Introducion:

Theory:
Almost every mechanical movement that we see around us is accomplished by an electric
motor. Electric machines are a means of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy
and produce mechanical energy. Electric motors are used to power hundreds of devices we
use in everyday life. Motors come in various sizes. Huge motors that can take loads of
1000s of Horsepower are typically used in the industry. Some examples of large motor
applications include elevators, electric trains, hoists, and heavy metal rolling mills. Examples
of small motor applications include motors used in automobiles, robots, hand power tools
and food blenders. Micro-machines are electric machines with parts the size of red blood
cells, and find many applications in medicine.
Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: DC (Direct Current) and
AC (Alternating Current). Within these categories are numerous types, each offering unique
abilities that suit them well for specific applications. In most cases, regardless of type,
electric motors consist of a stator (stationary field) and a rotor (the rotating field or
armature) and operate through the interaction of magnetic flux and electric current to
produce rotational speed and torque. DC motors are distinguished by their ability to operate
from direct current.
There are different kinds of D.C. motors, but they all work on the same principles. In this
chapter, we will study their basic principle of operation and their characteristics. Its
important to understand motor characteristics so we can choose the right one for our
application requirement. The learning objectives for this chapter are listed below.

Electromechanical Energy Conversion:

An electromechanical energy conversion device is essentially a medium of transfer between
an input side and an output side. Three electrical machines (DC, induction and synchronous)
are used extensively for electromechanical energy conversion. Electromechanical energy
conversion occurs when there is a change in magnetic flux linking a coil, associated with
mechanical motion.
Electric Motor
The input is electrical energy (from the supply source), and the output is mechanical energy
(to the load).

Electrical Electromechanical Mechanical

energy energy conversion device energy
Source Motor Load
Figure. 1
Electric Generator

The Input is mechanical energy (from the prime mover), and the output is electrical energy.

Mechanical Electromechanical Electrical

energy energy conversion device energy
Source Generator Load
Figure. 2
4.2 Construction
DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils or
a set of
permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque in
the armature, resulting
in motion.
Stator

magnet pole pieces.

, a DC coil
(field
winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the stator.
Rotor

external
circuit through a mechanical commutator.
gap.
Winding
A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils.
- The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.
- The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux (for the
electromagnet)

4.3. DC Motor Basic Principles

4.3.1 Energy Conversion
If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic field, the
interaction of
current flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field will produce mechanical force (and
therefore,
mechanical energy).
4.3.2 Value of Mechanical Force
There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the conductor. The
conductor must
be carrying current, and must be within a magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a
force will be
applied to the conductor, which will attempt to move the conductor in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic
field. This is the basic theory by which all DC motors operate.
The force exerted upon the conductor can be expressed as follows.
F = B i l Newton (1)
where B is the density of the magnetic field, l is the length of conductor, and i the value of
current flowing in the
conductor. The direction of motion can be found using Flemings Left Hand Rule.
Figure 3: Flemings Left Hand Rule
The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (first - field), which goes from the
North pole to the
South pole. The second finger points in the direction of the current in the wire (second current). The thumb
then points in the direction the wire is thrust or pushed while in the magnetic field (thumb torque or thrust).
How much force will be created on a wire that is parallel to the magnetic field? 4 DC Motors
4.3.3 Principle of operation
Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B (figure 4). When the two ends of the coil
are
connected across a DC voltage source, current I flows through it. A force is exerted on the
coil as a result of the

interaction of magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two sides of the coil is
such that the coil starts
to move in the direction of force.
Figure 4: Torque production in a DC motor
In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wound on the rotor, all of which experience
force,
resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the magnetic field,
the faster the wire
moves because of the greater force created.
At the same time this torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a magnetic
field. At
different positions, the flux linked with it changes, which causes an emf to be induced (e =
figure 5. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes current flow through the
conductor and is
referred to as a counter-voltage or back emf.
Figure 5: Induced voltage in the armature winding of DC motor
The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the difference
between the
applied voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due to this counter-voltage tends to
oppose the very cause
for its production according to Lenzs law. It results in the rotor slowing down. Eventually,
the rotor slows just
Induced emf
Flux DC Motors 5
enough so that the force created by the magnetic field (F = Bil) equals the load force applied
on the shaft. Then
the system moves at constant velocity.
4.3.4 Torque Developed
The equation for torque developed in a DC motor can be derived as follows.
The force on one coil of wire F =i l x B Newton
Note that l and B are vector quantities

Therefore the torque for a multi turn coil with an armature current of Ia:

current flowing in
the armature winding.
Note: Torque T is a function of force and the distance, equation (2) lumps all the constant
parameters (eg.
length, area and distance) in constant K.
The mechanical power generated is the product of the machine torque and the mechanical

It is interesting to note that the same DC machine can be used either as a motor or as a
generator, by reversing
the terminal connections.
Figure 6: Reversability of a DC machine
4.3.5 Induced Counter-voltage (Back emf):
Due to the rotation of this coil in the magnetic field, the flux linked with it changes at
different positions,
which causes an emf to be induced (refer to figure 5).

(a) Motor action (b) Generator action

Electrical
Power
input
Electrical
Power
Mechanical output
output

Mechanical
input
T
T m m T T6 DC Motors
Note that equation (4) gives the emf induced in one coil. As there are several coils wound all
around
the rotor, each with a different emf depending on the amount of flux change through it, the
total emf can be
obtained by summing up the individual emfs.
The total emf induced in the motor by several such coils wound on the rotor can be
obtained by integrating
equation (4), and expressed as:

where K is an armature constant, and is related to the geometry and magnetic properties of
the speed of rotation.
The electrical power generated by the machine is given by:
Pdev = Eb I
4.3.6 DC Motor Equivalent circuit
The schematic diagram for a DC motor is shown below. A DC motor has two distinct circuits:
Field circuit and
armature circuit. The input is electrical power and the output is mechanical power. In this
equivalent circuit, the
field winding is supplied from a separate DC voltage source of voltage Vf. Rf and Lf represent
the resistance
and inductance of the field winding. The current If produced in the winding establishes the
magnetic field
necessary for motor operation. In the armature (rotor) circuit, VT is the voltage applied
across the motor
terminals, Ia is the current flowing in the armature circuit, Ra is the resistance of the
armature winding, and Eb is
the total voltage induced in the armature.

Figure 7: DC Motor representation

4.3.7 Voltage Equation
Applying KVL in the armature circuit of Figure 7:
VT = Eb + IaRa (7)
where VT is voltage applied to the armature terminals of the motor and Ra is the resistance
of the armature
winding.
Note: The induced voltage is typically represented by symbol e (or E) and the terminal
voltage by v (or V).
At standstill, the motor speed is zero, therefore back emf is also zero. The armature current
at starting
is thus very large.
Applying KVL in the field circuit of Figure 7:
Vf = Rf If (8)
+
Vf
_
Lf
Rf
+
VT
_
If
Ia
m, T
Ra

+
Eb
_
Field circuit Armature (rotor) circuit DC Motors 7
Where Vf is voltage applied to the field winding (to produce the magnetic field), Rf is the
resistance of the field
winding, and If is the current through the field winding.
How would the inductance of the field winding affect the motor operation under steadystate?
4.3.8 Power Transfer Equation
We have earlier obtained the following relationship for torque developed in the motor
(from equation 2):

The developed power is the power converted to mechanical form, and is given by (from
equation 3):

This is the power delivered to the induced armature voltage (counter-voltage) and given by:
EbIa (electrical
per second) by

N can be written as r/min or rpm, both mean the same thing.

Noting that the flux in the machine is proportional to the current flowing in the field winding
compare induced voltages at two different speeds.
If the induced voltage at the first operating speed N1, and field winding current If1 is given
by:
and the induced voltage at the first operating speed N2, and field winding current If2 is
given by:

Then the induced voltages at these operating points can be compared as:

This equation is useful in determining the speed of the DC motor at different operating
conditions.

2()1
11
NEKKIbff

2()2
22
NEKKIbff

22
11
2
1
IN
IN
E
E
f
f

4.4 DC Machine Classification

DC Machines can be classified according to the electrical connections of the armature
winding and the
field windings. The different ways in which these windings are connected lead to machines
operating with
different characteristics. The field winding can be either self-excited or separately-excited,
that is, the terminals
of the winding can be connected across the input voltage terminals or fed from a separate
voltage source (as in
the previous section). Further, in self-excited motors, the field winding can be connected
either in series or in
parallel with the armature winding. These differen

Theory 2:
There are 2 kinds of motors, AC motors and DC motors. In this course, we are going to focus
on DC motors only. So, the following discussions focus mainly on DC motors.
There are several kinds of DC motors, examples are stepper motors, servos, brushed/brushless motors.
Stepper motors: The inputs of a stepper motor are signal pulses and the shaft of a stepper
motor moves between discrete postions proportional to pulses. If the load of the motor is
not too great, open-loop control is usually used to control the motor. Stepper motors are
used in disk drive head positioning, plotters, and numerous other applications.
Servo motors: The input of a servo motor is a voltage value and the output shaft of the
servo motor is commanded to a particular angular position according to the input voltage.
Servo motors are used in radio control airplanes to control the position of wing flaps and
similar devices.
DC motors: The input of a DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque (speed).
How does a motor work?
Let's consider a permanent magnet brushed motor. The piece connected to the ground is
called the stator and the piece connected to the output shaft is called the rotor. The inputs
of the motor are connected to 2 wires and by applying a voltage across them, the motor
turns.

The torque of a motor is generated by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

The right hand rule states that if you point your right hand fingers along the direction of
current, I, and curl them towards the direction of the magnetic flux, B, the direction of force
is along the thumb.

Now, imagine a
loop of wire with
some resistance is inserted between the two permanent magnets. The following diagrams
show how the motor turns:

Diagram showing how the motor works

Relationship between the Torque and the angle the

loop made with the magnet.

You might be able to notice that the direction of rotation is changing every half cycle. To
keep it rotating in the same direction, we have to switch the current direction. The process
of switching current is called commutation. To switch the direction of curent, we have to
use brushes and commutators. Commutation can also be done electronically (Brushless

motors) and a brushless motor usually has a longer life. The following diagram shows how
brushes and commutators work.

We could also have several commutators and loops. The total torque generated is the sum
of all the torques from each of the loops added.

Motor with several commutators and loops

So, the torque is proportional to the current through the windings,
T = kI where T is the torque, I is the current, and k is a constant
The wire coils have both a resistance, R, and an inductance, L. When the motor is turning,
the current is switching, causing a voltage,
V = L dI/dt

This voltage is known as the back-emf(electromotive force), e.

If the angular velocuty of the motor is w, then e = kw (like a generator)
This voltage, e, is working against the voltage we apply across the terminals, and so,
(V- kw) = IR where I = T/R
which implies (V-kw) = (T/k) R
The maximum or stall torque is the torque at which w = 0 or T = kV/R, and
The stall or starting current, I = V/R
The no load speed, w = V/k, is the maximum speed the motor can run. Given a constant
voltage, the motor will settle at a constant speed, just like a terminal velocity.
If we plot w = V/k - (T/k^2)R, we can get the speed-torque curve:

Observation:
Parameters
Mass of weight=m
Distance covered=h
Voltage applied=V
Current flow=I
Radius of pulley=r

Observe value

Average Time taken=t

Gravitational acceleration=g

Calculation:

Conclusion: