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uk

B.A. Introduction to Logic 2013-14

Lecture 1: Arguments
In studying logic, the notion of argument is central. An argument is a set of thoughts or sentences
which are intended to establish the truth of some specific conclusion.
Arguments are important in all sorts of different contexts; they are especially important in philosophy.

Premises and Conclusions

Its crucial to distinguish the conclusion of an argument from its premises: the premises of an
argument are the thoughts or sentences which are intended to establish the truth of the conclusion.
Example: If its raining you need an umbrella. Its raining. Therefore you need an umbrella.
Here, the first two sentences are intended to establish the truth of the third: the first two sentences are
the premises and the third is the conclusion.
Example: You need an umbrella. For its raining. And if its raining, you need an umbrella.
Here the second and third sentences are intended to establish the truth of the first: the second and third
sentences are the premises, and the first is the conclusion.
Example: If its raining you need an umbrella. So you need an umbrella. Because its raining.
Here the first and third sentences are intended to establish the truth of the second: the first and third
sentences are the premises, and the second is the conclusion.
General moral: The conclusion of an argument doesnt always come at the end: it may come at the
beginning, or in the middle. Different words or phrases can be used to mark off the conclusion from
the premises.

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Its also important to distinguish between two different types of arguments: deductive and inductive.
A deductive argument is one thats intended to have this feature: if its premises are true, then its
conclusion has to be true as well. With a good deductive argument, there is no possibility that its
premises are true while its conclusion is false.
Not all good arguments are deductive. Some arguments, though good, leave at least some possibility
that while their premises are true, their conclusion is false.
Example: You have tossed 1000 consecutive heads. So your coin is not fair.
This argument seems good: it would be quite reasonable to accept its conclusion on the basis of its
premise. Nevertheless, there remains a chance (albeit very small) that its premise is true while its
conclusion is false. This means that it does not count as a good deductive argument. Arguments of this
kind are called inductive.

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Validity and Soundness

In logic, its absolutely vital to appreciate the distinction between validity and soundness.
Validity: An argument is valid if (and only if) theres no possibility that its premises are true while its
conclusion is false.
Soundness: An argument is sound if (and only if) it is valid and has true premises.
A good way to grasp the distinction between validity and soundness is to think of arguments that are
valid but not sound.
Example: We are in Paris. If we are in Paris, then we are in France. So we are in France.
This argument is valid: there is no way that its premises can be true while its conclusion is false. But
the argument is not sound: its second premise is true, but its first premise is false.
Example: My name is either Fred or Bob. My name is not Fred. So my name is Bob.
This argument is valid: there is no way that its premises can be true while its conclusion is false. But
the argument is not sound: though its second premise is true, its first premise is false.
Compare these with two other arguments which are both valid and sound:
Example: We are in London. If we are in London, then we are in England. So we are in England.
Example: My name is either Fred or Charlie. My name is not Fred. So my name is Charlie.
These arguments are both valid: there is no way that their premises can be true while their conclusion
is false. In addition, both arguments are sound: their premises are true.
Reading
Tomassi, P. Logic. Chapter 1, Parts I III.
Exercises
Exercise 1.1, Questions 1- 4 (in the Tomassi book).