCM)

Trong phn trn, s ph thuc ln nhau gia cc mu tn hiu gn

nhau c cp n. Khng ch trong tn hiu thoi, cc nh t
nhin cng c tnh cht ny. Th d, nu mt im nh trong mt bc
nh l mu en th xc sut cc im nh ln cn l mu en l kh
ln. Nh vy cc tn hiu ngu nhin, tc ly mu, s ph thuc ln
nhau gia cc mu c mi lin quan cht ch vi nhau. Da trn
lp lun ny c th thy rng gi tr ca mt tn hiu s xy ra c th
tin on c da trn cc gi tr thu c trong qu kh.
42

Phng php DPCM s dng mt thut ton tin on gi tr ca

mu tn hiu s xy ra da vo gi tr cc mu n va thu c. Sau
mu c tin on s c so snh vi gi tr thc t ca mu
. Sau cng DPCM ch truyn i phn chnh lch gia gi tr thc t
v gi tr c tin on.

Hnh 36 M ho v gii m DPCM

Hnh 37 Mt thut ton tin on c s dng trong DPCM

Hnh 36 biu din phng php m ho v gii m DPCM. Gi: g (t )
l tn hiu tng t u vo b m ho; g (kTS ) l tn hiu sau ly
mu; g (kTS ) l gi tr tin on cho mu TS ti thi im (k1)TS; (kTS ) l phn chnh lch gia mu xung PAM v gi tr tin
on; q (kTS ) l chnh lch sau khi c lng t ho;
g~(kT ) l gi tr xp x ca g (kT ) . Ta c:
S

(kTS ) g (kTS ) g (kTS ) ;

43

g~(kTS ) g (kTS ) q (kTS ) ;

Hnh 37 l mt phng php tin on mu tip theo da trn cc

mu va xy ra. C th tnh g (kTS ) nh sau:
g (kTS ) c1 g~[(k 1)Ts ] c2 g~[(k 2)TS ] cn g~[(k n)TS ] ;(P.T 61)

Trong ci l cc h s tho mn iu kin:

ci 0

i 1ci 1
n

(P.T 62)

Thng thng ta cn c iu kin:

cn cn 1 c1 ;

(P.T 63)

Nh vy ci l cc trng s tnh gi tr g (kTS ) t cc gi tr

g~[(k i)TS ] , vi i cng gn 0 th nh hng ca mu (k-i) n g (kTS )
cng ln.
3.5.4.

K thut DPCM t thch ng Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM)

ADPCM l k thut da trn nguyn tc ca DPCM nhng tinh vi v

phc tp hn. Trong phng php ny cc h s ci khng c nh nh
trong DPCM m s lin tc thay i t thch ng vi tnh cht thng
k ca tn hiu.
ADPCM c ITU-T a vo chun G.721 nh mt phng php
gim bng truyn ca tn hiu. B m ho PCM trong ADPCM s
dng 15 mc lng t ho, tng ng vi mt t m 4 bit
truyn tn hiu chnh lch. B m ho ADPCM theo chun G.721 nhn
tn hiu PCM phi tuyn 64 kbit/s v chuyn tn hiu thnh ADPCM
32 kbit/s.
u im ca ADPCM so vi PCM phi tuyn l tc truyn b hn,
do vi ng PCM chun 2,048 Mbit/s ngi ta c th truyn 64
knh ADPCM, gp i so vi truyn PCM phi tuyn. Cht lng tn
hiu ca ADPCM ch gim cht t so vi PCM phi tuyn.
Nhc im ca phng php ADPCM l, do cc h s ci thay i
theo thi gian, do phi c s ng b ca bn thu v bn pht v
thi im v gi tr thay i ca h s ci. V vy ngoi tn hiu thoi,
cn phi truyn c h s ci t u pht n u thu.
Ngoi G.721, ITU-T cn a ra chun G.726 v G.727 cho cc lung
ADPCM vi vn tc t 16 40 kbit/s.
3.5.5.

iu ch Delta Delta Modulation (DM)

Trong phng php DPCM, nu s mc lng t ho M=2, tc l mt

t m ch chim ng 1 bit th ta c phng php iu ch delta (DM).
Trong trng hp ny, c th coi mu c tin on bng mu va
xy ra, c ngha l g (kTS ) g~[(k 1)TS ] vi sai s q (kTS ) ;
y l chnh lch gia hai mu lin tip v c m ho bng
44

gi tr 0 hoc 1. Hnh 38 l s khi ca b m ho v gii m DM.

B cng trong DPCM c thay th bng b so snh, b tin on
c thay th bng mt khi tr vi thi gian tr TS.

Hnh 38 M ho v gii m DM
Hnh 39 biu din dng tng t sng u vo v dng sng sau iu
ch delta. C hai loi tp m nh hng n cht lng ca tn hiu
DM:

Tp m dc (slope overload noise): Khi tn hiu g (t ) thay i qu

nhanh lm cho g~(kTS ) khng th biu din s thay i ny mt

cch chnh xc. Tp m dc ny sinh do chnh lch gia hai
1
mu lin tip khng ln hoc do tn s ly mu f S
TS
khng ln.

Tp m lng t ho (quantization noise): Ny sinh do qu trnh

lng t ho tn hiu vi bin thay i t hn Th d khi g (t )

l hng s trong mt khong thi gian no . Mun gim tp m
lng t ho th phi gim .
Ta c th nhn thy iu kin gim tp m dc v tp m lng t
ho mu thun vi nhau, mun gim tp m dc th phi tng , mun
gim tp m lng t ho th phi gim . Mt khc, nu mun gim
tp m dc bng cch tng tn s ly mu fS ln ln hn tiu chun
Nyquist th iu ny s mu thun mc ch lm gim tc truyn,
c bit khi tn s ly mu qu ln. Do ta phi chn gi tr cng
nh tn s fS thch hp tho mn iu kin v cht lng cng nh
tc truyn.
45

Hnh 39 Dng sng DM v tp m lng t ho, tp m dc

Vic tnh ton t s SNR cho phng php DM tng i phc tp.
y chng ta ch tnh SNR cho tn hiu ngu nhin vi hm PDF ca
bin l hm Gauss, c ngha l bin tn hiu phn b u xung
quanh mt gi tr trung bnh. Ngoi ra gi thit rng tn hiu ny c ph
phn b u trong khong 0 fH Hz.

Hnh 40 SNR vi cc gi tr v t s f S f H khc nhau

T s tn hiu trn tp m dc c tnh:

g
S
1 fS 2

1,2(
) e
2
Nov ov
2 4 g f H
2

1,5(

1 fS 2
)
2 4 g f H

46

(P.T 64)

2
trong N ov ov
l bnh phng trung bnh ca tp m dc, g l
lch chun ca bin tn hiu so vi bin trung bnh; fS l tn
s ly mu.

T s tn hiu trn tp m lng t ho c tnh:

g
4 g 2 f S
S
;

1,5(
)
Nq Nq

fH
2

(P.T 65)

Tng t, N q q2 l bnh phng trung bnh ca tp m lng t

ho. T P.T 64 v P.T 65 ta c th tnh c t s tn hiu trn tp m
ca phng php DM:

SNR

S
1
;

1
N ov N q ( S N ov ) ( S N q ) 1

(P.T 66)

Hnh 41 S xut hin thnh phn mt chiu u thu do li

Hnh 40 biu din gi tr SNR vi cc bc lng t ho chun ho
4 g v tn s ly mu chun ho f S f H khc nhau. C th thy
47

rng pha bn tri ca th l phn tp m dc chim u th, pha

bn phi l phn tp m lng t ho chim u th. Gi tr 4 g
tng ng vi nh ca ng cong l gi tr ti u t SNR cc
i.
Trong trng hp t s SNR khng ln, s xy ra trng hp bn
thu nhn nhm tn hiu (+ thnh - hoc ngc li), iu ny s dn
ti thnh phn mt chiu vi bin 2 c cng vo tn hiu u
thu (Hnh 41). Nh vy sau khi li xy ra, tn hiu ti u thu vn c
dng nh ti u pht tuy nhin c cng thm vi mt lng khng
i 2. Hin tng ny ko di cho n khi mt li bit khc xy ra, lc
ny hoc bin dng mt chiu s b kh hay b cng thm mt
lng sai s 2na. Nu c tuyn b lc khi phc tn hiu ti u
thu c gi tr 0 ti 0 Hz th nhiu mt chiu s b kh.
3.5.6.

iu ch Delta t thch ng Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM)

Nh cp trong phng php DM, tng t s SNR cn phi

gim t s tn hiu trn tp m dc v lng t ho. Tc l cn phi
tng tn s ly mu ln nhiu ln so vi tn s Nyquist v gim gi tr
. Tuy nhin nu vy mc tiu tit kim bng truyn s b vi phm.
Trong k thut ADM, ngi ta s dng mt phng php khc, l
thay i gi tr ca mc lng t ho da vo tn hiu s thay i tn
hiu q (kTS ) ti u vo b thu:

Khi nhiu lng t ho chim u th ( q (kTS ) lin tc thay i) th

gi tr mc lng t ho s nh.

Khi nhiu dc chim u th ( q (kTS ) gi nguyn gi tr 0 hoc 1

trong mt khong thi gian) th gi tr mc lng t ho c tng
ln.

Hnh 42 M ho ADM
S khi b m ho ADM c trnh by trn Hnh 42. Khi iu
khin v khi khuych i G(kTS ) iu khin gi tr ca mc lng t
ho G(kTS ) da vo tham s u vo q (kTS ) vi l hng
s. Bin G(kTS ) thay i v da vo s thay i ca q (kTS ) .
48

Nu q (kTS ) trong mt vi chu k ly mu tc l s thay i ca

g~(kT ) khng bt kp vi s thay i ca g (t ) , lc ny cn phi tng
S

gi tr G(kTS ) . Ngc li, nu gi tr q (kTS ) thay i trong vi chu k

ly mu, ngha l gi tr g (t ) thay i chm, G(kTS ) cn phi nh
gim nhiu lng t ho.

Hnh 43 Dng sng ADM vi bc lng t ho thay i

Mt thut ton thch ng n gin c th c biu din nh sau:
G[( k 1)TS ]C , q (kTS ) q [( k 1)TS ]
G (kTS )
;
G[( k 1)TS ] C , q (kTS ) q [( k 1)TS ]

(P.T 67)

Vi C l mt hng s, C>1.
Cht lng ca ADM so vi DM tt hn, vi t s SNRADM ln hn
SNRDM t 8dB n 14dB. Ngoi ra do vn l hng s, s thay i
G(kTS ) c iu khin bng thut ton ti bn pht v bn thu nn
khng cn c s ng b gia bn pht v bn thu v gi tr ca mc
lng t ho (nh trong phng php ADPCM). Tc truyn thng
thng ca ADM l 32 kbit/s v c kh nng xung ch cn 16 kbit/s
trong mt vi trng hp.
3.6.

Bi tp
1)

Gi thit tn hiu g(t) c dng ph G(f) nh trn hnh v. ([1],

Pg.177)

Hy tm tn s ct fC v tn s ly mu fS nu fS bng 90% gi tr
tn s ly mu chun theo nh l Nyquist.

Tnh t s SDR trong trng hp:

B lc khi phc l l tng

B lc thng thp RC c p ng tn s 3dB ti fS/2.

49

Bi gii:

Tn s ly mu:

f s 2 f H 0,9 2 100 0,9 180 (kHz);

Tn s ct:

f
f c s 90 (kHz);
2

Trong trng hp b lc l tng:

fS
2 G ( f ) df
0
, vi
SDR

f S G ( f ) df
2

fc

(1 10 f )df
SDR 0
f
5
f (1 10 f )df
s

G( f ) 1 10 5 f (Hz) ta c:

0,5 100 0,5 10 0,1

99 ;
0,5 10 0,1

SDRdB 10 log10 SDR 20 (dB);

Trong trng hp b lc RC khng l tng:

Trc tin ta xem xt p ng tn s ca b lc RC:

H( f )

1
1
hay H ( f )
;
1 j 2RCf
1 (2RC ) 2 f 2

50

Tn s gii hn fg l tn s ng vi n

H( fg )

1
2

hay

H dB ( f g ) 3dB ;

Nh vy ta c:
1
1 (2RC ) 2 f g 2

hay: RC

suy

ra

fg

1
2RC

1
1
1

1,768 10 6 ;
3
2f g 2f c 2 90 10

Mt khc:

SDR

0 G( f ) H ( f )

df

0 G( f f S ) H ( f )
fH

, ta c:
df

(1 10 5 f )

df
1 (2 1,768 10 6 ) 2 f 2
SDR
;
fs fH
1
5
(1 10 f f s )
df
fs fH
1 (2 1,768 10 6 ) 2 f 2

C:
dx

1 x 2 tan( x) v 1 x 2 dx 2 ln(1 x

);

Tnh ra:
SDR=1,95
SDRdB=2,9dB
2)

Tn hiu g(t) c ph rng 1,0 kHz v tn s trung tm fC=10kHz.

Hy tm tn s ly mu G(f) khng b chng ph. Sai s ti a
cho php ca tn s ly mu l bao nhiu? ([1], Pg. 181)

Gi :

Da vo nh l ly mu tn hiu thng di:

51

f
Q
Q 1
2 B f S 2 B
, trong : B f H f L ; Q H ; n nguyn
B
n
n 1
tho mn n Q .

Sau tnh ton s chn c tn s ly mu tho mn iu kin:

f f 2 f 2 f1
;
f1 f s f 2 ; do chn f s 1

2
2

Trong
3)

f 2 f1
l phn sai s cho php.
2

Mt h thng thng tin s truyn tn hiu thoi s dng phng

php m ho PCM tuyn tnh. H thng ny s dng b lc l
tng c tn s ct 3,4 kHz chng nhiu chng ph. Tnh tc
truyn ca dng bit PCM ny t s SNqR tho mn iu kin
SN q R 50dB , bit rng trong tn hiu thoi 2peak 2 10 ;

Gi :

Da vo cng thc:
SN q R

( SN q R ) peak

2peak

3(2 n ) 2

; Trong

; n l s bit trong mt t m.

Suy ra:
( SN q R) dB 4,8 6n dB ;

Vi dB 10 log

2peak
2

Ch : nn s dng cng thc f s 2,2 f H ;

4)

Tm t s SNR sau gii m ti u thu ca tn hiu trong bi tp 3,

vi gi thit c 106 bit truyn s c 1 bit li.

Gi :

S dng cng thc:

( SN q R) dB 4,8 6n dB ; v:

SNR
5)

M 2 1
1 4( M 2 1) Pe

SN q R
1 4SN q R Pe

Gi s tn hiu s trong bi tp 3 c truyn theo dng nh phn

qua mt knh truyn dn c bng tn cho php t 0-1,1MHz,
ng truyn khng c nhiu. C th c ti a bao nhiu knh
52

thoi c truyn trn ng truyn ny? Trong trng hp s

dng phng php m ho PCM phi tuyn vi t m 8bit, tc
ly mu 8kHz th c ti bao nhiu knh?
Gi :

Da vo nh l Shannon:
C 2W log 2 M ;

53

Chng

4. Truyn tn hiu trn bng tn

c bn v m ng truyn

4.1.

Mt s cng c ton hc cn thit

4.1.1.

RMS (Root Mean Square)

Hm RMS hay cn c gi l hm lch chun (standard deviation)

c nh ngha nh sau:

i vi bin ri rc:

i 1 xi2 ;
n

R( x)

(P.T 68)

Trong xi l bin ngu nhin ri rc

i vi bin lin tc:

p( x) x dx ;
p( x)dx
2

R( x)

(P.T 69)

Trong x l bin ngu nhin lin tc, p(x) l hm PDF ca x.

Hm RMS c trng gi tr trung bnh bnh phng ca tn hiu.
4.1.2.

K vng (Expectation)

K vng E{f(x)} ca hm f(x) c tnh nh sau:

Nu f(x) ri rc:

E{ f ( x)}

f ( x) p ( x) ;

(P.T 70)

Nu f(x) lin tc:

E{ f ( x)}

f ( x) p( x)dx ;

(P.T 71)

y p(x) l hm mt xc sut ca x. K vng th hin gi tr trung

bnh ca f(x). E{f(x)} cn c k hiu l .
4.1.3.

Phng sai (Variance)

Phng sai c tnh nh sau:

Nu ri rc:

54

i 1 p( xi )( xi ) 2 ;
n

(P.T 72)

Nu lin tc:

p( x)( x )

(P.T 73)

dx ;

Trong p(x) l hm PDF ca bin x; l k vng ca x. phng sai

c trng cho lch ca bin x quanh mt gi tr k vng .
4.1.4.

Phn b Gauss (Gausian Distribution)

Hnh 44 Phn b Gauss

Phn b Gauss c dng:
p( x)

(x)2
2 2

(P.T 74)

Trong p(x) l hm mt xc sut (pdf probability density

function) ca bin x, l k vng v l phng sai. Hnh 44 th hin
phn b Gauss vi =0. Phn b Gauss rt hay c s dng trong
thc t.
4.2.

Cc vn khi truyn tn hiu trn bng tn c bn

4.2.1.

M hnh knh truyn v h thng thu pht

Trong thc t, cc xung vung ca tn hiu nh phn s b bin dng

khi truyn qua h thng thu pht v knh truyn hu tuyn hoc v
tuyn, tc l chng khng cn gi c hnh dng l tng nh lc
ban u. l do di thng tn s ca phn thu, pht v nht l knh
truyn khng phi l v hn. c bit l c tnh tn s ca knh
truyn c nh hng ln n cht lng ca tn hiu ti u thu. Hnh
45 minh ho p ng tn s ca ng cp ng di 2km. Thng
55

thng trn cc ng truyn dn, tn s cng cao th suy gim cng

ln. Do ngi ta thng biu din p ng tn s ca h thng
thu, pht v knh truyn bng cc b lc thng thp.

Hnh 45 p ng tn s ca cp ng 2km

Hnh 46 M hnh knh truyn v h thng thu pht

Hnh 46 m t mt h thng thng tin s, vi cc khi nh hng n
cht lng truyn ca tn hiu. H thng ny bao gm:

Khi ngun pht thng tin pht ra cc tn hiu nh phn xS(t) vi

bin a k {0,1} .

Phn pht c m hnh ho bng mt b lc thng thp vi p

ng tn s HT(f).

Knh truyn c p ng tn s HC(f), ngoi ra tn hiu truyn qua

knh cn b nh hng bi nhiu Gauss (xem 4.1.4) c th hin
bng hm n(t).

Phn thu c p ng tn s l HR(t).

4.2.2.

Hin tng ISI (Intersymbol Interference)

n gin ho, coi nh ngun pht ra tn hiu nh phn xS(t) vi

dng xung diract, bin l 0 hoc 1 nh Hnh 47. C th biu din
chui tn hiu ny nh sau:
x S (t )

k ak (t kT ) ;

(P.T 75)

Sau khi qua b lc pht vi p ng tn s c biu din trong min

thi gian: hT (t ) 1[ H T ( f )] , tn hiu s c dng:
56

xt (t )

k ak (t kT ) hT (t ) k ak hT (t kT ) ;

(P.T 76)

Hnh 47 Tn hiu pht ra t ngun

Sau khi truyn qua knh truyn, tn hiu b lc bi b lc knh, ngoi ra
cn b bin dng do nhiu Gauss:
y (t ) xt (t ) hC (t ) n(t )

k ak hT (t kT ) hC (t ) n(t ) ;(P.T 77)

Trong hC (t ) 1[ H C ( f )] ;
Do tn hiu u ra ca b lc thu v(t) s c dng:
v(t ) y (t ) hR (t )

k Aa k pr (t t d kT ) n0 (t ) ;

(P.T 78)

Trong A l h s chun ho sao cho pr(0)=1; n0(t) l nhiu nhn

c ti u thu; pr(t-td) l dng xung thu c sau b lc thu, b tr i
mt khong td do lc.

hR (t ) 1[ H R ( f )] ;
n0 (t ) n(t ) hR (t ) ;

(P.T 79)

Ap r (t t d ) hT (t ) hC (t ) hR (t ) ;

(P.T 80)

Gi tr cc i ca pr(t-td) l ti t-td. Do phi chn thi gian ly mu

tm sao cho xc sut nhn c gi tr thc ca tn hiu l ln nht, tc
l:
t m mT t d ;

(P.T 81)

Nh vy cc mu khi ly mu ti nh xung c gi tr c tnh nh

sau ti thi im tm:

Vm v(t m ) Aa m pr (0)

k ; k m Aa k pr [(m k )T ] N m ; (P.T

82)
Vi m=, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,
N m n0 (t m ) n(t ) hR (t ) |t t m ;

(P.T 83)

57

Hnh 48 Hin tng ISI

Theo phng trnh 82, c th thy rng gi tr ly mu ti u thu ti
thi im tm bao gm:

Gi tr bin xung th m am.

Bin Nm ca nhiu Gauss l gi tr bin khng mong i.

Bin ca cc xung th k, vi k m . y cng l gi tr bin

khng mong i do n c th lm sai lc gi tr ly mu ti thi
im Vm.

Hin tng bin ca cc xung th k nh hng n qu trnh ly

mu xung th m c gi l hin tng giao thoa gia cc k
hiu hay hin tng ISI (Intersymbol Interference).
V mt ngha vt l, do nh hng ca cc b lc nh trn Hnh 46,
c bit l b lc knh, hnh dng xung vung b bin i thnh mt
ng hnh chung, vi phn gc b ko dn di hn di T ca k
hiu v chng sang cc k hiu k vi n (Hnh 48).
4.2.3.

th mt (eye diagram)

th mt l mt cng c trc quan hu hin kho st cc vn

ca mt h thng truyn s liu. xem th mt ngi ta s dng
-xy-l vi chu k hin th ng bng di T ca k hiu. Cc k hiu
thu c u c hin th chng ln mn hnh -xy-l, thnh dng
hnh mt. Phn m ca th mt chnh l min trong qu trnh ly
mu c th c thc hin mt cch chnh xc.

58

Hnh 49 Dng th mt
4.2.4.

Sa dng xung v qu trnh lc knh Nyquist

ly mu ng tn hiu ti thi im ly mu tm, theo P.T 82, ta thy

rng cn phi lm sao cho bin ISI ti thi im ly mu bng 0,
tc l:
1; n 0
p r (nT )
;
0; n 0

(P.T 84)

Mc tiu trn c th t c nu ta lp mt mt lc b tn s (hay

cn gi l lc cn bng) ti u pht hoc u thu sao cho p ng
tn s ca ton h thng tun theo p ng tn s Nyquist. Thng
thng b lc cn bng c p dng ti u pht.
p ng tn s Nyquist c hm truyn sao cho im gia di

thng v phn suy gim nm i xng qua gi tr:

f nq 0,5

1
; Trong T l rng mt k hiu.
T

Hnh 50 Hm truyn ca b lc Nyquist

Nh vy mc ch ca vic sa dng xung (Pulse Shaping) l p
ng tn s ca toan h thng tun theo p ng ca b lc Nyquist
59

nh Hnh 50. Ch rng nu p ng tn s ca ton b h thng

tho mn tiu chun Nyquist th hnh dng ca xung vung vn b ko
dn ra. Tuy nhin ti cc thi im ly mu t m mT t d , bin ISI
bng 0 (nh minh ho Hnh 51), tc l n tho mn P.T 84. Nh vy
c th thy rng bin ISI bng 0 th thi im ly mu yu cu
phi rt chnh xc.

Hnh 51 Dng sng tn hiu tho mn p ng tn s Nyquist

4.2.5.

B lc cos nng (raised cosine filter)

p ng tn s Nyquist c ng dng trong thc t bi b lc cos

nng. B lc ny c p ng tn s min bin i t di thng sang
phn suy gim c dng ng cos (Hnh 52). p ng tn s ny
c biu din nh sau:
1

T ;0 f

2T

1 1
1
T
T
H raised cos ine ( f ) 1 cos ( f
) ;
f
2T 2T
2T

2
1

0;
f

2T
;(P.T 85)

60

Trong l h s ct. Hnh 52 biu din p ng tn s ca b lc

cos nng trong min tn s vi cc gi tr khc nhau, =0 tng
ng vi p ng tn s ca b lc l tng; T l rng ca mt k
hiu.

Hnh 52 p ng tn s ca b lc cos nng

Trong min thi gian, b lc cos nng c dng:
t
t
sinc( ) cos(
)
T
T
h(t )
;
4 2 t 2
1
T2

(P.T 86)

Hnh 53 l dng ca hm h(t) vi cc gi tr khc nhau. C nhn xt

rng th ca hm ny ct trc honh ti nhng chu k mT , m E ,
do nu chn thi im ly mu thch hp th ISI s bng 0.
Di tn s ca tn hiu B ca tn hiu sau khi cho i qua b lc cos
nng s l:
B 0,5

1
(1 ) ;
T

(P.T 87)

61

Hnh 53 Hm truyn t ca c tuyn cos nng trong min thi gian.

4.2.6.

Nhiu xuyn m (cross talk)

Nhiu xuyn m xy ra khi truyn tn hiu theo hai hng ngc nhau
trong mt b cp c nhiu si n l, trong trng hp ny tn hiu
ca si ny s gy nhiu ln tn hiu ca cc si khc v ngc li.
C hai loi nhiu xuyn m l nhiu xuyn m u gn (near end
crosstalk - NEXT) v nhiu xuyn m u xa (far end crosstalk FEXT).

Hnh 54 Nhiu xuyn m u gn v u xa

Nhiu xuyn m u gn xut hin do tn hiu vi bin ln

u ra gy nhiu vo tn hiu vi bin nh u vo (do suy
gim qua ng truyn - vi suy gim trn ng truyn 40dB, tn
hiu 3V u pht ch cn bin l 30mV u thu). Nh vy
62

NEXT l nhiu do cc tn hiu vi chiu truyn khc nhau nh

hng ln nhau, n ch xy ra gn cc thit b u cui

Nhiu xuyn m u xa xy ra do nhiu ca mt tn hiu u ra

nh hng ln cc tn hiu u ra khc. FEXT l nhiu ny sinh
do cc tn hiu cng chiu truyn dn nh hng ln nhau, n xy
ra trn ton b knh truyn.

Hnh 54 th hin nhiu xuyn m u gn v u xa. Do bn cht ca

NEXT v FEXT l nhiu in dung k sinh, c th m hnh ho nhiu
ny bng mt b lc thng cao RC. Do tn nhiu nh phn c ph
dng hm sinc(x), mo tn hiu do nh hng ca nhiu xuyn m ca
NEXT s c dng nh Hnh 55. Do vy gim nh hng ca ISI v
nhiu xuyn m, cn phi s dng cc b lc b cn bng l b ca
ISI v nhiu xuyn m.

Hnh 55 Ph ca NEXT
4.3.

nh hng ca nhiu v ISI ln cht lng tn hiu

4.3.1.

Khi phc tn hiu ti u thu

Vic khi phc tn hiu ti u thu bao gm hai qu trnh:

Ly mu tn hiu va thu c u vo b thu.

So snh mu tn hiu vi mt mc bin chun quyt nh

xem tn hiu nhn c thuc v mc chun no. Trong trng
hp tn hiu truyn trn ng truyn l tn hiu nh phn, 0V s
tng ng vi mc 0, 3V tng ng vi mc 1.

63

Phi chn thi im ly mu mt k hiu sao cho xc sut nhn c

gi tr ng l ln nht, v vy thng thng chn thi im ly mu
vo chnh gia k hiu. Phng php ly mu ny c gi l
phng php central point detection. Qu trnh khi phc tn hiu
c gi l decision process
Nh phn trn ni, cc yu t nh hng n vic nhn nhm tn
hiu l hin tng ISI v nhiu. Nhiu xut hin trn ng truyn
thng c coi nh c phn b theo hm Gauss.
4.3.2.

Tnh ton li ng truyn cho tn hiu hai mc

Hnh 56 Hm phn b xc sut (pdf): (a) Tn hiu nh phn; (b) Tn hiu v nhiu

64

Hnh 56(a) minh ho hm phn b xc sut pdf ca tn hiu nh phn

trong trng hp l tng. Trong trng hp ny, hm pdf l ri rc
v tp trung ti hai gi tr V0 v V1 tng ng vi gi tr 0 v 1. Hnh
56(b) th hin hm pdf ca tn hiu v nhiu. Do tc ng ca nhiu,
pdf lc ny c dng l hai hm Gauss c gi tr k vng l V0 v V1 (v
chnh l tch chp ca Hnh 56a v hm Gauss).
V0 V1
, nh
2
vy xc sut bit 1 nhn c l bit li (thc t l 0) l:

Gi s mc ngng gia hai gi tr 0 v 1 c ly l

( v V 0 ) 2

Pe1 V0 V1
2

2 2

(P.T 88)

dv ;

Nu nh ngha hm error function nh sau:

erfc( z )

x2
e
dx ;
z

(P.T 89)

nh ngha hm erf(x) c nh ngha:

erfc( z ) 1 erf( z ) ;

(P.T 90)

P.T 88 tr thnh:
Pe1

V V0
1
1
V V0
erfc( 1
) 1 erf 1
;
2
2
2 2
2 2

(P.T 91)

Cng tng t nh vy:

Pe0

(V0 V1 ) 2

(v V1 ) 2

2 2

dv

1
V1 V0
; (P.T 92)
1 erf
2
2 2

Nh vy nu gi V V1 V0 , ta c:

Pe

1
V
;
1 erf
2
2 2

(P.T 93)

65

Do th hin lch trung bnh ca tn hiu so vi mt gi tr trung

bnh (k vng) nn n th hin mo trung bnh ca tn hiu do :

N 2.
Trong trng hp m NRZ n cc (Hnh 57a), tn hiu nh chnh l
hiu s ca V1 v V0, ta c:
S peak V 2 ; v vy:

S
V 2
;
) peak
N
2

(P.T 94)

T P.T 93 v P.T 94 ta c:
1

1
1 S 2
Pe 1 erf

2
N peak
2
2

(P.T 95)

Mt khc: S V 2 2 S peak 2 ; do :
1

1
1 S 2
PNRZuni 1 erf ;
2
2 N

(P.T 96)

Hnh 57 M NRZ

66

V
i vi m NRZ lng cc (Hnh 57b): S S peak
nn:
2
1

1
1 S 2
PNRZpo 1 erf
;
2
2
N

(P.T 97)

Tnh ton li ng truyn cho tn hiu nhiu mc

4.3.3.

Hnh 58 th hin dng ca mt m ng truyn nhiu mc. Gi s

tn hiu ng truyn c M mc, mi mc cch nhau mt khong V
th phn b xc sut bin ca tn hiu v nhiu s c dng nh
Hnh 59. Trong trng hp m ng truyn c nhiu mc, (M-2)
mc bin gia c xc sut gp li Pe i ln gp i mc bin
cc i v cc tiu Pe o do chng c th qu ln hoc qu b v
chuyn nhm sang cc mc bin k vi chng. Bi vy ta c:
Pe i 2 Pe ;

(P.T 98)

Pe o Pe ;

(P.T 99)

Bi vy sc xut gp li trung bnh l:

PeM

M 2
2
2( M 1)
2 Pe
Pe
Pe ;
M
M
M

PeM

M 1
V
1 erf
M
2 2

(P.T 100)

(P.T 101)

Hnh 58 Dng tn hiu nhiu mc

67

Hnh 59 Hm phn b xc sut ca tn hiu nhiu mc v nhiu

4.3.4.

Li tch lu khi truyn tn hiu qua nhiu chng

Ni chung khi truyn tn hiu qua ng truyn, suy hao l khng th

trnh khi. Ngoi ra nh chng ta bit cn c nhiu nh hng ln
cht lng ca tn hiu. i vi nhng ng truyn vi khong cch
ln, suy gim s lm cho kh nng khi phc tn hiu u thu gim
st ng k. Trong nhng trng hp ny, cn phi chia ng
truyn thnh nhiu chng (hop), sau mi chng s c mt trm lp
(repeater) khuych i v khi phc tn hiu. Cc trm lp c
chia lm hai loi:

Trm lp khuych i (amplifier repeater): i vi trm lp

khuych i, tn hiu s c khuych i sau khi i qua mi

chng.

Trm lp khi phc (regenerative repeater): loi trm lp ny p

dng qu trnh khi phc tn hiu (decision process) trong thng tin
s ti thit lp dng xung ca tn hiu.

Hnh 60 ng truyn nhiu chng s dng trm lp khuych i

ISI v nhiu s c tc ng tiu cc n qu trnh khi phc tn hiu
cc trm lp. Hnh 60 minh ho ng truyn s dng m trm lp
khuych i. Nu ng truyn ny c dng truyn m nh phn
V
vi 2 mc
v gi s h s suy gim ca cc chng l (<1)
2
th tn hiu ti u vo ca trm lp u tin s l V 2 n1 (t ) , vi
n1(t) l nhiu Gauss ti chng 1. Trong mt h thng truyn dn c
thit k ti u, h s khuych i Gv ca trm lp c thit k
b li suy gim, tc l: Gv 1 . Nh vy bin tn hiu ti u ra
c phc hi tuy nhin nhiu ti chng 1 cng b khuych i ln 1/
V
Gv n1 (t ) . Do suy gim chng th 2, tn hiu thu c
ln:
2
68

V
v nhiu tng cng l: n1 (t ) n2 (t ) .
2
hiu u vo khi thu l:

u vo trm lp th 2 l:
Sau

chng

tn

V
n1 (t ) n2 (t ) ... nm (t ) .
2

Ta thy rng i vi trm lp khuych i, nhiu l tng cc nhiu ca

tng chng. Theo 4.3.2, nu nhiu c hm pdf phn phi theo hm
Gauss th nhiu mt chng i bt k c tnh theo:
Ni 2 ;

(P.T 102)

Nhiu tng cng trn m chng s l:

N

i 1 N i m 2 ;
m

(P.T 103)

Trong l phng sai. i vi m NRZ lng cc ta c:

S V 2 S peak 2 ;
2

(P.T 104)

Bi vy t s tn hiu trn tp m sau m chng s l:

V 2
S
;

N m hop 2m 2

(P.T 105)

Cn c vo P.T 97:
1

1
1 S 2

Pamplifier 1 erf

;
2
N m hop
2

Do ta c:
Pamplifier

V
1
;
1 erf
2
2 2m

(P.T 106)

Mt khc kho st h thng truyn dn dng trm lp khi phc (Hnh

61):

Hnh 61 ng truyn nhiu chng s dng trm lp khi phc

69

Trm lp khi phc s dng qu trnh khi phc tn hiu chn thi
im ly mu v quyt nh gi tr va ly mu c gi tr 0 hay 1. Do
nhiu c loi khi dng bit, u ra tn hiu li c khi phc
vi dng xung l tng, tuy nhin vi mt xc sut li Pe ti mt chng
no nh tnh ton trong phn 4.3.2 v 4.3.3. Nh vy trong trng
hp ny nhiu Gauss s khng b tch lu qua cc chng nh s dng
trm lp khuych i.
Gi s rng xc sut mt k hiu chu li hn 1 ln qua m chng
c b qua v mPe 1 ta c:

Pregenerator mPe

m
V
;
1 erf
2
2 2

(P.T 107)

Hnh 62 th hin li xy ra sau m chng i vi trm lp khuych i

v trm lp khi phc. R rng trm lp khi phc c xc sut li thp
hn so vi trm lp khuych i.

Hnh 62 Li xy ra ti trm lp khuych i v trm lp khi phc

4.4.

M ng truyn
4.4.1.

Gii thiu chung v m ng truyn line coding

Nh trn kho st, khi truyn tn hiu qua ng truyn, do tc

dng ca nhiu v ISI, tn hiu truyn qua h thng thng tin s s b
gim cht lng mt cch ng k. V vy mi h thng truyn dn s
dng cp u phi tho mn mt s iu kin cht lng tn hiu
nm trong phm vi chp nhn c. Nhng iu kin l:

Trnh truyn thnh phn mt chiu trn ng dy do trong h

thng truyn dn tn ti cc thnh phn nh t in hoc bin p,
cc thnh phn ny li ngn cn khng cho thnh phn mt chiu
i qua. Mt khc, do mc in p mt chiu so vi t u thu
v u pht cha chc nh nhau, nu truyn thnh phn mt
chiu th tn hiu khi phc ti u thu s b bin dng. Ngoi ra
70

thnh phn mt chiu khng mang thng tin c ch m truyn n li

tn nng lng.

Trnh truyn cc thnh phn tn s thp, v cc thnh phn ny rt

nhy cm vi mo khi truyn qua knh truyn.

Trnh truyn cc thnh phn c tn s cao, do cc thnh phn tn

s cao b suy gim nhiu hn trn knh truyn, mt khc nhiu
xuyn m ti tn s cao cng ln hn.

Phi c phng php ng b gia u thu v u pht (quan

trng trong qu trnh khi phc tn hiu) bng cch truyn theo c
tn hiu ng b trong dng thng tin.

Bn cnh , qua kho st c th thy rng m nh phn thng thng

(NRZ n cc) c mt s nhc im nh sau:

Khng truyn theo tn hiu ng b, gy mt ng b trong trng

hp mt lot cc bit 0 hoc 1 c truyn lin tip.

Ph ca m ny c c thnh phn mt chiu.

V vy trc khi truyn tn hiu nh phn ln ng truyn, ngi ta

phi s dng cc loi m ng dy khc nhau nhm tho mn cc
iu kin trn. Cc loi m ng dy ny c phn loi da theo
cc c im sau:

C hay khng thnh phn mt chiu.

Mt ph cng sut, c bit ti thnh phn ph ti 0Hz.

rng bng tn.

Cht lng tn hiu truyn th hin qua t s BER.

Kh nng khi phc li tn hiu ng h ti u thu t tn hiu thu

c.

C hay khng cc c ch tm v sa li.

Bng 4 a ra c tnh mt s m ng truyn c bn.

M

Kh nng tch
thng tin ng
b

Kh nng
pht hin
li

Cng sut truyn

tng i
Trung
bnh

71

nh

Bng
tn c
s

Kh
thnh
phn mt
chiu

Unipolar NRZ Kh

Khng

f0

Khng

Unipolar RZ

n gin

Khng

2f0

Khng

Polar NRZ

Kh

Khng

f0

Khng

Polar RZ

Chnh lu

Khng

0,5

2f0

Khng

n gin

Khng

2f0

Khng

2f0

Dipolar
OOK

Dipolar
Kh
Manchester
Bipolar RZ

Chnh lu

f0

Bipolar NRZ

Kh

f0/2

HDB3

Chnh lu

f0

CMI

n gin

tu

tu

2f0

Bng 4 c tnh ca mt s m ng truyn thng dng

72

Hnh 63 c tnh ph cng sut ca mt s m ng dy

Hnh 63 th hin dng ph v dng xung ca cc m ng dy thng
1
dng, trong T 0
l rng ca mt k hiu. Hnh 64 th hin
f0
dng sng ca cc loi m ng dy tng ng vi mt chui tn
hiu PCM. Sau khi m ho ng truyn, cc tn hiu u ra c th
cho qua b lc sa dng xung gii hn dng ph ca chng v
73

gim thiu tc ng ca ISI. B lc sa dng xung c trnh by

trong 4.2.4 v 4.2.5.

Hnh 64 Dng sng ca cc m ng dy tng ng vi tn hiu PCM

74

i vi cc dng xung vung pha tay tri ca Hnh 63, hm mt

ph cng sut c th c tnh theo cng thc:
G ( f ) p(1 p) f 0 F1 ( f ) F0 ( f )
f 02

2
pF1 (nf 0 ) (1 p) F0 (nf 0 ) ( f nf 0 )
n

Trong p l xc sut ca k hiu 1, Fi(f) l ph bin ca k hiu

1
1 hoc 0, f 0
l tc k hiu (symbol rate).
T0
Cc m ng truyn n cc (unipolar)

4.4.2.

Cc loi m ng truyn n cc l loi m m k t nh phn c

biu din bi s c mt ca mt xung vung tng ng vi gi tr 1
v s khng c mt ca xung vung tng ng vi gi tr 0.
C hai dng m ng dy c bn l m NRZ n cc (unipolar
non-return to zero) v m RZ n cc (unipolar return to zero) (xem
Hnh 64).

NRZ c mt s c im sau:

rng xung ng bng mt chu k m T0.

Hm mt ph cng sut c dng: [sin x / x]2 , vi

x T0 f .

rng bng tn: B 3dB

0,44
;
T0

RZ c cc c im sau:
rng xung nh hn chu k m T0, thng thng l 50%
ca T0.

Hm mt ph cng sut cng c dng [sin x / x]2 vi

x T0 f .

rng bng tn: B 3dB

75

0,88
, gp i NRZ.
T0

Ngoi ra c hai m NRZ v RZ u c gi tr thnh phn mt chiu

V 2T0
V 2T0
vi NRZ v
vi RZ). V vy khi truyn m RZ v
16
4
NRZ qua cc trm lp c t in hoc bin p, sau mt chu k di,
thnh phn mt chiu ny s b kh v tn hiu n cc thc cht s
b bin thnh tn hiu lng cc. Mt khc i vi m NRZ, nu xt
trong mt chu k thi gian ngn, do bin p v t in to thnh cc b
lc thng cao nn nu cc bit 1 c truyn lin tc th dng mt
chiu v thnh phn tn s thp b kh, lm cho dng tn hiu 1 c
dng ng cong suy gim theo hm m.

khc 0 (

Nh vy c th thy vic truyn tn hiu mt chiu trn ng

truyn s lm thay i dng tn hiu mt cch ng k.
M ng truyn n cc s dng cng sut truyn trung bnh v
nh bng 2 v 4 ln so vi cc cng sut tng ng ca m NRZ
lng cc.

Hnh 65 Mo tn hiu NRZ n cc do thnh phn tn s thp b kh

u im ca RZ n cc so vi NRZ n cc l gim thnh phn mt
chiu, mt khc n lm gim tc dng suy gim theo hm m khi
truyn cc k hiu 1 lin tip. Ngoi ra RZ cn c thnh phn ph ti
1
.
f
T0
4.4.3.

M lng cc (polar)

Cng tng t nh m n cc, c hai loi m lng cc l m NRZ

lng cc (polar NRZ) v m RZ lng cc (polar RZ). Trong m
lng cc, k hiu 1 c bin l V, k hiu 0 c bin l V
(xem hnh Hnh 63 v Hnh 64).

76

M lng cc c c tnh ph tng t nh m n cc. Chng cng

c rng bng tn v chu hiu ng suy gim theo hm m nh m
1
n cc. Tuy nhin m RZ lng cc khng c vch ph ti f
.
T0
4.4.4.

M dipolar

Mc ch ca m dipolar l hm mt ph cng sut bng 0 ti tn

s f=0Hz, tc l n trit tiu c tn hiu mt chiu truyn trn ng
truyn. C hai loi m dipolar l Dipolar OOK (On-Off Keying) v
Dipolar i cc (antipodal Dipolar). M Dipolar i cc cn c gi
l m Manchester.
c im chung ca m Dipolar l mt chu k m c chia lm hai
phn, mi na chu k m c chim bi mt xung dng v mt
xung m, do trong ton b chu k m, thnh phn mt chiu bng
0. M Dipolar OOK c ph vch ti tn s f 1 T0 cn Manchester th
khng.
Mt im ng ch ca m Manchester l d s liu l bit 0 hay 1,
trong thnh phn 1 bit bao gi cng c s thay i mc tn hiu, iu
ny to iu kin cho vic khi phc tn hiu ng b ti u thu. Tuy
nhin mt trong nhng nhc im ca Manchester l n yu cu
0,88
1,16
rng bng tn: B 3dB
ln so vi Dipolar OOK ( B 3dB
) v
T0
T0
cc loi m khc. M Manchester c s dng cho mng Ethernet
LAN.
4.4.5.

M Bipolar-RZ v Bipolar-NRZ

M bipolar s dng 3 mc in p (+V, 0, -V) m ho cc bit nh

phn 0 v 1. Bit 0 c biu din bng mc in p 0, bit 1
c biu din lun phin bi +V v V. Vic ny m bo kh c
thnh phn mt chiu trong ph tn hiu, mt khc hin tng mc
mt chiu suy gim theo hm m khi truyn cc bit 1 lin tc cng
c loi tr.
C hai loi m bipolar l:

Bipolar RZ, hay cn c gi l AMI-RZ (AMI Alternate Mark

Inversion) c rng bng tn: B 3dB

Bipolar NRZ, cn c gi l AMI-NRZ c rng bng tn:

B 3dB

4.4.6.

0,71
.
T0

0,35
.
T0

Qu trnh ng b xung v m HDBn

Nh bit, vic ng b gia u pht v bn nhn tn hiu (thit b

u cui hoc trm lp) c thc hin m bo vic ly mu trong
qu trnh khi phc tn hiu c thc hin ng thi im. i vi
cc m ng truyn c thnh phn ph f 0 1 T0 (nh RZ n
77

cc hoc Dipolar OOK) th ch cn tch tn hiu ng b vi tn s f 0

bng cch s dng b lc hoc vng kho pha (PLL). Mt s loi m
ng truyn khc khng c ph f 0 1 T0 th c th cho qua chnh
lu sa dng ph, sau li dng cc phng php trn tch
tn hiu ng b. Th d trong m Bipolar RZ trnh by trn, c th
thy rng mt ph cng sut ti f 0 bng 0. Nu cho dng tn hiu
Bipolar RZ i qua chnh lu th n s bin thnh m RZ n cc v c
dng ph vi thnh phn ph ti f 0 .
Tuy nhin trong thc t, vn ng b s xy ra khi mt lot cc bit
0 c truyn lin tip. Lc ny do khng c s thay i mc tn hiu
mt cch lin tc nn ng b s b mt do vng kho pha khng cn
nhn bit c pha ca tn hiu. M HDBn c s dng trnh
hin tng ny.
M HDBn c pht trin t m Bipolar RZ. Trong loi m ny, nu
s k hiu 0 lin tip vt qu n th nhm k hiu 0 ny s c
thay th bng mt m c bit.
M HDBn hay c s dng nht l HDB3 tng ng vi n=3. Theo
khuyn ngh G.703 ca ITU-T, m HDB3 c s dng cho cc
ng PCM 34Mbit/s v 2,8Mbit/s. Trong HDB3, dng 4 k hiu 0
lin tip c thay th bng 000V hoc 100V, trong V l k hiu 1,
c chn sao cho mc in p V vi phm quy lut m dng lun
phin ca Bipolar RZ. S vi phm ny cho php bn thu nhn bit
c nhm k hiu c bit ny (xem Hnh 64). Bng 5 th hin quy
lut m ho ca m HDB3.
Ph ca m HDB3 hu nh tng t vi ph ca Bipolar RZ. HDB3
cn c gi l B4ZS (Bipolar Signalling with Four-zeros Substitution).
S xung t ln thay th trc
Xung cui cng

Chn

000-

+00+

Dng

000+

-00-

Bng 5 Quy lut m ho ca HDB3

4.4.7.

M CMI (coded mark inversion)

M CMI thc cht l mt loi NRZ lng cc. N s dng c hai mc

m v dng trong mt chu k m (mi mc chim 50% chu k m)
th hin k hiu 0, k hiu 1 s mang gi tr m hoc dng lun
phin nhau, vi rng ca xung bng mt chu k m.
Trong khuyn ngh G.703 ca ITU-T, CMI c s dng cho ng
PCM ghp knh 140Mbit/s.
Ngoi ra ITU-T cn s dng mt loi m CMI thay i cho ng
truyn PCM 64kbit/s hai chiu. Trong m ITU-T 64kbit/s, cc ca cc
k hiu 0 v 1 c thay i lun phin. Ngoi ra, c sau 8 bit th
lut lun phin ny li b vi phm phn bit ranh gii ca cc t m
PCM.
78

4.4.8.

M nBmT

M nBmT l m ng truyn trong n k hiu nh phn s c

thay th bng m k hiu ba mc (B binary, T tenary). Bng cch
tng s mc ca k hiu m ng dy, m ny cho php gim
rng bng tn. Bng 6 th hin m 4B3T vi n=4, m=3. 6 t hp m
u tin trong Bng 6 cn bng nng lng, do gi tr ca chng
khng thay i, 10 t hp m tip theo c gi tr nng lng cha cn
bng, v vy ng vi mi t hp m nh phn li c hai t hp m
4B3T khc nhau, c s dng lun phin dng mt chiu trung
bnh bng 0.
Do vy m 4B3T khng c thnh phn ph ti 0Hz.
Tn hiu nh phn

0000

M 4B3T
T m trc c nng
lng m

T m trc c nng lng

dng

+0-

+0-

0001

-+0

-+0

0010

0-+

0-+

0011

+-0

+-0

0100

0+-

0+-

0101

-0+

-0+

0110

00+

00-

0111

0+0

0-0

1000

+00

-00

1001

++-

1010

+-+

-+-

1011

-++

1100

0++

1101

+0+

-0-

1110

++0

1111

+++

Bng 6 M 4B3T
4.5.

Cc phng php truyn v tch thng tin ng b

4.5.1.

Truyn ng b trong thoi s

Theo tiu chun chu u, 30 knh thoi s c truyn chung 2 knh

bo hiu v kim tra thnh mt ng PCM 32 knh, mi knh thoi
s c tn s ly mu 8kHz, vi t m di 8bit, 32 knh 64kbit/s s to
thnh ng ghp knh 2.048kbit/s v c gi l ng PCM32.
79

ng PCM32 l ng truyn dn tiu chun trong mi h thng

thoi s theo chun chu u. M v Nht, ng truyn tiu chun
c dung lng 1,5Mbit/s bao gm 24 knh thoi 64kbit/s.
ng PCM32 li c ghp knh ln cc tc chun cao hn nh
8, 34 v 140Mbit/s. Cc ng 2, 8, 34Mbit/s s dng m ng
truyn HDB3, ng 140Mbit/s s dng m CMI.

Hnh 66 ng b dng tn hiu 64kbit/s

i vi knh thoi chun 64kbit/s c 3 loi giao din vt l tng ng
vi 3 phng php truyn thng tin ng b:

Giao din ng hng (codirectional interface): Vi mi hng

truyn dn c mt ng truyn vt l, m ng dy c s
dng y l m CMI thay i theo quy nh ca ITU. Trong
phng php ny tn hiu ng b c m ho ng thi vi s
liu. lm c iu ny, mi bit c chia lm 4 phn ( rng
mi bit l 3,9s) (xem Hnh 63 v Hnh 64), bit 1 c m ho
bng m NRZ n cc 1100, bit 0 c m ho bng NRZ n
cc 1010. Sau 4 bit ny li c o cc lun phin. Sau mt
byte th s o cc ny b vi phm nh du kt thc byte
(Hnh 66a).

Giao din ng h trung tm (centralized clock interface): vi

giao din ny, d liu theo mi chiu c truyn bng cc ng

ring, ngoi ra cn c mt ng h trung tm truyn tn hiu ng
b cho c phn pht v phn thu. C hai ngun ng b c
80

truyn: ngun 64kHz ng b bit v 8kHz ng b byte.

ng d liu s dng m AMI NRZ, tn hiu ng b s dng m
AMI RZ (Hnh 66b).

4.5.2.

Giao din ngc hng (contradirectional interface):

C hai
ng truyn cho mi hng, mt cho dng PCM 64kbit/s v mt
cho tn hiu ng b. Knh d liu s dng AMI NRZ, tn hiu ng
b s dng AMI RZ (Hnh 66c).
Khi phc tn hiu ng b

Hnh 67 Khi phc ng h bng phng php chnh lu

Sau y chng ta ch kho st qu trnh khi phc ng b cho phn
ng b i km vi d liu.
c th khi phc c d liu mt cch chnh xc ti u thu, bn
thu v bn pht phi ng b v c tn s v pha qu trnh ly mu
tn hiu bn thu din ra ti thi im ti u.
Qu trnh khi phc tn hiu ng h c th thng qua lc v chnh lu.
Hnh 67 minh ho qu trnh khi phc tn hiu bng chnh lu. M
bipolar RZ ti u vo c dng ph nh Hnh 67a, ti thnh phn tn
s f0 ph bin bng 0. Sau khi i qua chnh lu, hm mt ph s
c mt vch ti thnh phn f0, c th s dng mt b lc thng di
ly thnh phn tn s f0 ra khi ph tn hiu.
Mt phng php na tch ng b ra khi tn hiu thu c l
dung mch cng hng (Hnh 68). Trong phng php ny c mi ln
tn hiu vt qua im 0 th tn hiu c s dng kch b giao
ng cng hng. B giao ng cng hng giao ng t do vi tn
s fc. Nu c tn hiu kch vi tn s f0 th b giao ng s giao ng
cng tn s v pha vi tn s kch.

81

Hnh 68 Khi phc tn hiu ng h dng b giao ng cng hng

4.6.

Bi tp
1)

Tn hiu bng tn c bn vi 4 mc bin c rng mt k

hiu l 100s. ([7], Pg. 55)

Hy tnh rng bng tn ti thiu truyn tn hiu trn, vi gi

thit b lc cos nng c dng vi h s =0,3.

truyn 1 triu bit cn bao nhiu thi gian?

Nu mun truyn s bit trn vi mt na thi gian th cn m ho

bao nhiu mc, gi thit rng bng tn truyn khng thay
i.
Bi gii:

S dng cng thc:

B 0,5
2)

1
(1 ) ;
T

Cho tn hiu bng tn c bn vi 4 mc bin s dng m NRZ

lng cc (polar NRZ). Tn hiu ny c truyn trn ng
truyn vi suy gim 15dB. Ti u thu, cng sut nhiu ti u
vo l 10W v tr khng u vo l 50 Bn pht phi c cng
sut pht tn hiu trung bnh ti thiu l bao nhiu xc sut li k
hiu PeM 10 4 ([1], Pg. 219).
Gi :

S dng cng thc: PeM

M 1
V
1 erf
M
2 2

Ch rng chnh l in p ca tp m ti u vo.

Bi gii:

82

Cng sut tp m ti u vo b thu c tnh theo cng thc:

PN

2
UN
2
do : PN R 10 5 50 2,236 10 2 (V)

R
R

Vi R l tr khng u vo b thu, UN l in p nhiu, l in p

tp m u vo b thu.
T phng trnh P.T 101, ta c:
P M
4 10 4
V
erf
1
0,999867 ;
1 eM
M 1
4 1
2 2

Tra bng trong mc Ph lc 8.1, ta c:

V

2,70 do V 2,70 2 1,414 2,236 10 2 0,171 (V)

2 2

Nh vy 4 mc tn hiu s l:

0,171
0,171
0,171) 0,256 (V)
0,085 (V) v (
2
2

Tng ng vi 4 mc tn hiu trn c 2 mc cng sut ti u thu:

PV 1

U12 0,085 2

1,46 10 4 (W)
R
50

PV 2

U 22 0,256 2

1,31 10 3 (W)
R
50

C th coi cc k hiu truyn c bin c phn b u c 4

mc, do cng sut trung bnh ti u thu:
PR

1
( PV 1 PV 2 ) 0,728 (mW);
2

Gi cng sut trung bnh ti u pht l PT ta c:

P
10 log( T ) 15 (dB), do :
PR
15
PT PR 10 10 0,728 31,622 23 (mW)
3)

M NRZ lng cc (polar NRZ) di dng nh phn, xung vung

c truyn trn ng truyn di 15 chng. Bit rng t s SNR
ti u vo trm lp ti mi chng o c l 12dB. Hy tnh xc
sut bit li Pe trong cc trng hp: [1], Pg. 221

S dng trm lp khuych i.

S dng trm lp khi phc.

So snh kt qu thu c.

83

Bi gii:

C:
SNRdB

S
10 10
N

12
10 10 15,85 ;

Mt khc i vi tn hiu polar NRZ, theo P.T 97:

1

1
1 S 2
PNRZpo 1 erf
;
2
2
N

Mt khc theo P.T 93:

Pe

1
V
;
1 erf
2
2 2

T hai phng trnh trn ta c:

1

S 2
2 2 15,85 7,962 ;

Trong trng hp s dng trm lp khuych i:

Pamplifier

V
1
;
1 erf
2
2 m

Trong trng hp s dng trm lp khi phc:

Pe

1
V
3,45 10 5 ;
1 erf
2
2 2

Do mPe 1 :
Pregenerator mPe

m
V
;
1 erf
2
2 2

4)

Cho dy tn hiu nh phn nh sau: 100100001011, hy v dng

cc tn hiu sau:

M ng truyn NRZ n cc, RZ n cc.

M ng truyn NRZ lng cc, RZ lng cc.

Dipolar OOK v Dipolar i cc (antipodal Dipolar).

AMI-RZ v AMI-NRZ.

HDB3.

4B3T

5)

Cho cc on m HDB3 nh sau, hy tm dy tn hiu nh phn

tng ng:
84

85

Chng

5.1.

5. M ho ngun

Thng tin v entropy

5.1.1.

t vn

nh dng ca ngun tin trong mt h thng thng tin s thng thng

l mt tp hp ca cc k hiu (symbol). Tuy nhin trong phn ln
cc trng hp khng th truyn tp hp cc k hiu mt cch
nguyn dng qua h thng thng tin v ng truyn. Th d: bng
ch ci theo dng m ASCII bao gm 128 k t. Nu mun truyn mi
ch ci bng mt k hiu trn ng truyn th mi k hiu cn c 128
mc. iu ny trn thc t l khng th thc hin c, v vy thng
thng thng tin s phi chuyn thnh dng nh phn, tc l mi k t
s c m ho bng mt t m nh phn. Sau khi c bin i,
t m nh phn c th c truyn trc tip bng tn c bn, hoc
c iu ch ln bng tn thng di .v.v.
Trong chng ny chng ta s xem xt mt s vn thuc l thuyt
truyn tin v cc phng php m ho ngun c bn. C s ca b
mn L thuyt truyn tin c Hartley v Nyquist pht trin vo nhng
nm 20 ca th k 20.
5.1.2.

Khi nim lng tin

Lng thng tin thng c o bng him cng nh kh nng

c th on trc ca thng ip c truyn. Tc l nhng thng tin
cng hay xy ra th cng cha t ni dung, nhng thng tin cng t xy
ra th li cha nhiu ni dung. Nu gi xc sut xy ra mt thng
ip no l P(thng ip) th:
Nu P(thng ip)=1 th thng ip khng mang thng tin.
Nu P(thng ip)=0 th thng ip mang mt lng tin v tn.
nh ngha khi nim lng tin, c mt s nhn xt sau:

Lng tin cha trong k hiu m tng khi xc sut P(m) gim v
ngc li.

Nu cc bn thng ip c gi lin tip nhau th lng tin tng

cng ca cc thng ip phi bng tng lng tin ca cc thng
ip thnh phn.

Ngoi ra chng ta bit rng xc sut ca mt thng ip tng hp

s phi l tch ca xc sut ca tng thng ip thnh phn.

Ba nhn xt trn c th c tng hp trn Bng 7.

86

Thng ip

P(thng ip)

Lng tin

m1

P(m1)

I1

m2

P(m2)

I2

m1 + m2

P(m1)P(m2)

I1+I2

Bng 7 Xc sut thng ip v lng tin tng ng

C th thy rng hm logarithm tho mn cc iu kin trn. V vy
lng tin ca k hiu m c nh ngha nh sau:
I m log

1
log P (m) ;
P ( m)

(P.T 108)

Vi P(m)=0, I m ; ngc li vi P(m)=1, Im=0. Ngoi ra:

I 1 I 2 log P (m1 ) log P (m2 ) log[ P(m1 ) P (m2 )] .
Thng thng logarithm c s 2 thng c chn, tng ng
vi lng tin c tnh bng bit.
5.1.3.

Entropy ca ngun tin nh phn

nh ngha Entropy l lng tin trung bnh c truyn trong

mt k hiu.
i vi tp hp k hiu nh phn, gi s xc sut xy ra mt k hiu l
c lp vi cc k hiu khc, entropy c biu th bng cng thc
sau:
H

m 1 P(m) log2 P(m) (bit/k hiu);

2

(P.T 109)

nh ngha entropy theo P.T 109 ng vi tt c cc tp hp k hiu

vi kch thc bt k. Gi xc sut xy ra 1 P(1)=p, do P(0)=1-p,
lc ny ta c:
H p log 2

1
1
(1 p ) log 2
(bit/k hiu);
p
1 p

(P.T 110)

Nhn xt C th thy rng entropy ca ngun tin t gi tr

cc i khi xc sut xy ra cc k hiu c phn b ng u.

87

Hnh 69 Entropy ca tn hiu nh phn ng vi cc phn b xc sut khc nhau

Hnh 69 cho thy gi tr entropy ph thuc vo s phn b xc sut
trong tn hiu nh phn theo P.T 110. Khi xc sut ca 1 hoc 0 tng
ln thi entropy gim. Gi tr entropy gim n 0 khi xc sut tin ti 1.
5.2.

Entropy c iu kin v d
Vi nhng ngun tin m xc sut xut hin ca mt k hiu ph thuc
vo xc sut xy ra mt k hiu khc, P.T 109 cha biu din c
chnh xc lng entropy ca ton b ngun tin. Ngun tin trong trng
hp ny cn c gi l ngun tin c nh. Lc ny cn phi s dng
cc khi nim v xc sut c iu kin. Nu gi P(j|i) l xc sut xut
hin k hiu j khi k hiu i xy ra (P(j|i) cn gi l xc sut ko theo).
Trong trng hp ny, lng tin trung bnh (sau khi i xy ra) s c
tnh theo cng thc:
Ii

j P( j | i) log 2 P( j | i) ;
1

(P.T 111)

T P.T 111, entropy c iu kin s c tnh nh sau:

H

i P(i) j P( j | i) log 2 P( j | i) (bit/k hiu);

1

(P.T 112)

T cng thc xc sut c iu kin (cng thc Bayes):

P( j, i) P(i) P( j | i) P( j ) P(i | j ) ;

(P.T 113)

P.T 112 c th vit li thnh:

H

i j P( j, i) log2 P( j | i)
1

(bit/k hiu);

(P.T 114)

Trong P(j,i) l xc sut i v j cng xy ra. Nh vy, nu xc sut

xy ra mt k hiu ph thuc vo s xut hin ca cc k hiu khc ti
mt thi im no trong qua kh th xc sut xut hin mt s k
hiu s tng ln cng vi xc sut xut hin cc k hiu khc s gim
88

i. Vic phn b xc sut khng ng u ny s lm gim entropy

ca ngun tin.
S chnh lch gia entropy cc i Hmax (entropy trong trng hp
xc sut c lp v phn b u) v entropy thc t H ca ngun tin
c gi l d.
i vi mt tp hp gm M k hiu, d R c tnh nh sau:
R H max H log 2 M H (bit/k hiu);

5.3.

(P.T 115)

Tn hao thng tin do nhiu

Trong phn ny chng ta s kho st nh hng ca nhiu ln thng
tin thu c u thu khi truyn tin qua mt knh truyn khng l
tng.
Goi iT l mt k hiu c truyn i u pht, ti u thu, bin tn
hiu thu c tng ng vi iT l vR, nh vy ta c t hp (vR: iT) c
trng cho s tng quan gia tn hiu bn pht v bn thu (Ch s R
c trng cho bn thu cn T c trng cho bn pht). Trong trng
hp knh truyn l tng, thng tin nhn c ti u thu IR s c
tnh nh sau:
I R (vR : iT ) log 2

1
(bit);
P(iT )

(P.T 116)

Tuy nhin trong trng hp xut hin nhiu trn knh truyn, vic xc
nh mt k hiu ch thc u pht tng ng vi vR u thu s
gp kh khn. Gi P(iT|vR) l xc sut iT c truyn i u pht
trong trng hp nhn c bin vR u thu (trong trng hp
knh l tng, P(iT|vR) c gi tr 1 i vi mt k hiu nht nh v
bng 0 cho cc k hiu cn li). Ti u thu, bin vR nhn c s
tng ng vi mt k hiu jR no . Vy lng tin nhn c ti u
thu tng ng vi k hiu pht iT v k hiu thu jR l:
I R ( jR ) IT (iT ) IT (iT | jR ) log 2

1
1
;
log 2
P(iT )
P(iT | jR )

Vy:

I R ( jR ) log 2

P(iT | jR )
(bit);
P(iT )

(P.T 117)

Trong thc t P(iT | jR ) thng c biu din thng qua mt ma

trn chuyn i. Gi s mt ngun tin c tp cc k hiu {a,b,...,n}, ma
trn chuyn i s c biu din nh trn Bng 8.
Pht\Thu

P(a|a)

P(a|b)

...

P(a|n)
89

P(b|a)

P(b|b)

P(b|n)

P(n|a)

P(n|b)

P(n|n)

...
n

Bng 8 Bng ma trn chuyn i

5.4.

Bi tp
1)

Tm gi tr entropy, d v tc dng tin (tnh bng bit/s) ca

mt ngun gm mt tp hp 4 k hiu (A, B, C, D) vi tc baud
1024 k hiu/s vi xc sut xy ra cc k hiu (A, B, C, D) trong
ngun tin tng ng l (0,5; 0,2; 0,2; 0,1) trong cc iu kin sau
([1], Pg.310):

Xc sut xy ra cc k hiu l c lp (s kin xy ra k hiu ny

c lp vi xc sut xy ra k hiu khc)

Hai k hiu xy ra lin tip khng c php ging nhau.

Bi gii:

S dng cng thc: H

m 1 P(m) log2 P(m)

1

H=1,761 (bit/symbol)
Trong trng hp cc xc sut xy ra cc k hiu l bng nhau v c
lp:
H max log 2 M =2. Do : R H max H =0,239bit/symbol
Rbit Rbaud H =1024x1,761=1803bit/s.

C mt s nhn xt sau:

P( A | A) P( B | B) P(C | C ) P( D | D) 0 ;
P( B | A) P(C | A) P( D | A) 1 ;

Phng trnh trn tng ng:

P( B)
P (C )
P( D)
P( A | B)
P( A | C )
P( A | D) 1 ;
P ( A)
P ( A)
P ( A)

Vi P(A)=0,5; P(B)=P(C)=0,2; P(D)=0,1 c:

0, 2P( A | B) 0, 2P( A | C ) 0,1P( A | D) 0,5 ;

Do : P( A | B) P( A | C ) P( A | D) 1 ;
Cng v vy:
P(C | B) P( D | B) P( B | C ) P( D | C ) P( B | D) P(C | D) 0 ;

Bc tip theo l tnh cc gi tr: P(B|A), P(C|A), P(D|A)

90

Sau p dng phng trnh:

H
2)

i P(i) j P( j | i) log 2 P( j | i) ;
1

Cho trc mt ngun tin l tp hp ca 3 k hiu (A, B, C) vi xc

sut xut hin tng k hiu tng ng l (0,5; 0,2; 0,3). Ngun tin
ny c truyn qua knh truyn n u thu. Gi k hiu c
pht i ti u pht l Ktx v tn hiu tng ng nhn c u
thu l K rx ( K ( A, B, C ) ), c ma trn chuyn i nh sau ([1], Pg.
314):
Atx

Btx

Ctx

Arx

0,6

0,5

Brx

0,2

0,5

0,333

Crx

0,2

0,667

Hy tm xc sut cc k t P( K rx ) ti u thu.

Hy tm bt nh E (equivocation) ca thng tin ti u thu.

Entropy ngun.

Entropy hiu dng

Bi gii:

Xc sut xut hin mt k t ti u thu c tnh theo phng

trnh:

P( Arx ) P( Atx ) P( Arx | Atx ) P( Btx ) P( Arx | Btx ) P(Ctx ) P( Arx | Ctx )

Cng tng t nh vy i vi cc xc sut P(Brx), P(Crx).

S dng phng trnh: E j P( j rx )iP(itx | j rx ) log 2

1
;
P(itx | j rx )

Ch rng thnh phn trong bng ma trn chuyn i tng ng vi:

P(jrx|itx). Nh vy trc tin cn tnh P(itx|jrx) theo P(jrx|itx), P(itx), P(irx),
sau tnh E theo phng trnh trn.

m1 P(itx ) log2 P(itx )

1

Entropy H c tnh theo cng thc H

Entropy hiu dng c tnh theo phng trnh: Heff=H-E.

3)

Mt ngun tin gm 6 k hiu t A n F vi xc sut phn b theo

bng sau:
m

P(m)

0,02

0,5

0,08

0,1

0,25

0,05

91

Tnh di t m trung bnh.

Tnh Entropy H v Hmax ca ngun tin trn.

Tnh hiu sut m trong trng hp khng s dng m ho ngun.

M ho ngun tin trn s dng m Shannon-Fano, tnh hiu sut

m.

M ho ngun tin trn s dng m Huffman, tnh hiu sut m v

so snh vi trng hp s dung Shannon-Fano.

Gi :

di t m trung bnh c tnh theo cng thc:

m1 P(m)lm ; trong lm l di ca t m binary m.

M

Hiu sut m c tnh theo cng thc:

code

H
H max

H
;
L

92

Chng

6. M ho knh

6.1.

Gii thiu v m ho knh

6.2.

Bi tp
1)

Cho hai t m 7 bit: 1100001 v 0111001. Tm:

Khong cch Hamming gia hai t m ny.

Tm trng s m ca chng.

Hai t m trn c gn 1 bit kim tra chn. Hy vit t m sau khi

c m ho.

Tnh hiu sut m.

2)

Cng vi cc t m 7 bit. Cho bit xc sut xut hin bit li Pe=10-3.

Hy tnh:

Xc sut xut hin 1 bit li trong t m 7 bit .

Xc sut s li xut hin trong t m ln hn 3.

Gi :

Xc sut li c tnh theo cng thc:

P( j ) ( Pe ) j (1 Pe )n j C nj ;

P( j ) 1
3)

i 0 P(i)
j

Cho tp hp m tuyn tnh (n, k)=(7, 4) vi 4 bit thng tin (I1, I2, I3,
I4) v 3 bit kim tra chn l: (P1, P2, P3) ln lt l:

P1 I1 I3 I 4
P2 I1 I 2 I3
P3 I 2 I3 I 4

Ch th t ca cc bit trong mt t m l: (I1, I2, I3, I4, P1, P2, P3)

Tm ma trn kim tra chn l H

Tm ma trn sinh G

Chng minh cc t m 7 bit l m tuyn tnh cn c vo cc tnh

cht ca m tuyn tnh.

Tm trng s m ti thiu

Tm khong cch Hamming ti thiu gia hai t m.

93

Tnh s bit li ti a c th sa c v s bit ti a c th pht

hin.

Nu t m thu c ti u thu c gi tr l: 1000100. Hy kim tra

xem y c phi l mt t m hp l hay khng. Nu khng hy
sa li cho ng.

Gi :

1 0 1 1 1 0 0

H 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 ;
0 1 1 1 0 0 1

0
G
0

0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

1 1 0

0 1 1
;
1 1 1

1 0 1

Ngoi ra cn c: Dmin Wmin ;

4)

Mt tp hp m tuyn tnh c di n=9 bit, k=5bit. Gi thit

Dmin=4.

Tp hp t m ny c th sa c ti a bao nhiu li?

Nu ch sa 1 li th s c bao nhiu li c pht hin?

Gi :

S dng cng thc: Dmin 1 e t ;

5)

Cho biu trng thi ca m cun nh hnh v (vo 1 bit ra 2 bit,

R=0,5):

V hnh trellis t biu trng thi (5 lp)

Dng m ti u thu c dng: 1100110011. Gi s dng bit bt

u trng thi a. Dng bit ti ny c hp l hay khng? Gii m
Viterbi dng bit trn.

94

Chng

7.1.

7. K thut ghp knh

Tng quan
Trong cc h thng thng tin s, mt vn ny sinh khi truyn thng
tin qua ng truyn l nhiu thit b u cui hoc ngi s dng
phi c s dng chung knh truyn ti cng mt thi im.
Ti nguyn ny c th l dung lng truyn trong mt ng truyn
cp quang, c th l ph tn s trong h thng thng tin di ng .v.v.
Nh vy phi c mt th tc no quy nh cc thit b u cui chia
s ti nguyn nh th no. C hai k thut hay c s dng trong
vic chia s ti nguyn:

K thut ghp knh (multiplexing)

K thut a truy nhp knh (multiple access)

K thut ghp knh c s dng rng ri trong cc h thng thng

tin s v tuyn v hu tuyn, trong khi k thut a truy nhp c s
dng nhiu trong mng LAN v trong mt s h thng thng tin s v
tuyn.
Chng ny ch yu tp trung vo k thut ghp knh.
7.2.

K thut ghp knh theo tn s

7.2.1.

Nguyn l chung

K thut ghp knh theo tn s cn c gi l FDMA (Frequency

Division Multiple Access). K thut FDMA c s dng trong cc h
thng in thoi th h c, ngy nay n c s dng trong h thng
thng tin v tuyn.
K thut ghp knh theo tn s chia s bng tn ca knh truyn
thnh nhiu bng tn nh cho nhiu ngi s dng.
Nu mt knh truyn c rng bng tn l WHz, mi ngi s dng
knh truyn c dng thng tin vi rng l BHz th s ngi s dng
c th chia s knh truyn l:
n int(

W
);
B

(P.T 118)

Trong FDMA, mi knh thng tin s c iu ch vi mt sng mang

c tn s ring bit tng ng vi khe tn s ca knh . Nh
95

vy hiu qu ca qu trnh truyn s dng FDMA ph thuc vo cht

lng ca b lc thng di (th d nh b lc cose nng trnh by
4.2.5). Thng thng trnh nhiu giao thoa gia hai knh thng tin
k nhau, gia hai bng tn ca hai knh thng tin c mt khong trng
tn s c gi l bng tn bo v (guard band).

Hnh 70 Nguyn tc ghp knh theo tn s

Mt s hiu ng trong thng tin di ng

7.2.2.

Ghp knh c s dng rng ri trong thng tin di ng, tuy nhin do
c tnh khng n nh ca knh truyn trong thng tin di ng, c mt
s vn cn phi xt n khi s dng cc phng php ghp knh.
Cc hiu ng l:

Hiu ng xa gn (near far effect): Mt trong nhng hiu ng

c nh hng rt ln n cht lng thng tin l hiu ng xa

gn. Mt ngi s dng thu pht tn hiu gn trm gc (base
station) s c cng sng mnh gp nhiu ln nhng ngi s
dng xa. Do hin tng ny, chnh lch ca tn hiu thu c
trm gc c th ln n 100dB, dn n vic tn hiu c bin
yu b t bi tn hiu c bin ln.

Nhiu bng hp (narrowband interference): L nhiu xy ra trn

mt di tn s nht nh v khng dn tri trn ton b di tn nh

nhiu trng (tc nhiu Gauss). Nhiu bng hp thng xy ra do
cc ngun pht tn hiu nh hng ln nhau.

Hiu ng Doppler: Hiu ng Doppler l hiu ng tn s b x

dch i mt khong f do ngi s dng di chuyn so vi trm gc.

dch tn ny c tnh nh sau:
f

vf cos( )
;
c

(P.T 119)

96

Trong v l tc di chuyn (m/s), f l tn s ca tn hiu (Hz), c

l vn tc nh sng v l gc ti tng i gia ngi di chuyn
v trm gc.

Hiu ng a ng (multi-path): Trong thng tin di ng, trm

gc v my di ng lin lc vi nhau thng qua ng truyn

khng kh (air interface), hin tng a ng l hin tng khi tn
hiu c truyn theo cc ng khc nhau (trc tip v gin tip)
(Hnh 71a), do cc ng truyn c khong thi gian truyn dn
khc nhau nn ti u thu c s giao thoa gia cc tn hiu truyn
theo cc ng ny, dn n hin tng giao thoa gia cc k
hiu ISI (Hnh 71b).

Hnh 71 Hiu ng a ng v ISI a ng

7.2.3.

FDMA trong thng tin di ng

khc phc cc hiu ng va k trn, c th p dng mt s k

thut trong FDMA.
gim tc dng ca hiu ng gn xa, cc k thut iu khin cng
sut pht (power control) thng c p dng. Ch rng iu khin
cng sut khng ch c p dng trong FDMA m cn c p dng
trong cc k thut ghp knh khc. Mt trong cc phng php iu
khin cng sut l trm gc lin tc gim st cng tn hiu n thu
c t cc thit b di ng trong phm vi trm gc qun l, sau
trm gc s pht lnh cho cc trm di ng tng hoc gim cng sut
pht sao cho cng tn hiu thu c ti trm gc bng nhau.
Theo hiu ng Doppler, c kh nng ph ca cc knh thng tin s b
chng vo nhau do dch tn, v vy trnh hiu ng ny trong FDMA
97

cn phi c cc bng tn bo v ngn cch cc knh thng tin k

nhau.
Cui cng, trong hiu ng a ng, c th thy rng ISI cng ln khi
rng xung cng hp, tc l ph tn hiu cng rng. FDMA cho php
gim thiu hin tng ny bng phng php iu ch nhiu mc, do
c th tng rng xung ca tng k hiu.
7.2.4.

u nhc im ca FDMA

u im: Nh cp trn, so vi phng php ghp knh

theo thi gian, FDMA cho php gim ISI bng cch gim bng tn
ca tn hiu truyn.

Nhc im: FDMA khng c kh nng mm do khi ghp knh

cc tn hiu c rng bng tn khc nhau vo cc khe tn s
(khe tn s c rng c nh cng c ngha l tn hiu ghp knh
c tc c nh). Mt khc, yu cu s n nh tn s ca b
giao ng iu ch (cng vi s sai lch tn s do hiu ng
Doppler) lm cho gi thnh ca thit b tng i t, nht l trong
trng hp bng tn bo v hp.

7.2.5.

Ghp knh trong thng tin quang

Trong thng tin quang, ngi ta s dng phng php ghp cc sng
nh sng c bc sng khc nhau v cng truyn ln mt ng
truyn cp quang. Phng php ny c gi l Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (WDM).

Hnh 72 Wavelenght Division Multiplexing

Cho n gn y, vic ghp v tch cc sng mang trong di tn nh
sng vn tng i kh khn, tuy nhin k thut hin nay cho php
iu ch cc knh tn hiu in thnh sng nh sng vi cc bc
sng i khc nhau v cng truyn trn mt ng cp quang. Mi
knh truyn trn tng bc sng c th c tc ln n 10Gbit/s.
Nh vy WDM cho php truyn hng trm Gbit/s vi hai hng ngc
nhau trn cng mt ng cp quang.
7.3.

K thut ghp knh theo thi gian

7.3.1.

Nguyn l chung

Phng php ghp knh theo thi gian cn c gi l TDMA (Time

Division Multiple Access). Trong phng php ny, mi dng thng tin
98

ca ngi s dng c chia s mt khong thi gian nht nh

truyn thng tin. Nh vy nu knh truyn dn c dung lng l C
(bit/s), dng thng tin ca ngi s dng c tc l r (bit/s) th s
ngi s dng ti a ca mt knh truyn TDMA l:
C
n int( ) ;
r

(P.T 120)

Hnh 73 Nguyn l ghp knh theo thi gian

Nh vy trong TDMA, ti cng mt bng tn mi ngi s dng
c chia mt khe thi gian (time slot) trong mt khung thi
gian truyn mt phn thng tin ca mnh.
Hnh 73 trnh by nguyn l ca TDMA. S liu ca mi ngi s dng
c truyn trong mt khe trong mt khung thi gian, ht khung thi
gian , th t truyn cho mi ngi s dng li c lp li.
Thng thng c hai phng php ghp knh thi gian l:

Ghp bit: mi khe thi gian ch truyn mt bit.

Ghp byte: mi khe thi gian l 1 byte thng tin. Gi s tc

truyn ca mi ngun tin l r (bit/s), nh vy rng ca mt
khung thi gian tf v rng bit ts l:
8
8
v t s ; Th d vi ng truyn PCM 32 knh vi tc
C
r
2,048Mbit/s, tf=125ms v ts=3,9s.
tf

7.3.2.

TDMA trong thng tin di ng

Trong thng tin di ng, do hiu ng gn xa nn tr truyn t cc

trm di ng n trm gc khc nhau, do trnh hin tng ny
cn phi c mt khong thi gian bo v (guard time) gia hai khe
thi gian.
Mt khc cng sng cng thay i do hin tng gn xa, tuy
nhin trong TDMA, hin tng ny khng nh hng nhiu n vic
thu tn hiu do cc knh thng tin khng pht mt cch ng thi. Tuy
99

nhin phn thu phi thch ng rt nhanh vi vic thay i cng tn

hiu gia cc khe thi gian. gim hiu ng gn xa cng c th
s dng k thut iu khin cng sut pht.
7.3.3.

Th d v cu trc khung thi gian trong h thng GSM

Trong mt s h thng GSM, thit b cm tay t ng ghi li tr td khi

n nhn thng tin t trm gc (ng xung), sau n t ng pht
s liu trn ng ln trc mt khong l td b vi tr . Ngoi
ra, mi my cm tay u phi thu ng h ng b t trm ch, nh
trm cm tay xc nh c v tr khe thi gian ca mnh, ng thi
gim thiu khong thi gian bo v.
Hnh 74 th hin cu trc khung thi gian ca h thng GSM. Mt
khung thi gian c th phc v cho 8 ngi s dng. Gia cc khe
thi gian l khong thi gian bo v. Mi khe thi gian ca ngi s
dng c chia lm hai phn cho ting ni v s liu, tc tng cng
cho mi ngi s dng l 270kbit/s.

Hnh 74 Cu trc khung thi gian ca h thng GSM

7.3.4.

u nhc im ca TDMA

u im: TDMA mm do hn FDMA trong vic chia s bng

truyn cho ngi s dng. Vic ny thc hin bng cch c th
phn phi nhiu khe thi gian trong mt khung thi gian cho cng
mt ngi s dng. Mt khc TDMA yu cu cu hnh thit b n
gin hn FDMA (th d ch cn mt b khuych i cng sut cho
tt c cc knh thng tin).

Nhc im: Mt trong nhng nhc im chnh ca TDMA trong

h thng thng tin di ng l cn phi ng b thi gian thu pht
gia trm gc v tt c cc thit b di ng. Mt khc, TDMA yu
cu tc truyn (k hiu) ln hn kh nhiu so vi FDMA, do vy
bng tn yu cu ln hn, rng mt k hiu hp hn v vy nh
hng ca ISI c th ln hn.

7.3.5.

Ghp knh thng k

Tuy vic ghp knh trong TDMA mm do hn so vi FDMA,

nhng trong cc h thng TDMA truyn thng, khi mt knh thng tin
khng c s liu truyn i th khe thi gian vn c ginh sn cho
100

knh dn n ph phm khe thi gian. Trong cc h thng chuyn

mch knh s dng cho cc ng dng thng thng nh truyn tn
hiu thoi, do tc ca mt cuc ni l c nh nn vic phn b
bng truyn c thc hin tng i n gin. Tuy nhin trong cc
ng dng multimedia, do tc truyn ca cc dng d liu khc
nhau nn cn phi phn chia ti nguyn bng truyn tu theo tng ng
dng c th. Tuy vic chia s bng truyn ca TDMA mm do hn
so vi FDMA, nhng c th nhn thy bng truyn chia s cho mt
cuc ni ch c th l bi s ca tc truyn c bn (tng ng vi
rng ca mt khe thi gian trong mt khung thi gian). iu ny
cho thy vic s dng knh truyn trong TDMA thng thng vn
cha hiu qu. Hnh 75a minh ho vic ghp knh cho 3 cuc ni vi
bng truyn c nh tng ng l B1, B2 v B3. C th thy rng s xy
ra trng hp khi bng truyn cuc ni 1 v 2 vn tha (khe thi gian
trng) th cuc ni th 3 phi hu s liu do khng bng truyn.

Hnh 75 Ghp knh vi bng truyn c nh v ghp knh thng k

Vn ny c th c khc phc bng phng php ghp knh
thng k (statistical multiplexing). Ghp knh thng k hin nay c
s dng rt nhiu trong cc h thng chuyn mch th h mi nh
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), cc b nh tuyn IP .v.v. Trong
phng php ghp knh thng k, cc cuc ni khng c phn b
ti nguyn bng truyn mt cch c nh. Cc cuc ni, trc khi c
thit lp, thay v a ra gi tr bng truyn cc i m n yu cu, s
bo cho nt mng gi tr bng truyn cc tiu hoc trung bnh v cc
101

c im lu lng mang tnh cht thng k ca cuc ni . Nt

mng s ch cung cp bng truyn trung bnh hoc cc tiu cho cuc
ni, s khe thi gian cn li s c phn phi cho cuc ni no c
nhu cu (Hnh 75b). Phng php ghp knh thng k cho php tit
kim bng truyn hn so vi phng php ghp knh vi bng truyn
c nh.
7.4.

Ghp knh PCM

Phng php ghp knh theo thi gian TDMA l phng php c
s dng nhiu nht trong cc h thng thng tin s hin nay, c bit
l trong h thng in thoi s.
Trong in thoi s, mi knh thoi c tc truyn c bn l 64kbit/s
c m ho theo lut A hoc v tun theo mt s giao din chun
(xem 3.4.3, 4.5.1). Mt s knh thoi s li c ghp knh TDMA
thnh cc ng PCM tc c bn, cc knh ghp tc cao hn
s l bi s nguyn ln ca knh thoi c bn ny.

Hnh 76 Cu trc phn lp cc chun tc ti Bc M, Nht v chu u

Theo chun ca Bc M v Nht bn, knh PCM c bn c tc
truyn 1,5Mbit/s cho 24 knh thoi. Mt khc knh PCM c bn ca
chu u li c tc truyn 2,048Mbit/s cho 32 knh 64kbit/s. Sau y
chng ta ch xt ng PCM c bn theo chun chu u. Knh ny
cn c tn l ng E1. Hnh 76 th hin cu trc ghp knh t lung
PCM c bn ln cc lung tc cao hn.

102

Hnh 77 Cu trc khung ca ng PCM 2Mbit/s

ng E1 c mt s c im nh sau:

M ng truyn: s dng trong chun E1 l m HDB3.

Nguyn l ghp knh v to khung:

cc thit b u cui nhn knh E1 c th ng b, nhn dng
cc khe thi gian v tch cc knh 64kbit/s cng nh truyn
thm cc thng tin bo hiu v iu khin, ng E1 phi c cu
trc khung (frame) v a khung (multi-frame). to khung v
a khung, E1 s dng cc tn hiu lin kt khung FAS (Frame
Alignment Signal) v tn hiu lin kt a khung MFAS (Multi-Frame
Alignment Signal). Trong :

Mi khung ca E1 gm 32 khe thi gian tng ng vi 125ms,

mi khe c rng 8bit, trong c 30 khe thi gian c
dng truyn tn hiu thoi c nh s t knh 1 n knh
30 v hai khe thi gian mang tn hiu iu khin (Hnh 77).

Khe thi gian t 1 15 tng ng vi knh thoi 1 15, khe

thi gian 17 31 tng ng vi knh thoi t 16 30.

Khe thi gian 0 c s dng truyn FAS. Hnh 78 minh

ho cu trc khe thi gian s 0 (TS0). Khe thi gian 0 gm c
bit E pht hin li v thng tin lin kt khung FAS 0011011.
FAS c chc nng ng b khung.

Hnh 78 Khe thi gian 0 mang tn hiu lin kt khung

a khung c lp t 16 khung tng ng vi di 2s (Hnh

79). Khe thi gian th 16 (TS16) ca mi khung c dng
truyn tn hiu bo hiu CAS (Channel Associated Signaling) v
MFAS. C th l khe thi gian th 16 (TS16) ca khung 0 c
103

s dng truyn tn hiu lin kt a khung MFAS. y X l

cc bit d tr, Y l bit cnh bo t xa, n c gi tr 1 khi mt
ng b a khung. Mt khc khe thi gian th 16 ca cc
khung t 1 15 c s dng truyn tn hiu bo hiu CAS,
mi khe thi gian truyn tn hiu bo hiu cho 2 knh thoi, mi
knh s dng 4 bit bo hiu (A/B/C/D bit). Hnh 79 minh ho
cu trc a khung.

Hnh 79 Cu trc a khung

7.5.

K thut ghp knh theo m

7.5.1.

Nguyn l chung

K thut ghp knh theo m cn c gi l CDMA (Code Division

Multiple Access). Ban u cc h thng CDMA hay c s dng
trong qun s do tnh bo mt cao cng nh cht lng thng tin
c truyn i kh tt. Hin nay, CDMA c s dng ch yu trong
thng tin di ng.
Nguyn l chung nht ca tt c cc h thng CDMA l tn hiu cn
truyn i c tri ph sao cho tn hiu sau iu ch c ph rng hn
nhiu so vi tn hiu ban u. C hai phng php ghp knh theo m
l:

Phng php tri ph trc tip (Direct-Sequence Spread

Spectrum DSSS).

Phng php tri ph nhy tn (Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum FHSS).

Do ph ca tn hiu cn truyn c tri rng ra nn nhiu thng ch

c tc ng vo mt min tn s no trn ton b ph ca tn hiu.
Mt c im ng ch ca k thut ghp knh theo m l tn
hiu ca nhiu ngi s dng c th gi i trn cng mt bng
tn ti cng mt thi im bng cch s dng cc t m khc
nhau.

104

Sau y ta s xem xt ca hai phng php tri ph trn.

7.5.2.

Phng php tri ph trc tip DSSS

Hnh 80 Tn hiu trc v sau tri ph DSSS

Trong phng php tri ph trc tip, ph ca tn hiu u vo s
c tri rng u trn min tn s, ng thi cng sut trn mt n
v tn s s gim xung so vi tn hiu bng hp trc khi tri ph
(Hnh 80). Tn hiu c tri ph theo phng php DSSS cho php
nhiu ngi s dng cng dng chung mt bng tn. Ngoi bn thu
chnh thc, i vi cc b thu khc tn hiu tri ph c coi nh tn
hiu nhiu bng rng vi cng sut nh v c th c loi b mt
cch d dng.

Hnh 81 M ho DSSS s dng t m 11bit gi nhiu

tri ph theo phng php trc tip DSSS, tn hiu bng hp s
c nhn vi mt t m c tc bit ln hn gp nhiu ln tc tn
hiu (Hnh 81). T m ny c gi l t m gi nhiu
(pseudonoise code). S d c gi nh vy l do rng bit ca n
kh nh, dn n rng ph ln v c dng gn nh nhiu trng.
Ch c bn pht v bn thu mi nm c t m ny. Mi bit trong t
m gi nhiu c gi l chip. Hnh 81 minh ho qu trnh tri ph s
dng t m di 11bit. Mi t m gi nhiu s c di ng bng mt
bit s liu. Do i vi t m c di n, ph ca tn hiu sau tri
ph s c rng gp n ln v c gi l tn hiu gi nhiu. Vi
t m cng di th kh nng khi phc tn hiu u thu cng ln, tuy
nhin ph ca tn hiu DSSS s cng rng. khi phc tn hiu nh
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phn ban u, tn hiu thu c s c nhn vi chnh m gi nhiu.

Tuy nhin, khi phc li chnh xc tn hiu nh phn th tn hiu thu
c v m gi nhiu phi c ng b v pha. Nh vy mt chc
nng quan trng ca h thng DSSS l chc nng ng b.

Hnh 82 Nhiu bng hp trong DSSS

Mt trong nhng u im ca tri ph l t s SNR. Trong thng tin di
ng, nh hng ca nhiu bng hp l mt yu t lm gim cht
lng tn hiu. Trong DSSS, nhiu bng hp c th c d dng loi
b u thu. Vic ny c thc hin trong qu trnh gii m, nhiu
bng hp khi c nhn vi t m gi nhiu s c bin gim i n
ln ng thi ph ca n cng s c tri rng ra n ln (Hnh 82).
DSSS c s dng trong mng LAN khng dy (Wireless LAN) theo
chun 802.11b, y t m c s dng di 11bit.
7.5.3.

Phng php tri ph nhy tn FHSS

Hnh 83 Tn hiu trc v sau tri ph FHSS

FHSS tri ph bng cch truyn tn hiu trn mt knh truyn bng
hp trong mt khong thi gian ngn sau nhy sang mt knh
truyn bng hp khc, qu trnh ny din ra lin tc vi th t cc tn
s nhy c nh ngha sn. Th t ny ch bn thu v bn pht
bit trc. Do FHSS s dng cc knh truyn bng hp mt cch
ngu nhin, n c t s SNR kh ln. i vi nhng u thu khc, tn
hiu FHSS c coi nh cc nhiu xung bng hp trong mt chu k
ngn (Hnh 84).

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Hnh 84 Nhiu bng hp trong FHSS

Trong FHSS, bn thu v bn pht cng cn phi ng b vi nhau sao
cho chng cng nhy ti mt knh truyn ti cng mt thi im. Cng
tng t nh vy, khong thi gian dng ti mi knh truyn cng
phi c nh ngha sn. Th d trong mng WLAN 2,4GHz, c 75
knh tn s c s dng vi khong thi gian dng ti mi knh l
400ms, nh vy thi gian nhy tn tng cng s l 30s. m bo
rng cc knh tn s c s dng ng u, trong bng th t nhy
tn cn c tt c cc knh tn s t 1 75. Nh vy tc nhy tn
trong WLAN 2,4GHz l 2,5hop/s (75/30).
Hnh 85 th hin phng php chia s knh truyn ca FHSS. Nhiu
ngi s dng cng chia s s knh tn s cho trc. Tuy nhin mi
ngi s dng s c mt th t khc nhau khi truy nhp vo cc knh
tn s. Khi ti mt thi im c hai ngi s dng cng dng mt
knh tn s th s xy ra hin tng va p (collision). Nu s knh
tn s ln th xc sut xy ra va p s b.

Hnh 85 Phng php truy nhp knh trong FHSS

T s gia tc nhy tn v tc truyn s liu (c tnh bng
gi/s) cng l mt thng s quan trng. Da vo t s ny m ngi ta
chia FHSS thnh hai loi:

Nhy tn nhanh (fast frequency hopping): Khi tn s nhy tn

ln hn tc truyn s liu (packet/s).

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Nhy tn chm (slow frequency hopping): Khi tn s nhy tn

nh hn tc truyn s liu.
i vi nhy tn chm trong nhiu trng hp, nh hng ca nhiu
bng hp cng nh va p knh s dn n mt mt lot cc gi lin
tip. Tuy nhin phng php ny d thc hin.
Nhy tn nhanh s khc phc c hin tng mt cc gi lin tip,
tuy nhin phng php ny kh phc tp trong vic ng b gia bn
pht v bn thu.
7.6.

Bi tp
1)

2)

WLAN hot ng tn s 2,4GHz s dng phng php FHSS

vi 75 knh tn s. Chu k lp li ca cc knh tn s l 30s. Tc
truyn s liu l 2Mbit/s. Bit rng di ti a ca mt gi
Ethernet WLAN l 1.518 byte. Hy cho bit:

Ti mt knh tn s c ti thiu bao nhiu gi c truyn i?

Phng php nhy tn y l nhy tn nhanh hay nhy tn

chm?

Cho tn hiu thoi vi di tn t 0 4kHz. Gi s 12 tn hiu thoi

c ghp knh theo kiu FDMA v TDMA. Trc khi c ghp
knh TDMA, gi s cc knh thoi c m ho PCM phi tuyn
vi tn s ly mu 8kHz, di t m 8 bit. ([1], Pg.210, 5.1)

Hy tnh rng Ts ca mt bit tn hiu PCM.

Hy tnh rng bng tn cn thit trong hai trng hp trn,

gi thit: (a) trong h thng ghp knh TDMA c s dng b lc
cos nng vi h s =0,3 hn ch bng tn ca tn hiu
truyn i; (b) Trong h thng ghp knh FDMA c s dng
bng tn bo v gia hai knh thoi k nhau l Bguard=0,5kHz.

C kt lun g t kt qu tnh ton?

3)

Trong h thng ghp knh PCM32, tn hiu bo hiu CAS cho khe
thi gian th 5 v th 20 nm v tr no (khung v khe thi gian
s my trong a khung)?

4)

Tnh tc truyn ca dng s liu bo hiu cho mi knh thoi

trn ng PCM32.

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8. Ph lc
8.1.

Gi tr hm erf di dng bng

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