DNA Forensics

Through DNA testing, law enforcement officers are able to identify human remains or
the individual responsible for a crime. DNA testing is a highly advanced scientific
process that involves replicating the human DNA sequence to create a genetic map of
an individual. Because of its reliability, DNA testing has become a significant factor in
criminal cases. However, it has also been identified as having the potential to violate
privacy and constitutional rights.
Process of DNA Identification How Does it Work?
The DNA identification process consists of five stages: isolation, quantification,
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), short tandem polymerase chain reaction (STR-PCR)
and interpretation. Isolation refers to the extraction of DNA from the nucleus of tissue
cells. After extraction, scientists quantify the DNA sample by ensuring that it is at least
one billionth of a gram in size. If the sample is smaller the isolation process must be
repeated. Next, through PCR, the single strand of DNA is split down the middle into two
pieces and replicated to create a larger sample. Subsequently, through STR-PCR,
smaller sections of the DNA sequence are replicated, permitting scientists to interpret
the DNA and create a genetic profile of the individual from whom the original DNA
sample derived. On average, a DNA test can take between five and ten days to
complete.
How Effective is DNA Identification?
DNA testing is not 100% reliable, but is pretty close. In DNA, a match of nine of the
thirteen markers is considered sufficient to identify an individual. The Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) estimates that unrelated persons sharing nine markers is
approximately 1 in 113 billion[1], indicating how reliable DNA testing can be. The
imperfection of DNA testing derives from the fact that only a small portion of DNA is
tested. While matching may be possible based on a small sample, a small sample is not
always representative of an individuals entire genetic makeup. Because of this, DNA

testing is often allotted a small percentage of error, often a tenth of a percent. However,
this does not prevent the results of DNA testing from being considered reliable in a
courtroom.
About DNA Technologies Forensic Investigators Use
Forensic investigators use several different types of DNA technology. In Restriction
Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) a DNA sequence is split and replicated. The
RLFP process requires a large sample size and is time consuming, resulting in it not
being the preferred testing method. The more common methods of DNA analysis are
PCR and STR-PCR Analysis, both of which were discussed previously. PCR is
preferred because it permits DNA reproduction of older or smaller samples. STR-PCR
Analysis is preferred because permits investigators to compare all 13 DNA sequences,
making it possible to compare two similar-appearing samples. Investigators also utilize
Mitochondrial DNA Analysis (mtDNA), in which DNA is extracted from the mitochiodrial
cells and not a cells nucleus. Mitochondrial cells are transferred from mother to child,
making it possible to determine ancestry and maternity. To connect a child and father,
investigators perform the Y-Chromosome Analysis, in which the Y-Chromosome alone
is analyzed.
Other Uses for DNA Forensic Identification
DNA forensic analysis is not limited to helping solve crimes. DNA analysis can be used
to identifying victims of a mass tragedy, such as the September 11th Attacks or the
Holocaust. Analysis has been used to solve historical questions about specific persons,
such as whether any members of the Russian Romanov Dynasty survived the Bolshevik
revolution. The travels of early humans and the heritage of wine grapes have also been
traced through DNA testing. Recently, DNA testing has been employed to create a
genetic database of endangered animal species. Using this information, scientists have
even cloned animals. DNA sequencing has also been used to identify authentic sports
memorabilia.
About CODIS: The National DNA Database

The results from STR-PCR analysis are entered into a federally managed database
called CODIS. CODIS is short for the Combined DNA Index System. Currently,
CODIS is comprised of two databases: the Forensic Index and Convicted Offender List.
The former contains profiles developed from collected crime scene evidence, while the
latter contains genetic profiles of convicted criminals. After receiving STR-PCR results,
local and national law enforcement officers can check CODIS to see if any the database
contains any matches. If there is a match between STR-PCR Analysis and CODIS, law
enforcement officers may be able to identify the person or perpetrator of a crime.
Operation of the CODIS system is regulated by the federal government.
Ethical Issues Involving DNA Databanking
While providing a reasonably reliable means to solve crimes, DNA testing has been
criticized for the threat it poses to privacy. The information contained in DNA is limitless:
hair and eye color, genetic diseases as well as ancestry can all be found in a DNA map.
DNA samples are rarely destroyed, meaning that the information derived from a sample
is potentially accessible by anyone. Debate also exists about whether law enforcement
officers can demand and collect a DNA sample without probable cause because of the
potential violation of a citizens Fourth Amendment rights against unreasonable search
and seizures. Argument about collecting DNA extends to previously convicted felons
and those under investigation. There is also argument over whether DNA Analysis
should be usable in court in light of the fact that DNA findings are often highly
persuasive to a jury regardless of their not being 100% accurate.