MIPRJ: Multidisciplinary Project

Group 2

Battery Charging
Wind Turbine

Table of Contents
CHAPTER I - WIND DATA .................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 GENERAL INFORMAION ABOUT THE WIND .................................................................................................. 2
1.2 METEOROLOGIC ........................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 HISTORY ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 WEIBULL CURVE............................................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 2 - TYPES OF WIND TURBINES ......................................................................................................... 12
2.1 VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES, VAWTS .................................................................................................... 12
2.1.1 TYPES OF VAWTs ................................................................................................................................. 13
2.2 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINES, HAWTS .............................................................................................. 14
2.3 EVALUATION ............................................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 FINAL DECISION .......................................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 3 - DESIGN PRESENTATION ............................................................................................................. 19
3.1 TEHNICAL DATA .......................................................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 4 - THE ROTOR ................................................................................................................................ 22
4.1 BLADES........................................................................................................................................................ 22
4.2 NUMBER OF BLADES ................................................................................................................................... 23
4.3 THE AERODYNAMICS OFTHE BLADE PROFILE ............................................................................................. 24
4.5 BLADE MATERIAL ........................................................................................................................................ 29
4.6 VIRTUAL POFILE DESIGN ............................................................................................................................. 29
4.7 MOUNTING PLATE ...................................................................................................................................... 32
4.8 THE HUB...................................................................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER 5 - THE NACELLE ............................................................................................................................. 35
5.1 GEARBOX .................................................................................................................................................... 36
5.1.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSMISSION ................................................................................................. 36
5.1.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEARING ........................................................................................................... 39
5.1.3 DECISION AND FINAL GEARBOX DESIGN ............................................................................................. 42
5.1.4 THE GEARBOX ..................................................................................................................................... 43
5.1.5 EFFICIENCY AND LUBRICATION ........................................................................................................... 45
5.1.6 MAINTENANCE .................................................................................................................................... 48
5.2 BEARINGS, SHAFTS, COUPLINGS ................................................................................................................. 49
5.2.1 BEARINGS ............................................................................................................................................ 49
5.2.2 SHAFTS ................................................................................................................................................ 51
5.2.3 COUPLINGS.......................................................................................................................................... 55
5.3 BRAKE SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................ 59
5.4 GENERATOR ................................................................................................................................................ 60
5.5 ELECTRICAL CONNECTION, SLIP RING ......................................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 6 - FURLING SYSTEM ....................................................................................................................... 64
6.1 DESIGN OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................... 64
6.2 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 64

6.3 THEORY ....................................................................................................................................................... 65

6.4 OUR FURLING SYSTEM DESIGN ................................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER 7 - THE TOWER ............................................................................................................................... 70
7.1 AVAILABLE OPTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 70
7.1.1 TRUSS TOWER ..................................................................................................................................... 70
7.1.2 TUBULAR STEEL TOWER ..................................................................................................................... 71
7.1.3 GUYED TOWER .................................................................................................................................... 71
7.2 SPECIAL TOWER DESIGNS ........................................................................................................................... 72
7.3 CHOICE OF TOWER ..................................................................................................................................... 72
7.4 GUYED TOWER DESIGN ............................................................................................................................... 72
7.4.1 INSTALLATION ..................................................................................................................................... 72
7.4.2 ASSEMBLY METHOD ............................................................................................................................ 73
7.4.3 ANALYSIS &DESIGN ............................................................................................................................. 73
7.4.4 CONNECTIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 73
7.5 FOUNDATION ............................................................................................................................................. 74
7.5.1 AVAILABLE OPTIONS ........................................................................................................................... 74
7.5.2 MOST SUITABLE FOUNDATION .......................................................................................................... 75
7.5.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPREAD FOUNDATION ...................................................................... 75
ANNEX C ........................................................................................................................................................ 78
I.INITIAL CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................................................ 79
CHORD LENGHTS CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................................... 86
2. GEARBOX CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 89
GEAR PARTS.................................................................................................................................................. 89
FIRST PAIR OF GEARS, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:3 ........................................................................................ 90
SECOND PAIR OF GEARS, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:2 ................................................................................... 92
FORCES........................................................................................................................................................... 93
GEARS FORCES, FIRST PAIR OF GEAR TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:3................................................................. 94
GEARS FORCES, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:2 .................................................................................................. 95
STRENGTH CALCULATIONS........................................................................................................................... 96
GEARS STRESSES, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:3 ............................................................................................... 97
GEARS FORCES, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:2 .................................................................................................. 98
3. SHAFT CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................................................ 100
3.1 PREDIMENSION OF THE SHAFTS .......................................................................................................... 100
3.2 DYNAMIC CALCULATION ...................................................................................................................... 102
TORSION ..................................................................................................................................................... 104
FINAL SAFETY FOR BENDING AND TORSION .............................................................................................. 107
4. TOWER CALCULATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 107
4.1 ACTIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 107
FREE BODY DIAGRAM ................................................................................................................................ 110
4.2 DESIGN OF COLUMN (FULL INTERACTION CHECK) ............................................................................... 110
4.3 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS ................................................................................................................... 113
5. FURLING SYSTEM CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................................... 114
THEORY ...................................................................................................................................................... 114
CALCULATIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 117
THE YAWING SHAFT ................................................................................................................................... 119
6. SHAFTS EXCEL CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................................. 121

FIRST SHAFT CALCULATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 121

SECOND SHAFT CALCULATIONS...................................................................................................................... 123
THIRD SHAFT CALCULATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 124
FOURTH SHAFT .............................................................................................................................................. 125
CALCULATIONS OF THE FITTINGS ................................................................................................................... 127
FIRST SHAFT .................................................................................................................................................... 128
SECOND SHAFT .............................................................................................................................................. 131
THIRD SHAFT .................................................................................................................................................. 134
FOURTH SHAFT .............................................................................................................................................. 137
8.BEARINGS SKF CALCULATIONS .................................................................................................................. 140
BEARING 1 ...................................................................................................................................................... 140
BEARING 2 ...................................................................................................................................................... 140
BEARING 3 ...................................................................................................................................................... 141
BEARING 4 ...................................................................................................................................................... 141
BEARING 5 ...................................................................................................................................................... 142
BEARING 6 ...................................................................................................................................................... 142
BEARING 7 ...................................................................................................................................................... 143
BEARING 8 ...................................................................................................................................................... 143

INTRODUCTION

This report will contain our design of a battery charging wind turbine which will be able to
provide electricity to people in off grid areas. The report will include theoretical analysis, technical
drawings and computer models of the wind turbines rotor, nacelle, tower and foundations. The results
of any practical tests of a prototype will be recorded in this project.
The Scope of the Project:
The Report Will Cover the Following Areas:

Calculation of wind forces on the turbine (rotor and tower)

Theoretical analysis of wind turbine design and power production

Design of a control system to prevent excess power in high wind speeds

Design of a foundation base for the tower

The following specification list must be met at all times. The wind turbine must:

Be affordable

Be operational in rural areas

Be low-tech

Have minor service requirements (At least one year without service inspection)

Be operational in wind speeds of 4m/s - 20m/s

Be 5m high (to the rotor)

Have a power rating of 500W

Be attractive

Have no use of advanced materials

Have no use of advanced production methods (only cutting, welding, drilling, but no
casting),

Achieve maximum efficiency,

Work with the Bosch K1-14V 35A 20 generator.

All the research, documents and pictures had been included in the reference section.

PROJECT AGREEMENT

Project

: BATTERY CHARGING WIND TURBINE

Institution

: ENGINEERING COLLEGE OF AARHUS

Department : MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Supervisor

: Christina Munk

Members

Victor Tienda Miguel

(Spain - Mechanical Engineering)

Dragos-Vasile Mitrofan ( Romania - Industrial Design)

David Gary Ogden

(United Kingdom- Civil Engineering)

Daniel Lenz

(Germany- Administration and Engineering)

Yasir Abdela Ibrahim

(United Kingdom- Aeronautical Engineering)

Group : Group 2

STATEMENT

We state that all the information in this report is original and if we used any external
reference we give the credits for the authors at the end of Report.

Date
7.12.2011

Victor Tienda Miguel

David Gary Ogden

Dragos-Vasile Mitrofan

Daniel Lenz

Yasir Abdela Ibrahim

Acceptance of supervisor
Christina Munk

CHAPTER I - WIND DATA

1.1 GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE WIND
1.2 METEOROLOGIC
1.3 HISTORY
1.4 WIND DISTRIBUTION AND DIRECTION
1.5 WEIBULL CURVE

CHAPTER I - WIND DATA

1.1 GENERAL INFORMAION ABOUT THE WIND
Everybody knows about the wind but nobody sees it. We are only able to see its effects on
different things. Wind is a part of our daily life like sunlight and rain. But wind was also very
important for the history of humanity and maybe it will also be a part of one of our most important
problems, the search for renewable and environmental friendly energy sources.
This report is about designing a wind turbine. Without wind, no wind turbine! Because of
this, the wind is also very important for us. So we have to take a look at what we have to know about
the wind conditions for the place where we want to build our turbine. First we want to take a look why
wind in general exists and why it was important for the history of humanity.

1.2 METEOROLOGIC
This chapter doesnt intend to be a complete description of the meteorological mechanism. It
is only to mention some basic ideas. Meteorology in general and the mechanics of the wind are not
fully and in every detail understood today but the general way of how wind develops is not too
difficult. To put it in a nutshell wind is the reaction of the air to different pressures in different places
in the world. Wind is the movement of air to equalize these different pressures.
The theory behind this phenomenon is the second law of thermodynamics which says that
every system tries to reach the highest possible entropy. A high entropy is caused by the equality of
the amount of parts per volume, ie the pressure. The higher the difference in pressure is, the higher the
velocity of wind becomes.
In general the pressure of air is higher at the equator than the pressure on the poles. The
mainly reason for this is the higher temperature in the equatorial regions. Because of this the mainly
wind direction on the northern part of the world should be from the south. But because of the rotation
of the earth there is another force called Coriolis force which tuned the wind from the south to the
east. Because of this the mainly wind direction on the northern part of the earth is from west. But this
is a very simplified model of wind. There are a lot of other factors which causes different direction of
wind just like sun, clouds, temperature, humidity, terrain and a lot of other things. But this is the main
mechanic of wind.

1.3 HISTORY
We can feel the force from the wind when we are outside and walk against the wind or ride a
bicycle. Also objects moved by a strong wind show us its power. Our ancestors registered very early
this enormous potential in the wind.

They used this potential mainly in two ways:

The first way was to use the wind to move a ship. This was a very obvious way to use it
because like everybody knows the wind is very strong and most often blowing at the coast and the
sea. The first ones who was able to build sail ships were the Egypts. They started ca. 1500 B.C. to
build ships with a sail to drive on the Nil.

Recreated Egyptian ship [fig.1.1]

These were not only able to drive on the Nile but also on the Mediterranean Sea. This
invention was incredible important for the history of humanity. The sail ships were for hundreds and
thousands of years the best way to move big amounts of goods or people over long distances and
without sail ships and there expeditions we wouldnt only miss a great and exiting chapter of human
history but also we probably wouldnt know today how our world looks. Until the end of 19th century
when the era of the sailing ships come to an end because of the modern steamships sailing ships
become more and more modern, bigger and faster.

Preuen(1902) Longest sail ship ever built. 147m [fig. 1.2]

The other way our ancestors used the force of the wind was the windmill. These machines
were developed further into the wind turbines we know today. The start of this technology was maybe
1750 B.C. in Babylon but scientists are not one hundred percent sure about this. We definitely know
that the people in Persia and China used windmills in the 9th century. But they had a big difference
compared to the most used type of our modern wind turbines. They had a vertical rotation axes.

Persian Windmill [fig. 1.3]

Chinese windmill [fig. 1.4]

The first versions with a horizontal rotation axis were built in the 12th century in Europe. The
model which comes in most of us minds when we talking about windmills were first built in the 16 th
century in the Netherlands.
In the beginning the most windmills were used to milling the grain. Before the invention of
the windmill this was a very hard and time consuming work. With this invention the people didnt had
to work so long for their daily food so they could do more other things and develop further for
example the handcrafting or agriculture.
So the windmill was, with its sister the watermill, an important factor for the development of
humanity. The mills were not only used for milling the grain but also for a lot of other work which
was now able to do faster and more economic. Examples are drilling, sawing and pumping.

Windmills in the Netherlands [fig. 1.5]

Wind distribution and direction:

When you want to build a wind turbine on an elected place you mainly have to know two
things about the wind conditions on this particular place. The first one is the distribution. It not only
tells you the average of wind speed but also the frequency of occurrence of different wind speeds.
This is very important to choose the right rotor diameter, profiles, generator etc. to get the aspired
power and the best possible relation between harvested wind and costs of the turbine.
A little example which is very good to show how important it is to know the right distribution
of the wind and why the average wind speed alone is not enough. We imagine two different locations.
At the first location the wind is blowing with 5m/s the whole year without any changing.
At the second place the wind is blowing half of the year with 10m/s and the other half of the
year is no wind at all. So we have two locations where we could build a wind turbine. This two
locations have se same average wind speed. Without more information they are looking totally the
same. But they have a different distribution of different wind speed. Now we take a look at the
influence of this difference. First we calculate the annual production.
For a more simple calculation we calculate with a wind turbine which hast a swept surface of
10 and is able to generate the largest possible power according to Betz out of the wind. This is of
course not possible but so we dont have to think about efficiency factors and because this calculation
is only to compare our two locations it is ok to do it like this. So our turbine generates the following
amount of power at different wind speeds.
2

= ,

= ,

Now we can calculate the annual production out of this:

= ,

= ,
[See Annex C for calculations]

That shows us very good how big is the influence from the distribution of the wind on the
annual production. So we are going to build out wind turbine at location 1. Well, it depends. If we are
only looking for the highest annual production, than we have of course to choose location 1. But there
is also a big disadvantage of this location. We have only electricity during the half of the year. So we
need another source of electricity for the other half of the year, or we have save the energy in some
way like for example batteries.
Another point which is also a part of the distribution of the wind is the wind shear. The wind
has not only a changing distribution according to the time axis but also according to the high axis.
Nearly everybody discovered that when he climbed on a look out or a church there is suddenly much
more wind than on the ground. This is because the terrain, houses, trees and hills slow the wind down
and make him more turbulent next to the surface. This effect can be stronger or weaker depending on
the terrain.
These differences are called roughness of the terrain. The normal range of roughness is
between 0,1m and 0,4m. The value of 0,1m we only reach at the open sea while the value of 0,4m is
valid in a city. So the values at the normal locations of a wind turbine are somewhere in between. If
we know the wind speed on a particular height and the roughness of the terrain, than we are also able
to calculate every other wind speed at different heights. Here a little example for the wind shear with a
measured wind speed of 10m/s at a height of 30m.

14

Wind speed in metern per second

12

10

8
v(rougness0,1)
v(rougness0,2)

v(rougness0,3)
v(rougness0,4)

0
0.5 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
Heigh in meter

Example wind shear [fig.1.6]

The other important thing is the direction of the wind. This is essential because the terrain or
other wind turbines have an influence on the wind. When you are planning to build a wind park with
more than one turbine than you have to think about shadowing. Behind a turbine the wind is slower
than in front of a turbine because the turbine took energy out of a wind.
The air is also rotating behind a turbine. Both things are not good for the efficiency from a
turbine placed behind the first one. Because of this you place the turbines in a wind park so that you
have the smallest possible shadowing effect when the wind comes out of his main direction. Also the
terrain has a big effect on the wind.
The wind is slowed down, more turbulent, or diverted. Depending how often the wind comes
from one direction you have to think more or less about the components you have to choose to be able
to harvest the wind in the best possible way under this conditions. Normally you design the wind
turbine so that it is optimal when the wind comes out of its main direction. There are special diagrams
to show the distribution of the wind direction. So you are able to make fast and precise statements
about that.

Distribution of the wind direction [fig. 1.7]

1.4 WEIBULL CURVE

The most common way to describe the distribution of the different wind speeds mathematical
is the Weibull curve. This curve which describe in general probabilities is named after Ernst
HjalmarWaloddi Weibull and is beside is use for describing the drop out ratio during the lifetime of a
product it is the standard way to describe the distribution of wind.
The formula is:

( ) (/)

When do you want to know the probability of a wind speed v you have to know the values of
the average wind speed (a) and the shape factor (k) on this location. The shape factor k is very similar
to the roughness of the terrain but it describes the variability of the wind speed. It normally differs
from 2 for very variable wind speed which you find especially in mountain regions to 4 for very
constant wind speeds which you can find on the open sea. In the diagram you can see the different
shaped curves for an average wind speed of 8 m/s.

Weibull curve
0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
probability (k=1)

0.1

probability (k=2)

0.08

probability (k=3)

0.06

probability (k=4)

0.04
0.02
0
1

9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
windspeed in meter per second

[fig. 1.8]

A special case of the Weibull distribution is the Rayleigh distribution. It is more or

less a Weibull distribution with a shape factor of 2. You can use it when you dont know enough
about the shape factor or when you only want to guess the distribution.
Our wind data:
If you want to build a very large wind turbine at one location it is very common that the costs
will be more than one million Euros. So everybody who plan to do this make a lot of research about
the wind on this place and also do a lot of calculations which turbine, height of the tower etc. is the
optimal for this location. We want to design a cheap and easy wind turbine with only 500W which
you can use at a lot of different locations in off grid areas.
Our wind turbine is not very specialized and it should not be built a lot of times. So all in all it
doesnt make too much sense for a very detailed and in reality also expensive wind research for only
one location. In general we are planning for the coast regions of Africa where you have enough wind
and a lot of people with no electricity.

So we researched a couple of different locations and take the average of these to generate our design
conditions.
[See Table 1.1]
Table 1.1 - Reference (http://www.windfinder.com/)
PLACE/STATION

COUNTRY

AVERAGE WIND SPEED

[knots]

AVERAGE WIND SPEED

[m/s]

Alger-Port

Algeria

13

6,68772

Bahrain-Airport

Bahrain

10

5,1444

Hurghada

Egypt

16

8,23104

Cairo-Airport

Egypt

14

7,20216

Aqaba

Jordan

10

5,1444

Homs

Libya

16

8,23104

Al Hoceima

Morocco

12

6,17328

Tanger-Airport

Morocco

11

5,65884

Tetouan

Morocco

10

5,1444

Walvis Bay-Airport

Namibia

13

6,68772

Dakar

Senegal

4,62996

Mtwara

Tanzania

12

6,17328

Dar Es Salaam

Tanzania

10

5,1444

Bizerte

Tunisia

12

6,17328

Kelibia

Tunisia

10

5,1444

AVERAGE

6,104688

Also You can see the different locations at the map.

[fig. 1.9]

So we choose an average wind speed of 6m/s. But like it is described in the chapter before it
is not enough to know only the average wind speed. It is at least as important to know the distribution
of the different wind speeds. So how we get this data. If you know the kind of terrain where do you
want to place your turbine you can chose the k which you need to form the Weibullcurve out of table.
This is of course not as good and accurate as measuring the wind speed at a location in
different heights for a year but totally ok for our circumstances.
Table 1.2
VALUES FOR K FOR DIFFERENT TERRAINS
Mountains

Hills

2.5

Coast

Plane

3.5

Islands, open sea:

We can create our wind distribution with an average of 6m/s and a k of 3. We do not think
about the wind shear because our turbine is only 5m high. We also do not think about the direction of
the wind because we have no data about it and it is also not important if you are building one turbine
on a plane.
distribution of the wind
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1

distribution of the wind

0.05
0
0

10

15

20

-0.05
Wind distribution curve [fig. 1.9]

10

CHAPTER 2 - TYPES OF WIND

TURBINE
2.1 VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE, VAWT`s
2.2 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE HAWT`s
2.3 EVALUATION
2.4 FINAL DECISION

11

CHAPTER 2 - TYPES OF WIND TURBINES

This section will make a comparison of the different types of wind turbine that exist, in order
to find the best option for our project. There are two broad classes of turbines: vertical and horizontal.
Each class has different varieties, and the following chapter gives a brief summary of the advantages
and disadvantages of the most common models.

2.1 VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES, VAWTs

Vertical axis wind turbine are usually named as VAWTs, the main characteristic is that the
rotor shaft is arranged vertically.

Figure 4.1 :VAWTs in a building rooftop, Helical Darrieus type.

VAWTs ADVANTAGES

The main advantage of this type of turbine is that it is not necessary to position it in the wind
direction. This is a great advantage in places where the wind is unstable.
The generator and the others components are placed near the ground, so the tower doesnt
support any weight and eases maintenance.
If a wind turbine is mounted in a rooftop the wind turbine is near the optimum wind energy
and minimum wind turbulence, because the building redirects the wind over the roof and this
double the wind speed.
Is not necessary to include a yawing system.
The starting speed is much lower than for a horizontal wind turbine.

VAWTs DISADVANTAGES

It is difficult to mount on towers; they are often mounted near to the ground, or on a rooftop.
As a result of VAWTs only being able to be positioned at low altitudes, there is less energy
available to be harvested by these machines, as the wind speed is lower at a low altitudes.
At low altitudes, VAWTs can be subjected to highly turbulent wind. This can cause vibrations
and noise that damage the turbine components and shorten their life.

12

2.1.1 TYPES OF VAWTs

DARRIEUS WIND TURBINE

This turbine is robust, due to the structure of the blades.

Is very efficient but there are large tension stresses in the tower that limit its reliability.
Starting torque is very low; it needs an external power supply.
The geometry of the blades is complex.

Figure 4.2: Darrieus Wind Turbine

SAVONIUS WIND TURBINE

A drag type wind turbine used in cases such as ventilation and anemometers.
It is not possible to build this turbine very high; it is only useful for small-scale domestic
applications.
Is less efficient than the HAWTs.

Figure 4.3: Savonius Wind Turbine

13

GIROMILL WIND TURBINE

The Giromill is a Darrieus type wind turbine, and consists of two or three aerofoil's attached
to the central shaft by horizontal supports.
It is cheaper and easier to build than a standard Darrieus wind turbine, but it is less efficient
and also requires stronger wind to start the movement of the rotor.
They work well in turbulent conditions and are an affordable option for small power
requirements.

Figure 4.4: GiromillWind Turbine

2.2 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINES, HAWTs

Most of the wind turbines that are manufactured in the world are horizontal axis wind turbines
called HAWTs. Their structure is similar to a windmills; their blades look like a propeller form a
rotor that spins around the horizontal axis.

Figure 4.5 : classic HAWT wind turbine with three blades

14

All the components are located at the top of the tower in a cabin called the nacelle. The main
shaft drives a rotor in which the blades are located. The rotor must be pointed into the wind direction.
Smaller wind turbines have a pallet system to go in the direction of the wind, while the largest
wind turbines have sensors connected to a motor.
The blades are made rigid and strong enough to resist high wind speeds. They are located at a
considerable distance from the tower to avoid possible collisions.
This type of wind turbine can be built to operate downwind or upwind. Most of the HAWTs
are upwind machines, reducing the problem caused by turbulence around the nacelle.
Upwind

Downwind

Figure 4.6 : type of wind turbine depending in the position

HAWTs ADVANTAGES

Because the rotor is placed at the top of the tower, it is possible to harness power from
stronger winds. In some cases, every ten meters in height the wind speed increases by 20%
and the available power by 34%.
High efficiency, receiving power of the whole rotation.
Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum blade angle of attack.

HAWTs DISDVANTAGES

Have to build a strong tower to support the weight of the components.

The height of this wind turbine can spoil the landscape and often meets local opposition.
Downwind types suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence.
Requires a system to orientate the turbine.
Requires a braking system to stop the turbine from rotating in high winds.
The transportation and installation is expensive. Can be as much as 20% of
equipment/material cost.

15

2.3 EVALUATION
With the explanation of the types of wind turbine that it is possible to use for our project, we will
proceed to make a comparative study to know which of the two types, VAWTs and HAWTs has more
points in favor for meeting our criteria.
Our criteria are based on main ideas that are essential for the realization of the project.

Good efficiency and low cost.

Flexibility on the design.
Information.
Environmental resistant.
Easy to manufacture.

In this table are summarized the most important facts of the wind turbines.
Table 3.1
Wind Turbine

Main characteristics

HAWT

o
o
o

High efficiency
Most commonly used
Optimized designs and more information available

DARRIEUS

o
o
o

High robustness
Good efficiency
Complex design

SAVONIUS

o
o
o

Simple design
Small-scale applications
Less efficient than a HAWT

GIROMILL

o
o
o

Cheap
Simple design
Only suitable for small power requirements

Figure 4.7 : Summary table of different models of wind turbine.

To determine which type of wind turbine would be our project we made a point system from 1 to 4
with the following grades :

16

Table 3.2
POINTS

GRADE

Unsatisfactory

Tolerable

Good

Very good

Figure 4.8 : Meaning of the evaluation points

With the data that are explained before and all the information that we found in our research , we
proceeded to evaluate each aspect and put a score :
Table 3.3
HAWTs

VAWTs

Efficiency

Global cost of installation and

transportation
Flexibility of the design

Ease of manufacture

Cost of materials

Weather resistance

Total

21

15

Figure 4.9: Decision-table with the evaluation criteria.

2.4 FINAL DECISION

After the evaluation in section 4.3, we chose to build a HAWT wind turbine for this project. The
HAWT has outscored the VAWT in almost every aspect. The most important advantage of using a
horizontal axis wind turbine is the flexibility of the design. In this project there will be many different
parts that have to work together and will have be designed by different calculations methods. This is a
good reason to have flexibility. In VAWTs the models are very precise, and do not allow large
variations. VAWTs also require knowledge about this type of turbine that we do not have.

17

CHAPTER III
DESIGN PRESENTATION

18

CHAPTER 3 - DESIGN PRESENTATION

This chapter is only for an overall idea of the Wind Turbine an the some Basic Technical
specifications.

MAIN COMPONENTS: ROTOR - NACELLE - TOWER

ROTOR

NACELLE

TOWER

3.1 TEHNICAL DATA

ROTOR DIAMETER : 3 [m]

TURBINE HEIGHT: 5 [m]

MAX POWER OUTPUT : 500 [W]

GEARBOX IN TWO STAGES 1:6 RATIO

NACELLE WEIGH : 310 [KG]

TOTAL WEIGH : 610 [KG]

FURLING STARTING OPERATIONAL SPEED : 12 [m/s]

DESIGN SPEED : 6 [m/s]

SURVIVING SPEED 55 [m/s]

19

OVERALL PICTURE

20

CHAPTER IV - THE ROTOR

4.1 BLADES
4.2 NUMBER OF BLADES
4.3 THE AERODYNAMICS OFTHE BLADE PROFILE
4.5 BLADE MATERIAL
4.6 VIRTUAL POFILE DESIGN
4.7 MOUNTING PLATE
4.8 THE HUB

21

CHAPTER 4 - THE ROTOR

This chapter describes the rotor, which is considered to be a key component in the wind
turbine assembly. The purpose of the rotor is to harness the power of the wind and convert it into
mechanical energy by turning the shaft of the electric motor.
The major components in the rotor of a Wind Turbine consist of:
Blades
Mounting plate
Hub

4.1 BLADES
This section focuses on general information about blades and airfoils, aerodynamic analysis,
forces on the blade, selection of blade profile, material selection and virtual blade design.
An airfoil-shaped body moving through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The
component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel
to the direction of motion is called drag and the angle between the chord line and the relative wind is
called the angle of attack as shown in the figure below .

F
FL
FD
Chord line

Forces on a blade profile [fig. 4.1]

22

 The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges on the airfoil.
The mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between the upper and the lower surfaces
The frontal surface of the airfoil is defined by the shape of a circle with the leading edge
radius. The centre of the circle is defined by the leading edge radius and a line with a given
slope relative to the chord line.

4.2 NUMBER OF BLADES

One of the most frequently asked questions prior to building a wind turbine is how many
blades should be used. For the last 50 years, the majority of wind energy system manufacturers have
used two or three blades.
The influence of the number of blades on the rotor performance is illustrated on figure 1.2 ,
which shows the rotor power coefficient Cp as a function of tip-speed ratio for different blade
Definition of typical airfoil parameters [fig. 4.2]
numbers.

Influence of the number of blades on the rotor power

coefficient. [fig. 4.3]

23

The dependency of the power coefficient on the number of blades emphasizes why two or
three blades are generally the preferred solutions for wind turbines. The power coefficient of a wind
turbine with just one blade is relatively low and it furthermore suffers from anesthetic imbalance as
well as the need for a counterweight. Modern wind turbine engineers avoid building large machines
with an even number of rotor blades. The most important reason is the stability of the turbine. A rotor
with an odd number of rotor blades (and at least three blades) can be considered to be similar to a disc
when calculating the dynamic properties of the machine.
A rotor with an even number of blades will cause stability problems for a machine with a stiff
structure. The reason for this is because in high winds, the uppermost blade begins to bend backwards.
As this happens, the lowermost blade begins to bend forwards, in front of the tower.

4.3 THE AERODYNAMICS OFTHE BLADE PROFILE

This chapter explains why blades have a special profile and what happens as the blades rotate.
The shape of the aerodynamic profile of the blade is crucial for the design, as it influences the
performance of the blade. Therefore, the shape of the profile must be chosen from a widely used
catalogue of airfoils developed in wind tunnel research by NREL (National Renewable Energy
laboratory) or NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) or another certified research
association. This wind turbines rotor will use the NREL-S822 (see fig. 4.4) profile. From the available
information about this profile (such as laboratory results, and virtual wind tunnel tests), it was decided
that this profile would best match the requirements of this project.

NREL- S822 blade profile [fig. 4.4]

The results from the CFD simulation of the profile (fig 4.5) show us that this profilehas less
turbulence in the tail,and therfore is suitable for our design of the blade. (laboratory results)

NREL- S822 CFD analysis [fig. 4.5]

24

As shown in figure 4.5, turbulence is relatively low, meaning that this profile is reasonably
efficient.
In the research laboratory, we can also conduct experiments to find out the performances of
the profile, regarding the lift and drag coefficient.
Figure 4.6 shows the inviscid (potential-flow) pressure distributions for the S822 airfoil for
various angles of attack.

Inviscid pressure distribution of potential flow [fig. 4.6]

The next step is to find some data about the Lift coefficient and Drag coefficient also Reynolds
numbers.
We can do this by searching on the internet and we immediately found a lot of information
about lift and drag coefficients because this profile has been tested in a laboratory.
The graphic with the coefficients is presented in the page below

25

fig.4.7 - Coefficient of Lift and Drag at different Reynolds numbers

reference:" Wind Tunnel Aerodynamic Tests of Six Airfoils for Use on Small Wind Turbines
Period of Performance:October 31, 2002January 31, 2003; Michael S. Selig and Bryan D. McGranahan University of
Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana, Illinois- page 90 "

26

According to the graphic from figure 4.7 we was able to make this table for finding the optimum
Glide Ratio.
Table 4.1

Alpha

-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Coefficient of lift

Coefficient of drag

Glide Ratio

C_l

C_d

GR

-0.834
0.0245
0.1254
0.2376
0.3491
0.4515
0.5735
0.668
0.7657
0.8475
0.8726
0.913
0.9556
1.0049
1.0532
1.0852
1.1184
1.1317
1.1577
1.1561
1.1313
1.0718
0.8259
0.8158

0.01093
0.01125
0.01141
0.01144
0.01192
0.01162
0.01134
0.01088
0.01051
0.01045
0.01131
0.01496
0.01877
0.02257
0.02672
0.03238
0.03837
0.04767
0.05546
0.0672
0.08405
0.10603
0.19285
0.22461

-76.3037511
2.177777778
10.99035933
20.76923077
29.28691275
38.85542169
50.57319224
61.39705882
72.85442436
81.10047847
77.15296198
61.02941176
50.91102824
44.52370403
39.41616766
33.51451513
29.1477717
23.74029788
20.87450415
17.20386905
13.45984533
10.10845987
4.282603059
3.632073372

Based on Table 4.1. listed above we can make Profile NREL- S822 following coefficient and
the Glide Ratio graphics ( fig.4.8 and fig 4.9)

27

NREL- S822
1.5

Lift and Drag coefficients

0.5
C_l
C_d

-5

10

15

20

25

-0.5

-1

Angle of attack
[fig 4.8] -Lift and Drag coefficients

GLIDE RATIO C_l/C_d

100
80
60
40
20
Glide Ratio

0
-5

-20

10

15

20

25

-40
-60
-80
-100
[fig.4.8] -Glide Ratio

Now that the profile has been chosen, we proceed to the next step by choosing the material for the
blade.

28

4.5 BLADE MATERIAL

We have carried out research into which material is most suitable for our needs so that the
blade can be easily manufactured, cheap and have high resistance to atmospheric conditions.
The following materials and associated manufacturing methods have been taken into
consideration :
Table 4.2
MANUFACTURING METHOD
MATERIAL
METAL

Aluminum blades may be manufactured as solid shapes, machined using CNC, or

from
rolled plates that are welded together on airfoil shaped support plates

COMPOSITE Blades of carbon or glass fiber reinforced polymer composites may be

manufactured in two-part moulds
Wooden blades may be machined from a wood work-piece, or by hand
WOOD

The material mentioned above has advantages and disadvantages which are listed below:

Metal blades
Light
Expensive
Widely available
Expensive manufacturing processes

Composite blades
Lightweight
Strong
High repeatability
Good fatigue characteristics
Low material availability
Possibility for complex airfoil shape
Expensive manufacture process

Wooden blades
Lightweight
Abundant supply
Cheap
Strong
Flexible
Simple airfoil shape required
Can be carved

29

The material that best suits our needs is wood. Wood is cheap, has great flexibility, and
can be carved or machined from a block of wood into complex shapes such as blades with
varying chord length.
The next step is to use all the physical data that we acquired from our research and start
creating a virtual model of our blade using a specialized CAD software (SolidWorks 2012).This
will very helpful because we can conduct various fluid dynamics simulations and stress
calculations without making a real scale model and test it into a wind tunnel.

4.6 VIRTUAL POFILE DESIGN

For the virtual model of our profile, a parametric design that consists of coordinates on
the X axis and Y axis(as shown in the table 4.3) was used. The main benefit of this was that we
had the possibility to make a precise shape of the profile (fig4.9).

NREL- S882
Axis Y

0.2
0.1
Upper Surface

0
-0.1

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

Lower Surface

Axis X
fig.4.9 - NREL S822 profile shaped based on X and Y coordinates from table 4.3

29

Table 4.3

S822 AIRFOIL COORDINATES

No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33

Lower Surface
X
Y
[mm]
[mm]
0.00002
-0.00057
0.00042
-0.00244
0.00126
-0.0044
0.0053
-0.0101
0.01536
-0.01866
0.03018
-0.02713
0.04956
-0.03517
0.07336
-0.04253
0.1014
-0.04903
0.13345
-0.05456
0.16927
-0.05902
0.20852
-0.06236
0.25087
-0.06455
0.2959
-0.0656
0.34317
-0.06553
0.39222
-0.06437
0.44252
-0.06218
0.49345
-0.059
0.5447
-0.05484
0.5956
-0.04961
0.64598
-0.04352
0.69534
-0.03695
0.74302
-0.03012
0.78856
-0.0231
0.83169
-0.01624
0.87185
-0.01019
0.90813
-0.00543
0.93957
-0.00215
0.96523
-0.00032
0.98428
0.00031
0.99603
0.00018
1
0

Upper Surface
X
Y
[mm]
[mm]
0.00012
0.00132
0.00064
0.00336
0.00176
0.00603
0.00861
0.0151
0.02029
0.02464
0.03661
0.03425
0.05742
0.04366
0.08254
0.05271
0.11172
0.06122
0.14466
0.06904
0.18104
0.07607
0.2205
0.08218
0.26262
0.08729
0.30696
0.09133
0.35305
0.09423
0.40035
0.09591
0.44835
0.09628
0.4965
0.09518
0.54446
0.09236
0.59211
0.08784
0.6391
0.08191
0.68492
0.0747
0.72923
0.06619
0.77203
0.05665
0.81306
0.04674
0.85171
0.03708
0.88727
0.0281
0.91903
0.02015
0.94621
0.01336
0.96834
0.00765
0.98521
0.00326
0.99615
0.00074
1
0

Table 4.3 reference : ("The S822 and S823 Airfoils October 1992 December 1993 - D.M Somers;
Airfoils, Inc. State College Pennsylvania- page 11")

30

The above tables and graphics of drag lift coefficient and angle of attack will be very useful
when we start the calculations. After creating the airfoil shape using X and Y coordinates we
can scale the airfoil so that the shape of the profile match our calculations (appendix C - chord
lengths) . This is our result :
blade tip

tip blade section

root blade section

mounting holes

fig.410 - NREL S822actual blade

For more detailed description see Drawing 6D-2011 from appendix D

31

4.7 MOUNTING PLATE

1. The mounting plate has the purpose of transmitting the force from the blades to the
main shaft.
2. The blades are connected to this plate through M8 x 34 bolt connection
3. Also on this plate are the mounting points for the hub
4. Material: Aluminum alloy 6061 or steel alloy 1023 carbon steel
The manufacturing process for this part is relatively simple, two plates are welded
together on a steel tube, and the three mounting point for the back cover of the hub are welded
on the back plate.
steel plates

blade mounting holes

steel tube

mounting points for back

cover of the hub

fig.4.11 -Mounting plate

Details of the execution drawing can be seen in appendix B, drawing no. 3D-2011

32

4.8 THE HUB

For our wind turbine the hub doesn't have a very important roll. The main purpose of
the hub is to protect the inner parts from the environment, and to add an aesthetic design to the
wind turbine.
The material for this part can be plastic or metal, normally aluminum, as it`s lighter and
easier to manufacture than steel.
This part could be manufactured by a classic mill machine, or for faster manufacturing,
a CNC machine could be used, using the virtual model created in SolidWorks(fig x).
For an advanced manufacturing process, this part could be made by injection molding.
This would be advantageous if the wind turbine was to be mass produced.

fig.4.12 - Actual hub cover Back and Front view

Details of the execution drawing can be seen in appendix D, drawing no. 1D-2011 for the Front
Cover and 2D-2011 for the Back Cover

33

CHAPTER V - THE NACELLE

5.1 GEARBOX
5.2 BEARINGS, SHAFTS, COUPLINGS
5.3 BRAKE SYSTEM
5.4 GENERATOR

34

CHAPTER 5 - THE NACELLE

The nacelle is the housing that covers all of the components of a wind turbine. The nacelle is
supported by the tower. Its main purpose is to protect all of the internal elements of the turbine
and prevent corrosion and damage which may occur from weathering and exposure to the
elements.
The nacelle is made from metal and is lightweight.
The main components inside the nacelle are:

Figure 5.1 : computer model of the nacelle, made in Solidworks

35

5.1 GEARBOX
5.1.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSMISSION

The first step in determining our gearbox is to choose the type of transmission. There are
three main types; chain transmissions and belt transmissions are used to transmit power between
distant shafts. If the shafts are close together, a gear transmission is very effective.
CHAIN TRANSMISSION
The chain transmission is a chain of links that can transmit the rotation of one shaft to
another across a distance, with the help of gears.

Figure 5.2: picture of a chain transmission

ADVANTAGES

Long working life with a certain protection of oil.

Can work in hostile surroundings: high temperature, high humidity, dirty areas,
corrosive zone, high loads, etc.
Can use different materials for manufacture.
Easy to replace.

DISADVANTAGES

The lubrication is critical.

Frequent maintenance is required due to wear and stretch.
Noisy.
Equipment damage can result upon chain failure.

BELT TRANSMISSION
The belt has the same purpose as the chains, although in this case using pulleys instead of
gears. Thanks to the flexibility of the belts, it is possible to have different arrangements when it
comes to transmitting.

36

Figure 5.3: picture of a belt transmission

ADVANTAGES

Simple.
Inexpensive.
Not require axially aligned shafts.
Isolates the noisy and vibrations.
Lubrication is not needed.
High efficiency.

DISADVANTAGES

Belt life is very short, needs frequent replacement.

Belt slip causes poor power transmission and heat generation.
Require more space, cannot be in a compact system.

GEAR TRANSMISSION
The gear transmission consists of transmitting rotation from tooth wheels. There is an
extensive variety of different types of gear transmissions, and in general this is the most
effective.

37

Figure 5.4: picture of a gear transmission

ADVANTAGES

Suitable for high speed, high torque and high power transmission.
Can run over decades.
Very high transmission ratio.
Compact design is possible.
High efficiency.

DISADVANTAGES

Needs lubrication.
Can be noise and vibrations.
Requires maintenance.
Misaligned gears will damage in very short time.

ELECTION OF THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Although the chain and belt transmission have many advantages, our goal is to get a simple,
easy to maintain, compact gearbox, as it must to be located in the nacelle of the turbine, which
has a confined space. Because of this, and the high efficiency and simplicity offered by a gear
system, our decision is to have a gear transmission system.
The following chapter explains the different types of gear systems that have been evaluated.

38

5.1.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEARING

SPUR GEARING
Spur gears are the most common type of gear, they are the simplest to design and
manufacture, also are the most efficient and cheapest. Spur gears have straight teeth that are
situated parallel to the gear axis.

Figure 5.5: pair of spur gears picture

ADVANTAGES

Low cost.
High efficiency.
High load capacity.
High contact radio provides a smoother transmission.
Plastic and non-metallic gearing is available.

DISADVANTAGES

Very noisy at high speeds.

Not strong as some others gears.
Only can be used to transfers power between parallel shafts.

39

HELICAL GEARING GEAR

In the helical gears the teeth are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. When two teeth are
engage, the contact start at one of the end of the tooth and gradually spreads as the gears rotate,
until the two teeth are in full engagement.
This engagement allows operate more smoothly than spur gears. Also, these types of gears
can be mounted on perpendicular shafts.

Figure 5.6 : pair of helical gears picture

ADVANTAGES

Helical gears can be used in a lot of applications because can be mounted in parallel or
perpendicular shafts.
They have a greater teeth strength.
They contact ratio due is bigger than spur gears.
Higher load capacity than spur gears.
Smooth and quiet operation.

DISADVANGES

The manufacture is more expensive.

They have an axial thrust that needs to be compensated by thrust bearings.
The friction between teeth is higher and needs to be lubricated by special lubricants.
The area contact is longer so the efficiency is lower.

40

BEVEL GEARING

The bevel gears are common used when the direction of a shafts rotation needs to
be changed. In general they are always mounted on shafts that are 90 degrees apart,
but also can be mounted in other angles.
The teeth of bevel gearing can be straight, spiral or hypoid.
This type of gear is used in many industrial applications, especially moderns ones.

Figure 5.7 : pair of bevel gears

ADVANTAGES

They have flexibility in the angles of operation and the force levels.
Can take the force from one direction and change it to another.
Can be manufactured in a extend variety of materials.
They have a high efficiency.

DISADVANGES

Must be precisely mounted.

The shafts have to support high stress.
The manufacture is expensive.

41

PLANETARY (EPICYCLIC GEARING)

The epicyclic gearing or planetary gearbox is highly efficient, and consists of one or more
gears revolving around a central gear. The central gear is called sun and the other gears planets.

Figure 5.8: planetary gearing picture

ADVANTAGES

High reduction ratios.

Compact and light weight with high torque transmission.
The internal forces are balanced.
Low noisy level.
High efficiency 0-98 %
Flexibility in the manufacture.

DISADVANTAGES

High bearing loads.

Inaccessibility in the maintenance.
Design complexity.
More expensive than the others gearbox.

5.1.3 DECISION AND FINAL GEARBOX DESIGN

After comparing the advantages and disadvantages of the previous types of gears, the final
decision taken has been a gearbox with spur gears.
These are the considerations:

Cheaper and easier to manufacture than the other gears.

Most efficient.

42

High load capacity.

Possibility of using different materials.
Easier maintenance.

5.1.4 THE GEARBOX

Our gearbox is composed by two pair of spur gears inside of a compact box. All the
components of the gearbox have been designed by us, and the calculations can been seen in the
Annex.
In the following picture shows the design of our gearbox. The transmission ratio isi =6 , to
choose this ratio we made the next steps:
Knowing the tip speed ratio and the radius as explained in the First Calculations chapter we
were able to find the rotation speed in the shaft which connect the gearbox with the rotor.

[See annex C gear calculation]

Then, with this rotation speed and looking in the table of the generator, it is possible to
calculate the required transmission ratio to have the necessary rotation speed in the second shaft.

Figure 6.1.8: design of the gearbox made in SolidWorks.

Designing the gears for first time with the transmission ratio of 6 we discovered a
problem. The size of the gears was extremely unequal. The pinion was too small to put on the

43

shaft and hold the weight of the rotor. Therefore, to achieve appropriate gears we decided to
design a gearbox with two pairs of gears. The first one have a transmission ratio of 1:3 and the
second one have a transmission ratio of 1:2 , getting a gear transmission ratio of 1:6 in the
gearbox.
MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS ON A GEAR

Figure 6.1.9: assembly of the gears and the bearings made in SolidWorks

First pair 1:3 connected to the main shaft

= 150

= = 75

= 50

= = 25

Second pair 1:2 connected to the generator shaft

= 100

= = 50

= 50

= = 25

All the calculations are in the Annex C- Gearbox calculations

44

THE GEARBOX HOUSNG

The gearbox housing has the main purpose to fix the shafts with the bearings and secondly to
protect the inner parts .Also keeping the oil inside of the gearbox for a correct lubrication.
The gearbox is made out of cast iron and in the project we are not allow to used cast material
but our idea is to use a supplier.

Figure 6.1.10: assembly of the box made in SolidWorks

5.1.5 EFFICIENCY AND LUBRICATION

Another important aspect of the gearbox is the lubrication. The lubrication in a gear system
is one of the most important ways of improving the efficiency in the system. When used in a
gearbox, the lubricant provides two important benefits:

Lubrication of the teeth of the gears.

Removal of the heat generated in the operation.

45

Also, the lubricant is used for lubricating others components of the gearbox, like the
bearings. Thanks to these aspects of improvement provides by the lubricant, the gear system
efficiency increased significantly since

the coefficient of friction will decrease if the lubricant has been correctly chosen. Normally, the
efficiency using a lubricant is between 80% -98%.

Another very important aspect about the lubricant is that it avoids gear wear and increases
the life of the components. Otherwise the lubricant is not used it could be considerable wear and
the fatigue failures could occur.
If the lubricant film on the gear wheel teeth is insufficient to protect the surfaces of the gears
for stress, resulting in pitting in the contact region and scuffing. This would cause and increase
in the temperature causing distress and wear.

GEARBOX LUBRICAITION PROPERTIES

To meet the current needs of the gears, lubricating oils must have the following properties:

Thermal and oxidative stability.

Thermal durability.
Protection against excessive gear and bearing wear.
High-temperature protection.
Gear and bearing cleaning.
Emulsibility characteristics.
Antifoaming characteristics.
Rust and corrosion protection.
Compatibility with seal materials.

TYPES OF OIL FOR GEARBOX LUBRICATION

There are many types of oil with different properties, applications and manufacturing
processes. Furthermore, there are many classifications depending on the type of industry, brands
and reference systems. For example, there are classifications based on the viscosity or other
properties of the oils.
One of the most used classifications for the gears oils is the API classification, made by
American Petroleum Institute. This classification is used especially in automotive but is focused
on gearboxes. The API classified the lubricants into several categories based on applications,
properties and additives.

46

The classifications can be seen in the official table:

Table 5.1
API Classification

Typical Application

GL-1

Manual transmission.

GL-2

Manual transmission and spiral bevel gearing.

GL-3

Manual transmission, spiral bevel gearing and

final drives.

GL-4

Gears in moderate load service.

GL-5

Gears in moderate and several service.

GL-6

Several service, high load and high speeds.

Figure 6.1.11: Table of API Classification. Reference : Mechanical Engineers- Roger Timings

METHODS OF LUBRICATION
There are three primary methods for lubricating gears:

Grease Lubrication

This method can be used for any gear system that is open or enclosed when the speed is low.
The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good fluidity. It is not available for high loads
and the amount of grease should not be excessive, as this could result in power losses.

Splash Lubrication

Splash lubrication is the normal method for lubricating spur, helical and bevel gears. The
gears dip into a bath of oil as the rotate, the rotation speed must be at least 3 m/s. The oil level
should be monitored for the correct application.

Spray Lubrication

This method is used in high speed using shaped nozzles with oil at a circulate pressure of
about 0.7 bar. The spray oil system applies lubricant directly to the teeth of the gears, creating
greater lubrication.

47

5.1.6 MAINTENANCE

An employee with an appropriate amount of mechanical engineering knowledge must carry

out the maintenance of the gearbox. The gearbox is one of the most important components of
the wind turbine and also the most expensive to replace, so the maintenance must be gradual.
The gears, shafts and other components have to be properly lubricated with any of the
methods mentioned above.
Thanks to the design of the box, the maintenance worker only needs to take away four bolted
unions to remove the top cover of the box. Without cover, the access is very easy as shown in
the figure below;

Figure 6.1.12: exploded vision of the gearbox made in SolidWorks

48

Once the cover has been removed, disassembly of the shafts is easier as both are connected
by couplings. The worker can see all of the components and in case of failure, he can do a
diagnostic and replace, or repair, the damaged part.

5.2 BEARINGS, SHAFTS, COUPLINGS

5.2.1 BEARINGS

GENERAL
OUR DESIGN
CALCULATIONS

5.2.1.1 GENERAL
Bearings are used to keep turning components on their place, give them the possibility
to rotate with a very low friction and absorb the forces from the component and transfer them to
the housing. The most common type of bearing is the deep groove ball bearing.
They have a simple design, are not expensive, support radial and axial loads, need only
little maintenance, can perform one nearly every rotational speed and are robust. These are also
the main reasons why we choose to use them in our wind turbine.

fig 5.11 - SKF Single groove roller bearing modeled in Solidworks

49

A roller bearing has three main parts; the outer ring, the balls and the inner ring. The
balls move in a groove in the rings. The balls are kept in place by a cage (not shown in the
picture).
5.2.1.2 OUR DESIGN:

Our wind turbine needs eight roller bearings for our four shafts. To remain statically
determinate, one of the two bearings on each shaft is mounted fixed and one is floating. We are
using two different bearings with different diameters. That is a big advantage. Of course we
could maybe also use four or more different types of bearings to have the optimal one for each
position.
But to have only two types of bearings is a big advantage when we are starting to talk
about the costs of supplying and maintain. To have less different types of parts make it easier
and cheaper in the major of cases.
We have two bearings 6010 from SKF on the first two
shafts and two bearings 6002 on the other two. The bearing 6010 has an inner diameter of
50mm. The type 6002 has an inner diameter of 15mm.

fig.5.12 - SKF Bearing on the shaft

50

5.2.1.3 CALCULATIONS:

We will be using bearings provided by SKF. We will also be using the bearing
calculator provided on SKFs website. This can be used to calculate the lifetime of our bearings.
Table 5.2
Bearing
1 (6010)
2 (6010)
3 (6010)
4 (6010)
5 (6002)
6 (6002)
7 (6002)
8 (6002)

Revolutions (*10^6):
13500
141000
141000
22600
40700
926900
21600
3130

Hours of rotation at 6 m/s

844600
>1000000
>1000000
>1000000
847900
>1000000
224900
32500

Lifetime of our bearings [Table 5.1] - See annex C - bearing calculation for details
5.2.2 SHAFTS

GENERAL
OUR DESIGN
CALCULATIONS

5.2.2.1 GENERAL

Shafts are long cylinders, usually made from steel, with different diameters and notches.
It is possible to mount bearings, fittings, rings, keys and many more components onto shafts.
The main function of a shaftis to transmit revolutions and torque. Shafts often have to resist
bending and axial forces too. In our case they have to transmit the power generated from the
rotor to the gearbox and then to the alternator.

Schematic picture of shafts [fig 5.13]

51

5.2.2.2 OUR GENERAL DESIGN

For the power train of this wind turbine, we need a total of four shafts. Due to the
difficulty of aligningthe different parts, such as the gearbox with the rotor or the generator, we
decided include two clutches, one in front and one behind the gearbox.
The first shaft runs from the rotor to the first clutch, the second shaft from the first
clutch to the first gear, the third shaft between the second and third gear and the fourth shaft
from the fourth gear to the second clutch. On the other side of the second clutch, the entrance
shaft of the alternator is directly mounted.
It is not enough to set only the general design at this point. You also have to set the
distances between the different things which should later mount on the shaft like bearings and
fittings. These distances can be used to calculate the bending moment which the shaft have to
resist.
We decided to use fittings to mount the gears on the shaft instead of keys. The main
reason for this is that the manufacturing of the shafts becomes much easier if you dont have
keys. You can produce the shafts on a turning machine and you dont have to use a milling
machine for the key holes. A gear is mounted by heating the gear and cooling the shaft. When
the gear is hot, the hole becomes wider and the shaft becomes smaller with the cooling. This
allows the gear to be moved into the right position. When both parts reach the ambient
temperature, the pressure between the parts holds the gears in place. The disadvantage of this
method is that it is hard to change a gear if it is broken. In our opinion, the aspect of easy
manufacturing is more important in Africa than an easy exchange of parts, as the labor costs are
generally inexpensive.

fig 5.14 - shaft arrangement

52

5.2.2.3 CALCULATIONS:

We have two extreme load cases. The first one is when the wind turbine is running at
the maximum wind speed, before the furling system starts to work. This wind speed is 12m/s.
The second case is if the furling system fails or the wind becomes so strong that the manual
emergency break is used. In the first cases all shafts are running and transmitting the torque and
revolutions. In the second case only the first shaft has to resist torque because the disc brake
which is on this shaft stops the revolution after a short time. So we have to calculate with the
following forces at shaft 1.
Table 5.3
Load case 1 (12m/s; running)

T = 37,74 Nm

F axial = 250N

F radial = 300N

Load case 2 (55m/s; stopping; only shaft one)

T = 800 Nm

F axial = 1000N

F radial = 300N

Loads taken from ANNEX C FIRST CHAPTER- WIND DATA TABLE

With these forces acting on shaft 1 and our gear design, we can also calculate the torque
and the bending force which are caused from the gears at the other shafts. We only have to do
this for load case 1 because the other shafts like mentioned before dont have to resist forces at
load case 2.
Table 5.4
Second shaft:
Torque = 37,74Nm
Third shaft:
Torque = 12,58Nm
Fourth shaft:
Torque = 6,29Nm
See Annex C - shaft calculation

F radial = 0
F radial1 = 232,96N; F radial2 = 120,96N
F radial = 251,6N

The next step is the free body diagram of each shaft and the determination of the
reaction forces. These forces give us the possibility to calculate the bending moment at different
positions along the shaft.
The largest bending moment from each shaft and the Torque are put together to a
reference bending moment and this, together with the highest allowed bending stress of the
chosen material, are put in the following formula to get the minimum diameter of the shaft.

>

53

So we get the minimum diameter of each shaft;

Table 5.5
Shaft 1
Shaft 2
Shaft 3
Shaft 4

19,2mm (load case 1) < 41,65mm (load case 2) 41,65mm

15,04mm
10,14mm
9,71mm

See Annex C -Shaft calculations

After the designing of the shafts it is very important to check the dynamic safety to
make sure that the safety for resisting the changing loads is big enough. A very important factor
in this is the surface notches on the shaft, caused by fittings, varying diameters, and the general
surface quality. These calculations give us the safety for the different cross sections of a shaft;
Table 5.6
Shaft:
Shaft 1
Shaft 2
Shaft 3
Shaft 4

Minimum safety
1,58
22,46
2,86
2,87

See Annex for calculations and more detailed explanations

As shown in table the safety value for each cross section is larger than the minimum of
1,5. This confirms that the design of the shaft is ok and will survive the conditions in our
nacelle. The reason for the large safety value for shaft 2 is because of the clutch at the end of
shaft 1.
Shaft 2 has to have the same diameter so that it can be mounted on the other side of the
clutch. Shaft 2 has to resist much less stresses than shaft 1 because of load case 2, which is only
valid for shaft 1. Because of the need for the same diameter and the lower stresses, the safety
value for shaft 2 becomes very large.
As a last point, we have to calculate the fittings needed where the gears are placed, to
transmit the torque. With the given torque, material and surface properties you can calculate the
pressure and the oversize needed. With the minimum oversize, I looked in a table and decided
that we use H7/s6 as the fitting where the gears are placed.
Look in Annex C for calculations and its explanation.

54

5.2.3 COUPLINGS

THE COUPLING
The coupling is a mechanical connection used to connect two shafts together for the purpose
of transmitting power.
The clutch has the following purposes:

To provide connection between shafts and units that are separated, like a gearbox and
an alternator.
To provide disconnection for repairs or in extreme cases.
To reduce the shocks loads.
To provide misalignment of the shafts or mechanical flexibility.
To protect against overloads.
To protect against vibrations.

There are two main types of coupling depending on if is a rigid union or flexible union.
Normally, the rigid union is the most effective and help to improve the efficiency but the
shafts must to be perfectly aligned. The flexible union can be used when the shafts are slightly
misaligned. Making sure two shafts are perfectly aligned in an assembly can be quite complex,
therefore the most recommended option is use a flexible couple to prevent future mishaps.
5.2.3.1 TYPES OF FLEXIBE COUPLINGS

METALLIC TYPES
This type is the best to applications that require or permit:

Torsional stiffness.
Operation in high temperature or in presence of oils and chemicals.
Electric motor, not recommended for gas/diesel motor.
Low vibrations, not recommended for pumps, compressors and other pulsating
machinery.

Figure 5.15 : picture of a metallic coupling

55

ELASTOMERIC TYPES
This type is the best to applications that require or permit :

Torsional softness.

Absorption of shock and vibration, better tolerance of engine drive and high loads.

Greater radial softness, allows more angular misaligned between shafts.

Lighter weight and lower cost.

Figure 5.16 : picture of a elastomeric coupling

5.2.3.2 DECISION AND FINAL CHOICE

As there is a distinct possibilitythat the shafts are not perfectly aligned in the final
assembly, an elastomeric coupling has been chosen for this project.
The elastomeric coupling is cheap and easy to assembly. The metal coupling also offers
great advantages but is expensive and the operating conditions for the turbine are not extreme.

For the choice of the model coupling, the company Coupling Technologies R.W offers
a large variety of couplings.
Our model is the simplest one. Is a compact version with a clamping hub , is made in
aluminum and can support between 0.5-2.100 Nm depending in the series.

56

MODEL SERIES EKL- CHARACTERISTICS VIEW

Figure 6.4.3: 3D model of the EKL coupling made in SolidWorks.

Reference: R+W Coupling Technologies
For this wind turbine, there shall be two couplings; one on the main shaft, which connects
the rotor to the gearbox, and other in the generator shaft, which connects the gearbox to the
generator.In case of failure, excessive wind speed or torques, the coupling will protect the
gearbox and the generator, as they are the most expensive parts to repair.
The calculations in the Annex C - Coupling Calculation has determine that:

=
=
The table given in the characteristics of the manufacturer allow choose the coupling that
is needed, guided by the diameter of our axis and the maximum torque that can withstand the
coupling.
Table torque (Nm) depending in:

Series Number - Diameter

Table 5.7
S

2
5
10
20
60
150
300
450
800

0.2

0.8
1.5

1.5
2
4

2.5
8
12
20

16

32
35
50

19

25

45
80
120
220

60
100
160
230

30

32

110
180
300
420

120
200
350
480

35

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

220
380
510
700

420
600
750

660
800

750
835

850
865

900

925

950

1000

Figure 6.4.4 Table SERIES EKL- Diameter-decision of the coupling

57

The coupling has to resist the maximum operating wind speed of 20 m/s.
Then for the main shaft the coupling is :
= 104.83
= 50

CouplingS450 will resist a maximum torque of 660 Nm

Then for the generator shaft the coupling is :

= 17.47
= 25

CouplingS20 will resist maximum torque of60 Nm

58

5.3 BRAKE SYSTEM

To prevent failure and damage in the components of the wind turbine during high wind
speeds, for example in a storm, a braking system is needed that blocks the main shaft, thus
preventing the rotation transmission to the other components, gearbox and generator.
Also when maintenance of the wind turbine is required, this system is very useful to block and
prevent the operator from being injured.
The system consists of a disc brake, as commonly used in the automotive industry. The
calipers block the main shaft due to it having a disk-shaped portion. The caliper drive is
connected to a cable that is placed in tension by a hand crank. In extreme cases of very high
wind speeds, the crank needs to be turned, activating the disc brake to lock the turbine. The
same procedure can be followed in order to carry out maintenance.
The braking system is rudimentary, as the furling system will control the turbine in high
wind speeds.The braking system acts a fail-safe, although it is still very useful for performing
maintenance work.

Figure.5.16 Brake system made in SolidWorks

The calipers and other components of the system can be purchased at any automotive
part supplier. Also, the cable and the handle can be purchased at any workshop.

59

5.4 GENERATOR
The generator is the component of the wind turbine that transforms mechanical energy
into electrical energy. The rotational energy in the transmission system goes into the generator,
making electrical energy, which provides energy to the electrical grid.
The distinction between alternator and generator; the former is a machine producing
alternating current (AC) and the latter is a machine producing direct current(DC). The generator
in this project has been provided, and all the data and specifications are available in the project
specification. The generator model is Bosch K1-14V 35A 20.

Figure 5.17: Bosch K1-14V 35A 20 Generator made in SolidWorks

This generator is mainly used in the automotive industry, and operates at very low
efficiencies, with a maximum efficiency of 37.8%. Currently, there are generators available that
have been specifically designed for wind turbines and have much higher efficiencies. By
selecting one of these generators, the turbine would be far more efficient and would not require
a gearbox, thus saving space, material and weight.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
This section explains the electric system of the turbine, and how the turbine provides
power. Although this is not required by the specification of our project, we believe that a brief
explanation is important.

60

Our electrical system is an off-grind, wind electrical system based on a rechargeable battery.
This system is very common in small electric installations because the energy is not exported to
the grid and the connection is cheaper.
Off grid systems are limited in capacity by the size of the generating sources and the
resources available; in this case the wind and the battery size.
The main components of the system are:
Power Line
Electric current conductor.
Battery
The battery is an electric device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
Converter
Converters transform the electricity produced by the generator into the AC electricity
commonly used in most homes for powering lights and appliances.

The following illustration includes the main parts of the system :

Figure : Schematic diagram of an off-grid system.

5.5 ELECTRICAL CONNECTION, SLIP RING

Wind turbines are designed to rotate to face the wind and extract the maximum power
from it. As the nacelle rotates, the cables connecting the generator to the electrical installation
can become twisted and tangled.
If the cables continue to twist, their connections and others components can be severely
damaged. In order to prevent this situation, a good solution is to use a slip ring.

61

A slip ring is an electromagnetic device allowing the transmission of electricity from a

stationary to a rotating structure. Its operation consist in two coupling parts. One side is kept
stationary, in the case of this turbine connected to the cables that connect the generator with the
battery. The other part can rotate freely which the wires from the wind turbine are connected.
This achieves that while the turbine rotates, the rotation is not transmitted to the cables below
the rings.

Figure :example of a basic slip ring

There are many types of slip rings, with both domestic and industrial applications. The
most suitable slip ring for this wind turbine will be chosen based on the amount of power being
transmitted and the electrical installation. In this project there is not enough data from the
electrical installation to be able to decide which slip ring we should choose.
An alternative to a slip ring could be a simple plug connector positioned at the bottom
of the wind turbine. When the cables are excessively twisted it can be unplugged, and replugged later. However it is only possible to unplug the connector when the wind turbine is not
turning, as a sudden gust of wind could damage the installation.

62

CHAPTER VI - FURLING SYSTEM

6.1 - DESIGN OBJECTIVES

6.2 - INTRODUCTION
6.3 - THEORY
6.4 - OUR FURLING SYSTEM DESIGN

63

CHAPTER 6 - FURLING SYSTEM

6.1 DESIGN OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this project are to meet the design brief. The proposed wind turbine
must be appealing to potential buyers with a unique selling point, to standout from the
competition or least be looked upon favorable.
The allocation of particular sections of the design process to each member of group was carried
out at random but with measure to ensure fairness and balance. A governing constitution in the
group decisions, during the preliminary stage of the project was that each member was required
to make rational decisions with the consensus of other group members to achieve best output
results for the wind turbine under consideration.

6.2 INTRODUCTION
Our wind turbine is designed to provide power in remote land-based applications. The
design must be simple and reliability for our wind turbine to be favored for providing power to
these remote places, and considering the unpredictable nature of the weather system in subSahara Africa, especially during seasonal shifts and, and also taking to account the ever shifting
pressure belts causing trade winds and monsoons seasons, it came to our groups attention to
install a means of regulating and governing the wind turbine during high wind scenarios.
These illustration below show the general circulation of the African Monsoon System
during the period 15 July 07/08, which only extends to the mid-levels. There is a larger thermal
high above the African monsoon system called the Asian Monsoon High and south of it is
the Tropical Easterly Jet. Both features play a role in the vertical development of AEWs
(African Easterly Waves). Of course on the moment of installment it would be wiser to do a
location study and a more detailed Meteorological analysis, also taking into account the
geographical implication (e.g. vegetation, sea level etc.). However as far as the design for the
furling system is concerned only a general evaluation is required for this purpose.

64

Figure 1. NCEP/NCAR reanalysis of Northern Africa during the period June15-July

15 2008 showing the surface pressure (left) and 500 mb (milibars) height (right) gradients
which drives the south westerlys and African easterly jet. The turning of the low level winds
(left) is barotropic instability while the difference between south westerlys and jet easterlys is
baroclinic
instability.
(1.0)
http://www.wunderground.com/blog/Weather456/archive.html?year=2010&month=06
Genesis of African Waves

Figure 2. Points of genesis (dots) of two types of easterly waves with the left panel - waves
that form north of the AEJ (African Easterly Jet) and right panel - waves that form south of the
AEJ. The top panel is the 600 mb streamflow with the AEJ and the bottom panel is the 925 mb
streamflow with the Saharan Thermal Trough. (2.0)

6.3 THEORY
Why furl?
The power in the wind is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, so if the wind
speed doubles, then it is eight times as powerful. We could design the system for
the highest wind speed scenarios and harness its power, but then for 99.9% of the time our wind
turbine would be under-used and probably inefficient because it would have a huge, heavy
alternator and relatively small blades.
If on the other hand the wind speed increases beyond a certain point, there is a danger of
overload. In this particular scenario the alternator may malfunction or be destroyed, the blades
may over speed or the side loading on the mast or tower may be too high. To prevent this from
happening, furling tail is required. This is the most common high wind regulation technique in
small wind turbines. One such example is where the turbine frame is designed with a built-in
offset, and the tail or the generator head is hinged both upwards and inwards. When wind speed
starts to approach the generators maximum power output capacity, the tail or head folds up,
yawing the machine at an angle to the wind. This reduces the effective swept area and thus the
available power to the maximum power output level of the generator, so it continues to make

65

peak power while furled. When wind speed drops, the tail or head drops back into a normal
configuration via gravity and tracks the wind straight on once again.
There are a host of proprietary systems, like 'Autofurl', Furlmatic or hinged vane
safety system'. In all cases the systems work on very similar principles, activated by wind
pressure on the rotor itself. As the wind speed increases, the thrust on the rotor increases too, so
does the yawing moment, until it reaches a point where it activates the furling mechanism, and
so the lift on the tail also increases and so the equilibrium of forces keeps the blades facing the
wind. The ingenious notion of the furling design is in the way the tail is mounted. When the lift
force reaches a certain magnitude, it moves the tail into a new position. In this position the wind
turbine either yaws away from the wind sideways, or tilts back so that it faces upwards.
The thrust force is thereby reduced and a new equilibrium is established. In either case
the rotor becomes skew to the wind. This effectively reduces the component of wind speed
through the rotor, limiting the speed and the power output. This said however the complete halt
of the wind turbine is not, thus a constant restoring moment (pulling the rotor back into the
wind), throughout the range of movement, will ensure a constant thrust on the rotor, giving a
constant output independent of wind speed. In many cases the restoring moment becomes
weaker as the wind turbine furls. This kind of wind turbine furling system do come at a cost of
instability in high winds, but the exchange for safety of over speeding makes it worth having.
On a turbulent high wind scenario, there may be cases of the turbine yawing abruptly,
putting high gyroscopic bending stresses on the blade roots. This particular problem our group
is planning to solve by employing a manually activate disk breaking systems as a secondary and
a last resort means of ensuring the survival of the turbine.

There is a variety of furling system designs:

o

Variable Pitch; An ideal but extremely complicated solution is to use

blades which change pitch depending on the wind speed, these also have the
advantage of keeping power output at the most efficient point for the current
wind speed. During low winds, the blades are pitched for best start-up. In
higher winds, they rotate and adjust shaft speed to the ideal RPMs for the
generator. In extreme winds, they turn the blades even further to protect the unit
from damage. The problem is the complexity of making a system work reliably.
This technique is most commonly applied by Large commercial wind
generators, but for the purposes of our wind turbine it is too complicated and
more specifically to costly.

Tilt-Back; in these designs, the generator body is hinged just behind the
nacelle. When wind speed gets too high, the entire nacelle, hub and blade
assembly tilts back out of the wind to nearly vertical. As the wind slows down,
it returns to normal horizontal operating position by either springs, wind action
on a tilted tail, or a counterweight.

66

Figure 3 (3.0) http://greenterrafirma.com/wind-turbine-furling.html

o

Folding Vane; Similar to the furling tail, but the tail boom is fixed, with
a hinged vane underneath. The main disadvantage is that tail and vane are more
highly stressed from wind force during furling, as they still are sticking out
there in the gale.

Flexible Blades; the theory is that the blades flex both back toward the
tower and around their main axis, and therefore protect themselves from over
speeding. It does work if the materials and details are correct (for example, the
blades must not flex back far enough to hit the mast, and they must withstand
flexing during cold weather too). This method of furling is quite a popular
choice for some manufacturers. The main disadvantage of this system is that it
is noisy.

Air Brakes; this is noisy and full of vibration, but they do work. Metal
cups extend from the hub from centripetal force during high winds, and noisily
slow the machine down; they retract back into the hub when the wind slows.

Furling Tail; the generator is mounted off-centre horizontally from the

yaw bearing. The tail is also angled in this axis. The tail is also angled in the
vertical axis, and hinged. When the wind force back on the rotor is strong
enough to overcome the off-axis generator making it want to yaw and the
angled tail trying to keep it from yawing, the tail folds up and turns the
alternator away from the wind direction, forcing the wind turbine to yaw out of
the wind. When wind speeds drops, the tail is returned to normal operating
position by gravity, or springs. Many commercial and homemade designs use
this system, and it has proven to be very reliable.

Figure 4 (4.0) http://greenterrafirma.com/wind-turbine-furling.html

67

6.4 OUR FURLING SYSTEM DESIGN

Our group after much consideration has decided to employ the most common, reliable
and what to our group objective is most suitable choice of wind turbine furling systems the side
furling tail. This was the consensus after much though and inclination towards the most obvious
design, the spring-loaded tail, which folds up when the force on the spring is exceeded. But a
spring is vulnerable to weathering and fatigue. Nor does it lend itself to producing a constant
restoring moment. The tension in the spring increases as the spring stretches. The radius of
action of the spring (its distance from the hinge) will also change. The best way to make a
reliable, self-furling tail is to use gravity instead of a spring to pull the tail into its normal
working position. This is achieved by mounting the tail on an inclined hinge. The tail falls down
against a stop under its own weight, in the normal (low
Somewhat, reaching a peak at the midpoint of the tail's swing, but in practice this variation is
usually tolerable. Hence, also we are able to control the wind speed at which furling takes place
by making the tail heavier or lighter. A simpler approach is to use a fixed tail boom, with a vane
suspended under it on hinges. This tail however is less precise in operation, and becomes highly
stressed in storms because it projects across the wind, and is subjected to its full fury, with a
vane flapping off it.
The tail furl model operates much on the same principle as described earlier, where the
thrust of the wind on the rotor drives the furling movement. The thrust on the rotor is centered
on its axis. If this axis is offset from the yaw axis, then the thrust creates a yawing moment,
turning the wind turbine away from the wind. In normal wind speeds we do not want the rotor to
yaw sideways, we want it to face the wind directly and catch all the power. So we build a tail
large enough to withstand the yawing, moment caused by the offset, using a vane area at a value
of about 15% (obtained empirically) of the rotor swept area. The tail vane is offset by an angle
of attack of about 20 (value much used in wind turbine of similar sizes) to the opposite side
from the rotor axis offset. This tail produces a restoring moment which equals the yawing
moment from the rotor thrust. As the wind increases, there comes a point when the wind turbine
delivers its maximum output (the rated wind speed of 10 m/s). Beyond this point the tail must
automatically swing aside, and allow the wind turbine to yaw away from the wind. In other
words, the tails restoring moment' must have a strictly defined upper limit, beyond which it
yields and allows the rotor to yaw.
The larger the rotor offset, the larger the tail must be to hold the machine straight in
normal winds. But the minimum offset you can use is 5% of the rotor diameter (as a rough
guide from similar designs). In our case a 3 meter diameter rotor should have an offset of at
least 150 mm. Of course if the offset is ends up being too small, the rotor may start behave
erratically. At particular tip speed ratios it will seek the wind. This 'self orienting moment' can
defeat the governing system entirely. Hence a rotor with a very small offset will yaw itself into
the wind without the help of a tail under some conditions.

68

CHAPTER VII - THE TOWER

7.1 AVAILABLE OTIONS
7.2 SPECIAL TOWER DESIGN
7.3 CHOICE OF TOWER
7.4 GUYED TOWER DESIGN
7.5 FOUNDATION

69

CHAPTER 7 - THE TOWER

7.1 AVAILABLE OPTIONS
This section outlines the different options available for wind turbine towers. There are 3
main types of tower systems, and their advantages, disadvantages and other useful information
is detailed in section 7.1.

7.1.1 TRUSS TOWER

The truss tower, is a simple design that provides the ability of creating both a stiff and tall
tower. For this reason the lattice tower was the preferred tower design of the first experimental
and small commercial wind turbines. [9]
The lattice tower is manufactured using welded steel profiles. In countries where the
labour costs are low the lattice construction is an economical solution, as it only requires half as
much material to achieve the same stiffness as free standing tubular tower.
In countries with high labour costs the economical advantage is limited or non-existent.
[10]

70

7.1.2 TUBULAR STEEL TOWER

Tubular steel towers are the current favorite among wind power projects all over the
world. Tubular towers have many advantages over the lattice towers, but are far more
expensive. Currently the prices on these larger steal tube towers are out of reach for the average
residential wind projects.
Large tubular towers usually have ladders inside
that allow maintenance access to the generator and most
internal wind turbine components without having to take
the tower down. Steel tube towers have a tremendous
strength associated to their egg-like shape. These tubes
are not cylinders, they taper down to be smaller at the
top. Usually they curve while they taper similar to curve
on the surface of an egg.
Regardless of which direction the wind is blowing
from the tower can evenly distribute the forces exerted on
it by the wind, it's fundamentally a stronger concept and
can be used on a far larger scale then the lattice tower. It
is necessary to have in-depth knowledge of its vibration
behavior. [9]
In the 1930s, steel-reinforced concrete was used
for wind turbine towers in Denmark. As with the lattice
towers, the concrete towers are characteristic for the early large experimental wind turbines [9].
Steel has been dominating the market for large wind turbines, but due to increasing
manufacturing costs and increasing hub heights, concrete towers are becoming more popular
again. [10].
7.1.3 GUYED TOWER
Guyed tower constructions are by far the most
common choice for small wind turbines. They provide a
good compromise between strength, ease of installation,
cost and appearance. Their disadvantage is that the footprint area is large compared to that of freestanding
towers.
Guyed towers basically consist of a pipe, a tube or
a slender lattice tower, guy wires and ground anchors.

They are usually designed as tilt-up towers with a gin pole. [11]

71

7.2 SPECIAL TOWER DESIGNS

Besides the prevailing tower types mentioned, there are some special tower designs that
are either hybrids of the mentioned types or novel towers. The hybrids may be slender lattice
towers or concrete towers that are additionally fitted with guy wires [36, p. 423]. The novel
towers include rooftops, silos, wooden poles and trees. None of them are very suited as towers
for wind turbines due to turbulence and vibrations in the structure on which they are mounted
[39, p. 156-159]. Furthermore they all require availability of the particular structure at the
desired site.

7.3 CHOICE OF TOWER

GUYED TOWER
For this project, the guyed tower best matches the specification, and shows the best
compromise between strength, ease of installation, cost and appearance. The guyed towers
main disadvantage is that the foot-print area is large compared to that of a freestanding tower.
However, as the wind turbine is only required to be 5m above the ground, this is not a major
issue. A tilt up system will be the best way to install this tower.

7.4 GUYED TOWER DESIGN

The guyed tower can be represented as a simply supported column as below:

7.4.1 INSTALLATION
Designing the wind turbine to be installed manually, without the need of a crane, helps to
keep overall costs to a minimum. The tower design incorporates a tilt-up construction method,
using a gin pole.

72

7.4.2 ASSEMBLY METHOD

1. Assemble the wind turbine on the ground.
2. Attach a gin pole perpendicular to the base of the tower.
3. Mount the towers base plate onto the foundation and attach the tower to the base plate
with a hinge.
4. Erect the tower by attaching a towing wire to the gin pole.
5. When the tower is vertical, attach the guy wires to the foundation.
6. Fix all foundation connections.
7.4.3 ANALYSIS &DESIGN

In order to design the tower for the turbine, it is very important to calculate the forces that
will be acting on the tower as accurately as possible. The following information is in accordance
with
(EN1991) Eurocode 1 Actions.(See Annex 2.1)
The tower must resist the following actions:
= 4,10
= 2,7802
= 1,5
STRUCTURAL CALCULATIONS
Steel elements subject to biaxial bending and compression exhibit complex structural
behavior. Bending displacement is amplified (non-linear geometry) by applied axial loads,
which constitutes a second order moment effect. This is accounted for by using either
enhancing end moments or using appropriate effective lengths.
Although the response of a column subject to biaxial
bending concerns two principal planes, the design check
effectively considers each plane in isolation, subject to
maximum forces.
Cross Section 168.3x10 CHS S235 is OK for all stress
interaction and buckling checks (see annex C, chapter 4 - tower
calculation):

7.4.4 CONNECTIONS
A base plate needs to be designed to transfer the loads of the column into the foundation.
A plain base plate is formed by welding an oversize flat plate to the bottom of the column
section. The base plate is then bolted to the foundation, which provides shear resistance.
Holding down bolts are normally cast into the foundation, complete with washer plates to resist

73

uplift. The strength of the base plate and the welds is checked in see annex C, chapter 4 - tower
calculation);
220 mm sqr. x 10mm thick base plate with full profile 6mm fillet weld to column. 4 No M24
grade 4.6 x 200 mm long cast-in holding down bolts.

The tower will also have a flange welded to the top of it, so that the yaw and furling
system has a surface to be bolted to tower. The strength of this connection needs to be strong
enough to resist the drag forces on the tail of the furling system, and the tension this causes in
the bolts.

7.5 FOUNDATION
The design of foundations often causes confusion. Ground bearing pressures are usually given as
safe bearing pressures that is, serviceability pressures. [12]
For larger structures, a ground investigation would be carried out to establish safe bearing
pressures and other ground characteristics, but for a very large number of smaller structures, presumed
allowable bearing pressures are used, derived from the table below:

Rock or Soil
Massive Igneous Bedrock
Sandstone
Shales and mudstone
Gravel, sand and gravel, compact
Medium dense sand
Loose Fine sand
Very stiff clay
Stiff clay
Firm clay
Soft clay

Typical allowable
pressure (kN/m2)
10,000
2,000 to 4,000
600 to 2,000
600
100 to 300
Less than 100
300 to 600
150 to 300
75 to 150
Less than 75

bearing

As the wind turbine is designed to be operational in a non-specific location, the foundation cannot
be designed. This section will provide an overview of different concrete foundation types, and the future
considerations that must be made before construction of the wind turbine.

7.5.1 AVAILABLE OPTIONS

7.5.1.1 SPREAD FOUNDATIONS (PADS OR STRIPS)
Spread foundations are ideal for carrying one column. In many cases, spread foundations can be

74

made so deep that there is no need for reinforcement. This is called a mass concrete base, and is normally
the most inexpensive foundation option available.

7.5.1.2 RAFT FOUNDATIONS

Raft foundations are ideal for foundations carrying more than one column. An appropriate method
for analysing the interaction between the ground and the raft needs to be selected, and thinner, more
flexible rafts often require finite element analysis.

7.5.1.3 PILED FOUNDATIONS

The pile design fore piled foundation needs to be carried out by a qualified piling contractor.
However, the structural engineer needs to design the pile cap. A pile cap can be modelled as a beam in
bending or as a truss. Using these analogies, the amount of reinforcement required in the pile cap can be
calculated.

7.5.2 MOST SUITABLE FOUNDATION

Spread foundations are the cheapest and easiest type of foundation to construct, and mass concrete
foundations require the least amount of labour too. For these reasons, a spread foundation would be best
suited for the wind turbine.

7.5.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPREAD FOUNDATION

The maximum ( unfactored ) pressure below the base must not exceed the bearing resistance of the
soil. The effects of any moments or eccentricity of axial load on the base must be accounted for.
If the eccentricity is greater than L/6, the resultant force on the base lies outside the middle third of
the base and the pressure distribution calculations must allow for the fact that soil cannot carry a tensile
stress.
The pressure distribution below the base is usually trapezoidal or triangular at SLS but at ULS it is
always rectangular as illustrated below:

FOUNDATION SIZE& DEPTH

To establish the required size of the foundation, the pressure under it, as calculated from the
SLS equations above, must not exceed the safe ground bearing pressure.

75

For a mass concrete base, the foundation must be made deep enough so that there is no need
for reinforcement;

45

If the 45 line passes through the side of the base, no reinforcement is required. If this line
passes through the bottom of the base, the concrete must be reinforced according to EN 1992-1.1.

GUY WIRES
For the design of the guy wires foundations, special considerations need to made to account for
the fact that soil has no resistance to tensile stresses.

76

MAJOR REFERENCE BOOKS:

[1] - Pitch-Controlled Variable Speed Wind Turbine Generation February 2000 . NREL/CP500-27143
[2]- Basics_2010_Fluid Mechanics Course
[3]-Wind Turbines - Fluid Mechanics Compendium
[4]- Guidelines For Design Of Wind Turbines A Publication From Dnv/Ris
[4]-Bonus Wind Turbines Publication 1999
[5]- Evaluation of Airfoils for Small Wind Turbines
[6]- Theoretical Aerodynamic Analyses Of Six Airfoils For Use On Small Wind Turbines
[7]- Wind Turbine Post-Stall Airfoil Performance Characteristics Guidelines for Blade-Element
Momentum Methods
[8] -Gear Design Handbook Second Edition

[9]- Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics. Berlin: Springer,

2006.
[10]- Introduction to Wind Energy Systems: Basics, Technology and Operation. Berlin:
Springer, 2009.
[11]- Wind Power: Renewable Energy for Home, Farm, and Business. P. Gipe, White River
Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green, 2004.
[12]- Leach, P. - Structures E2 (version 2.1 ) - University of Salford

77

ANNEX C

ANNEX C
CALCULATIONS
In this annex are presented all the calculation for the
Wind Turbine made by the members of our group
GROUP 2
8/12/2012

78

I.INITIAL CALCULATIONS
The following chapter explains the methodology for calculating the fundamental aspects of
our wind turbine.
First of all, it was necessary choose a reference parameter to start the calculations.
The following chart shows the optimal tip speed ratio of the different types of wind turbine.
As our wind turbine is a HAWT, the optimal tip speed ratio is X =7.

Figure : Chart showing the tip speed ratios for different wind turbines.

With the tip speed ratio and the average wind speed of the region where the wind turbine is
going to be situated, it is possible to calculate the tip speed.

= 7

= 6 /
=
7=

= 42 /

79

Secondly, it was necessary calculate the diameter of the rotor in order to calculate geometric
aspects of the wind. Using the optimal power with Betz formula, at the wind speed of 6m/s, the
swept area of the rotor was calculated, and with this value the radius of the rotor could be
obtained.

=
=
= 554
0.37 0.95

= 0.37

= 0.95
=

16 1
3
27 2

=6

= 1,225
=

16
27

2
554 2
=
= 7.062
16

16
3
3
27
27 1,225 2 (6 )
= 2

7.062
= 1.5

Also, it was possible to calculate the angular speed at the wind speed of 6 m/s.
=

42
= 28 /
1.5

()
=

2
=
=

60

60 ( )
2

80

 ()
= = 6

= 6
Once the diameter of the rotor and the gear transmission was obtained, a spreadsheet
containing the following calculations was completed;

=

2

(
)
2 4
2

, = 6 /

Figure : graphic of the probability distribution of wind

= (/)

81


1
= 3
2

2
4

(2 )

=
= 1,225

16
27

(/)

=
: Mechanical efficiency, mainly determined by losses in the gearbox. Can be taken as 0,85.
: Aerodynamic efficiency, max possible value is 0,59.
= 0.85 0.59
, the electrical efficiency, can be found as eta(%) in the generator data given in the project
description:

Table : Generator Data

82

From this data, we can establish a mathematical relationship between the generators RPM
and its efficiency.
45
40
35
eta (%)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

n(rpm)

Figure : Efficiency of the Generator According to RPM

To simplify this process, we can model the curve as 2 straight lines:

1500 = 0,075 71,917
> 1500 = 0,002 + 41,057
Now total efficiency, , can be calculated, which varies according to wind speed.

1
2
2

,
The power curve can now be calculate according to the wind speed, where,
= min
( 3 , )

83

Power Curve
600.00

500.00

P(v) [W]

400.00

300.00

200.00

100.00

.00
0

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

Wind Speed at hub height, V [m/s]

Figure : Power Curve

If we combine the data from figure the probability distribution of wind and figure the
power curve, we will get the energy production curve as shown below.
=

(8766 )

=
=

84

Annual Production
2000
1800

Energy, E (kWh)

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Wind Speed at hub height, V [m/s]

Figure : Annual Production/Energy Production Curve

1
= 3
2

=
( )
=

60
2

( )
=

60
2

85

The final table:

CHORD LENGHTS CALCULATIONS

chordlength
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05

y = -0.148x + 0.258

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

For calculating the chord lengths of the blade we have used the BEM method provided
by our teacher, and also with this method we calculate the forces on the rotor at 12m/s and at
55m/s to see if our design of the wind turbine will resist at this speeds.

86

12 M/S

87

55 m/s

88

2. GEARBOX CALCULATIONS

GEAR PARTS
TERMS
Module
Pitch
Pitch Circle
Outside Circle
Base Circle
Root Circle
Circular thickness
Teeth distance
Addendum
Dedendum
Number of teeth
Face width
Fillet

SYMBOL

M
P
Dp
De
Db
Di
e
c
a
b
Z
W
R
FFFigure : table with terms and symbols of the gear parts

FFFigure : Definition of gear terminology. Reference: Wikipedia picture.

89

FIRST PAIR OF GEARS, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:3

GEAR

= 2

= 75

= = 2 = 6.283

=
= 75 6.283

= 150

= + 2 = 150 + 2 2 = 154
= = = 2
= = 1.167 = 1.167 2 = 2.334

= cos P a = 150 cos
(6.283 2.334) = 145.12 mm

= 2 = 150 2 2.334 = 145.332

= 0.5 = 0.5 6.283 = 3.1415
= = 3.1415

= 0.3 = 0.3 2 = 0.6

=

= 0.52
6

90

PINION

= 2

= 25

= = 2 = 6.283

=
= 25 6.283

= 50

= + 2 = 50 + 2 2 = 54
= = = 2
= = 1.167 = 1.167 2 = 2.334

= cos P a = 50 cos
(6.283 2.334) = 48.37 mm

= 2 = 50 2 2.334 = 45.332

= 0.5 = 0.5 6.283 = 3.1415
= = 3.1415

= 0.3 = 0.3 2 = 0.6

=

= 0.52
6

91

SECOND PAIR OF GEARS, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:2

GEAR

= 2

= 50

= = 2 = 6.283

=
= 50 6.283

= 100

= + 2 = 100 + 2 2 = 104
= = = 2
= = 1.167 = 1.167 2 = 2.334

= cos P a = 100 cos
(6.283 2.334) = 96.74 mm

= 2 = 100 2 2.334 = 95.332

= 0.5 = 0.5 6.283 = 3.1415
= = 3.1415

= 0.3 = 0.3 2 = 0.6

= 6 = 0.52

The pinion of this pair is the same pinion that in the other pair.

92

FORCES
The spur gear transmission force which is normal to the tooth surface can be resolved into a
tangential component and a radial component .
=
=
There will be no axial force, .

Figure : diagram of forces in the gear tooth.

Reference : Mechanical Engineers- Roger Timings

Following the sketch the formulas are :

=

2000

=
=

2 + 2

With the number of teeth is choosen the pressure angle for the calculations:

Pressure angle
Gears with more than 25 teeth
Gears between 23 - 25 teeth
Gears between 18 - 22 teeth
Gears between 14 - 17 teeth
Gears between 10 - 13 teeth
Gears with less than 10 teeth

14 to 20
17 to 20
20 to 22
22
25
25 to 28

Figure : table pressure angle depending in the number of teeth

Reference : Mechanical Engineers- Roger Timings

93

In the next pages, there are the calculations of the forces at two wind speeds, reference and
maximum operating wind speed. The forces have been calculated in the driven gear because them are
transmitting to the other gear in the pair.
GEARS FORCES, FIRST PAIR OF GEAR TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:3

= 12

= 37.74

= 150 = 20
2 =

2000 2000 37.74

=
= 503.2

150

2 = 1 = 503.2 tan 20 = 183.14

2 =

2 2 + 2 2 =

503.22 + 183.142 = 535.49

. = 20 = 104.83
= 50 = 20
2 =

2000 2000 104.83

=
= 1397.73

150

2 = 2 = 1397.73 tan 20 = 508.47

2 =

2 2 + 2 2 =

1397.732 + 508.472 = 1487.34

For calculate the forces in the second gear, the tangential component of the drive gear 2 , is equal
to the driven gear's tangential component 1 but the directions are opposite. Similarly, the same is
true of the radial components.

94

Figure : forces ratio in a gear system

Reference : Mechanical Engineers- Roger Timings
GEARS FORCES, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:2

= 12

= 37.74

= 50 = 20
1 =

2000 2000 37.74

=
= 1509.6

50

1 = 1 = 1509.6 tan 20 = 549.5

1 =

1 2 + 1 2 =

1509.62 + 549.52 = 1606.48

. = 20 = 104.83

= 50 = 20
1 =

2000 2000 104.83

=
= 4193.2

50

1 = 1 = 4193.2 tan 20 = 1526.2

1 =

1 2 + 1 2 =

4193.22 + 1526.22 = 4462.31

95

For calculate the forces in the second gear, the tangential component of the drive gear 1 , is equal
to the driven gear's tangential component 2 but the directions are opposite. Is the same idea that in
the first pair 1:3.

STRENGTH CALCULATIONS

This section contains the calculations of stresses required to determine the thickness of the gears.
The gears have to resist the torque in the maximum operating wind speed but we decided also to
calculate the gears in the reference wind speed.
The reason is that in our region, the wind speed average is 6m/s, and wind speeds of 20 m/s only
would occur during very rare, extraordinary weather conditions. Although the average wind speed is
6m/s, we choose 12 m/s at reference wind speed to have a safety margin. Then we have two types of
gears, there are ones designed with the maximum operating speed of 20m/s where the torque is high
and the width of the gears is too large, and others designed with the reference wind speed of 12m/s
where the ratio width-size is better and are the gears that we are using in the project.
For the strength calculations is used the Lewis Formula:

Where:
=
=
The Lewis Form Factor depends on the number of teeth and the pressure angle f the gear.

Figure : table Lewis Form Factor - Reference : Mechanical Engineers- Roger Timings

96

 = ()
=
=
To calculate the Velocity Factor:
=

Where:
= ()
= ()
=

6.1 +
6.1

= ()

In the following pages there are calculations for the two pairs of gears. The gear that is called
critical is the gear with more tangential force and small size that the reason why this gear is going to
suffer more. This gear which is the pinion in the pair with the transmission ratio 1:2 is the reference
gear to choose the width.

GEARS STRESSES, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:3

= 12
2000 2000 37.74
=
= 503.2

150

= 2 60 = 2 535 60 = 56
=

0.15 56
=
= 4.2
2
2

6.1 + 6.1 + 4.2

=
= 2.45
6.1
6.1

= 75 = = 20

97

 = 0.43
= 20
=

2.45 503.2
=
= 71.67
20 2 0.43

255 = 1.25

,.

71.67 204
,
GEARS FORCES, TRANSMISSION RATIO 1:2
.
= 12
2000 2000 37.74
=
= 1509.6

50

3 1: 3
= 2 60 = 2 1605 60 = 168
=

0.05 168
=
= 4.2
2
2

6.1 + 6.1 + 4.2

=
= 1.68
6.1
6.1

= 25 = = 20
= 0.33

= 20
=

1.68 1509.6
=
= 192

20 2 0.33

255 = 1.25

,.

192 204
,

98

 .
= 20
2000 2000 104.83
=
= 4193.2

50

3 1: 3
= 2 60 = 2 1605 60 = 168

0.05 168
=
= 4.2
2
2

6.1 + 6.1 + 4.2

=
= 1.68
6.1
6.1

= 25 = = 20
= 0.33

= 20
255 = 1.25

,.

204

1.68 4193.2
=
= 204

2 0.33
= 52 = 55

99

3. SHAFT CALCULATIONS
Attention : In this chapter you will find only the way of calculation. For detailed calculations and
results you should check SHAFT EXCEL CALCULTION starting at page 125.
3.1 PREDIMENSION OF THE SHAFTS

Make FBD
Determinate the distribution of the forces and moments in the shaft
Calculate a reference bending moment out of the bending moment and torsion

( 2 +

3
(0 2 )
4

=
=
0 = ,
= 1
= 0 = 0,7
=

Calculate the minimum diameter of the shaft

>

32
,

= ,
= , 3 4
, =

Calculate the ratio between the inner and outer diameter of the parts and the fitting
diameter

= . .
=
=

100

Determine the flexibility of the parts

1 + 1 + 2
(1 2 )

1 + + 1 2
(1 2 )
= +

= = 0,3
= = 0,3
= = 210.000
= = 210.000

Calculate the smoothing of the surfaces when they get pressed together
= 0,8 +
=
=

With the moment you want to transfer you can calculate the minimum pressure you
will need for this
2
=
2 2
=
=
= ,

This gives you the minimum oversize you need and with a safety factor you get the
safe one
= ( + )
= +
=

Now you only have to look for a fitting which has this minimum oversize

101

3.2 DYNAMIC CALCULATION

Bending:

You have to calculate the shaft for bending and then for Torsion. As a last step you
put both results together to get the final dynamic safety.
Calculate the equivalent bending moment with the original moment and the service
factor.
=
=
=

To calculate the stresses you first need the section modulus of the shaft.
=

3
32

Now you can find the actual bending stress in the cross section
=

Now you to define the technological size factors for ultimate strength and yield
strength. This is the factor reduce the allowable stress per area for big cross sections
because they have not a perfect homogeny mixture of material inside.

1 = 1 0,23 log

1
100

2 = 1 0,26 log

1
32

With this k values you can now determine the values for this cross section out of the
normed values.
= 1
= 1,2 2
= 1
, , =

To find the right table for the notch factor you first have to decide if you have a
stepped shaft or a fitting on the place you want to calculate. That are the two
possibilities we have. Than you can just look in the right table.

102

Stepped shaft:
,

2,0

=
= 1 + (2,0 1)

Fitting:

Now we have to find the

= 1 0,2 log

15
7,5
20

= 1 0,2 log

Now we calculate the geometrical size factor

= 1 0,2

With this we can now determinate the for our cross section.
=

7,5
20

log

7,5
20

The next k factor to calculate is the 0 , which describe the influence of the surface
roughness.
0 = 1 0,22 log

20
2

103

Now we can calculate the construction factor for bending by using all the calculated
ks.
=

1
1
+

= ; = 1

Now we have to calculate the influence of to our shafts.

=

=
= 0,00035
= 0,1
=

1 +

As a last step we can calculate the dynamic safety for bending. That is of course not
necessary because we will calculate later the combined dynamic safety against
bending and torsion. This safety should be always bigger than 1,5.

TORSION

Now you have to calculate the shaft for Torsion. This is very similar to the calculation
for bending. As a last step you put both results together to get the final dynamic
safety.

Calculate the equivalent torsion with the original torsion and the service factor
=
=
=

To calculate the stresses you first need the polar section modulus of the shaft
=

3
16

104

Now you can find the amplitude torsional stress in the cross section
=

1
2

We also have to define the mean stress

=

Now you need to define the technological size factor for ultimate strength and yield
strength. This is the factor reduce the allowable stress per area for big cross sections
because they have not a perfect homogeny mixture of material inside.
1 = 1 0,23 log

1
100

With this k value you can now determine the value for this cross section out of the
normed values.
= 1
= 1
, =

To find the right table for the notch factor you first have to decide if you have a
stepped shaft or a fitting on the place you want to calculate. That are two possibilities
we can have. Then you can just look in the right table.

Stepped shaft:
,

1,4

=
= 1 + (1,4 1)

Fitting:

Now we have to find the

= 1 0,2 log

15
7,5
20

105

7,5
20

= 1 0,2 log

With this we can now determinate the for our cross section.
=

Now we calculate the geometrical size factor

= 1 0,2

log

7,5
20

The next k factor to calculate is the 0 which describe the influence of the surface
roughness.
0 = 0,575 0 + 0,425

Now we can calculate the construction factor for bending by using all the calculated
ks.

1
1
+

= ; = 1

Now we have to calculate the influence of to our shafts.

= 0,58
=

= 0,58
=

1 +

As a last step we can calculate the dynamic safety for torsion. That is of course not
necessary because we will calculate later the combined dynamic safety against
bending and torsion. This safety should be always bigger than 1,5.

106

FINAL SAFETY FOR BENDING AND TORSION

As a very last step we will now combine results from the previous calculations to the
calculation of the final dynamic safety for bending and torsion.

As a first step we have to calculate a reference sigma stress out of the bending and
torsion stresses.
=

Now we have to determine a reference allowable sigma stress.

2
2

+ 3

1 +

The last step of the shaft calculation is the calculation of the final safety out of this
reference stress.
1

4. TOWER CALCULATIONS
4.1 ACTIONS
Permanent Actions
The tower experiences a permanent action from the weight of the nacelle, rotor, hub etc., which
acts perpendicular to the towers cross section.
Total mass supported by tower:

Permanent action:

310kg

3109,8
1000

= 3,038
Design value of permanent load:
=

107

Eurocode partial safety factor for permanent loads, = 1,35

= 4,10

Variable Actions
Calculation of simplified wind pressure for insignificant orthography according to EN1991;
= ,0
:

The basic 10 minute mean wind velocity,

,0 :

The characteristic 10 minute mean wind velocity, (design for 55ms-1)

& :

Correlation factors; can be conservatively taken as 1,0,

Altitude factor. This may conservatively be taken as = 1 + 0,001 , where A is

the site altitude. As the turbine is intended to be located mainly in coastal regions,
is negligible.
= 55 1
=

Basic wind velocity pressure,

Density of air = 1,225 kgm-3

2
2

= 1,8532
= ,
:

Peak velocity pressure,

Exposure factor, use 1,0.

, :

Exposure correction factor, use 1,0.

= 1,8532

The wind pressure profile increases with height, which is simplified into zones. The peak velocity
pressure should be calculated in zones, as the tower is taller than the wind face width;

108

that the wind pressure profile increases with height,

e peak velocity pressure should be calculated in
an the wind face width (b).

b
q p (h )

b
b
q p (h )

q p ( ze )

q p (b )

q p (b )

b < h < 2b

ze

h > 2b

profile on wind
For theface
design of this tower, this pressure distribution can be conservatively estimated as being

ze

uniformly distributed along the length of the tower.

= ()

w = q p ( zw): cThe
where
is the pressure coefficient
pressure oncapsurface
p wind
:

Exposure factor, the pressure coefficient (external or internal). Use 1,0

= 1,8532

essure Coefficients may be made in the same way

Design value of imposed load:
e most onerous of +0.2 or -0.3 if the surface
=

Eurocode partial safety factor for variable loads, = 1,50

al Pressure Coefficients for

WALLS
= 2,780

There is a second load applied perpendicular to the tower; the thrust from the rotor axis. In the
initial calculations chapter, this was taken as 1kN.

= 1 1,5 = 1,5

q = 900

d
d

b
109

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

4.2 DESIGN OF COLUMN (FULL INTERACTION CHECK)

For class 1, 2 and 3 hollow sections, the following interaction check must be satisfied:

Interaction 1 (for elements not susceptible to torsional deformation hollow

sections):
,
,
,
+
+
1.0
,,
,,
,,

The steel column is simply supported, being fixed at the lower end and supported by the guy wires
at the top. The guy wires act as a roller support.

The design load at the column is:

Axial force :

NEd = 4,10 kN

Transverse pressure: QEd = 2,780 kNm-2

Transverse force:

FEd = 1,5 kN

Maximum moment, found in same position as guy wires, by statics;

, = 4,672

110

As both transverse forces are from the wind, we can assume their direction to be the same.
Therefore, , = 0.

The interaction check is now,

,
,
+
1.0
,, ,,

Check the resistance of the column for the attached load.

As the tower will be subject to a changing load direction, it makes sense to use a circular cross
section, which is equally strong and aerodynamic in all directions

Section Properties for 168.3x10 Circular Hollow Section :

Area:

= 49702

Second Moment of Area:

= 156400004

Elastic Modulus:

, = 1860003

Radius of Gyration:

= 56,1

Diameter:

= 168,3

Thickness:

= 10

Other information:
Column length:

= 5000

Critical length:

= 2 = 10000

Steel Yield Strength:

= 235

Material conversion factor:

=1

Youngs Modulus:

= 210

111

Slenderness:

For circular section, = 1, (< 1,2)

=

10000

56,1
93,91

= 1,898

= 10, (< 100)

= 235
;

Buckling Curves.

Buckling reduction factor:

From figure , The buckling reduction factor, = 0,26
Design resistance for the axial force:

,, = = 253056
1

Design resistance for the bending moment:

,, = , 1 = 9470500
Criteria, which must be satisfied:
,
,
+
1.0
,, ,,

112

4,10
4,672
+
1.0
253,056 9,471
0,016 + 0,493 1.0
, .
Check of Stresses:
<

, 235
+
<

,
1,1

4100 4672000 235

+
<
4970 186000
1,1
0,825 + 25,923 < 213,636
, < 213,636
168.3x10 CHS S235 OK All Checks
Several design considerations are beyond the limits of this project:

Dimensioning of guy wire attachments

Dimensioning of guy wires in acc. with EN 1993-1-11
Fatigue analysis of tower in acc. with EN 1993-1-9

Any future tower analysis & design should consider the above points.
4.3 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
FOUNDATION CONNECTION

Baseplate
Baseplate is axially loaded in S235 steel.
168.3x10 CHS S235 Column is subjected to 4,10kN axial load.
Foundation is constructed from concrete, , = 252
Limit contact stress to, = 0,6 25 = 152

Minimum area required is, =

4100
15

= 273,32

113

If c is the required outstand from the column face to limit the contact stress to 0,6 , , then as
minimum required area is small, let = 20.
The base plate thickness, =

= 20

315
235

= 8,75 10

Note: baseplate thickness should not be thinner than the column section thickness (10mm)
Holding-down bolts should be M24 grade 4.6 bolts.
WELD CAPACITY
The weld between baseplate and column must carry the full axial load of 670 kN, try full profile 6
mm fillet weld:

Weld leg length, = 6 and throat thickness, =

Weld shear strength, , =

3 2

235
30,851,25

6
2

= 4,2

= 1282

Design weld resistance, , = , = 128 4,2 = 538/

Length of profile weld = = 529
Applied Action, =

4100
529

= 8/

8
=
= 0,014 < 1 6 .
, 538
220mm sqr. x 10mm thick baseplate with full profile 6mm fillet weld to column. 4 No M24
grade 4.6 x 400mm long cast-in holding down bolts.

5. FURLING SYSTEM CALCULATIONS

THEORY

Fluid dynamics (notes referenced from Philip Davies, The Natural Environment and Engineering
Warwick University).

114

115

116

CALCULATIONS
4

Hence using the formula T = 9 A1 2 we can calculate the thrust generated by the rotor
at the given wind speed of 10 m/s, the wind speed of peak electricity production our
generator is producing.
Where:
= 1.225 kg/3 at sea level.
A is the swept area of rotor
Rotor diameter is 3 m
u1 is wind speed 10 m/s

117

Hence ,
T (thrust) =

4
x
9

1.225 x

x 32 x102

T = 384.8451 N
To calculate the turbine moment (torque)
Turbine Moment (Nm) = Turbine Thrust x Turbine Offset
Where
Turbine Offset as mentioned before is chosen to be 0.15 m

Hence,
Turbine Moment (NM) = 384.8451 x 0.15= 57.726 Nm

Thus we require a tail moment of 57.726 Nm to balance the turbine moment.

So Tail Moment = Tail Length * Furl resistance

Where,
Furl resistance = Tail Weight x Sin (Pivot angle in degrees) * Sin 45
Where,
Tail weight = 20 kg empirically obtained

Furl resistance = 20 x 9.82 * Sin20 x Sin 45 = 47.4983 N

Tail Length = Tail Moment / Furl resistance
Hence,
Tail Length = 57.726 / 47.4983
Tail Length = 1.2217186 m

118

So for a wind turbine to start furling at 22.4 mph, it needs a tail pivot angle of 200, a tail length of
1.221186 m, weight of 20kg and empirically obtained vane area at a value of about 15% of Swept
area so tail vane area = 0.15 x

x 32 = 1.060287 m.

However the nacelle for our wind turbine weighs 300kg or 2946 Nm which will make difficult to
model our wind turbine using this analysis that said, however if given the chance to redesign the
yawing systems, the modification I could make would be to shed some weight of the nacelle either by
replacing some components such the generator with a lighter one or using different materials to
manufacture the components in the nacelle. Another less feasible modification to yawing system is the
use of electric motors but the energy requirement for the generator and the wind turbine would be
cumbersome.

Figure 5 http://www.thebackshed.com/wind turbine/docs/furling.asp

THE YAWING SHAFT

This design process is to illustrate the pre dimensioning of the Yawing shaft, the yawing shaft
allows for the nacelle to rotate. This section is fraught with difficulties and problems that arise from
the inability of the yawing moment to rotate the bulky nacelle, as mention earlier, albeit a pre-

119

dimensioning is required as a basic design process. Further design procedures are not necessary since
the yawing system is not expected to be fully functional.
The step by step process of designing the shaft;

1. Draw a Free body Diagram (showing all forces acting on the yawing shaft)
2. Determine the turbine moment (torque)
Turbine Moment (NM) = Turbine Thrust x Turbine Offset
Teq = KA x Turbine moment

3. Determine Bending moment ( )

Mnom = thrust x 0.086
Meq = KA x thrust

4. Then find Moment reference using the bending moment

3
( 2 + (0 2 )
4

Mref = reference moment

Mb = bending moment
0 = endurance limits,
= 1 = 0 = 0,7

5. Determine the minimum diameter of the shaft

32
,

, =

= , 1-1
>

= , 3 4

120

6. SHAFTS EXCEL CALCULATIONS

FIRST SHAFT CALCULATIONS

Fb=T/rb= 5333,333N

rb: 150mm

Fay= 300N

x1: 175mm

Fax= 1000N

x2:

60mm

T= 800Nm

x3:

60mm

x4:

50mm

summFx=0
Fax-Ax=0
Ax=Fax=1000N
summFy=0
Fay-Ay-By=0

summM(A)=0
Fay*x1+By*(x2+x3)=0
By=-(Fay*x1)/(x2+x3)= -437,5N

Ay=Fay-By=

737,5N

121

summM(A)=0
Fb*x2-Bz*(x2+x3)= 0
Bz=Fb*x2/(x2+x3)= 2666,67N
summFz=0
Az-Fb+Bz= 0
Az=Fb-Bz= 2666,67N

Mby1=Fay*x1= 52,5Nm
Mby2=Fay*(x1+x2)-Ay*x2= 26,25Nm
Mbz=-Fb*x2= -320Nm
M=root(Mz^2+My^2)= 321,074855Nm
Mref=root(Mb^2+3/4(alpha0*T)^2)= 581,6262223Nm
T=800Nm
alpha0=0,7
d>root^3((32*Mref)/(pi*sigmaballow))= 41,64952734mm
sigmaballow= 82N/mm^2

122

SECOND SHAFT CALCULATIONS

T=37,74Nm
Fr=T/(d/2)=503,20N

x1= 50,00mm
x2= 50,00mm
x3= 30,00mm
d(gear)= 150,00 mm

summFx=0
Ax=0 and Bx=0
summFy=0
Ay=0 and By=0

summM(A)=0
Bz*x2+Fr*(x2+x3)=0
Bz=-805,12N
summFz=0
Az+Fr+Bz=0
Az= 301,92N

123

Mb1=Az*x2= 15,096Nm
Mref=root(Mb^2+3/4(alpha0*T)^2)= 27,410Nm
alpha0=0,7
d>root^3((32*Mref)/(pi*sigmaballow)) 15,04410862mm
sigmaballow= 82 N/mm^2

THIRD SHAFT CALCULATIONS

T=Told/ratio1= 1 2,58Nm
ratio1= 3
Fa=T/d1= 232,9629N
Fr=T/d2= 120,9615N

x1= 21 mm
x2= 70 mm
x3= 21 mm
d1= 54 mm
d2= 104 mm

summFy=0
Ay=0 and By=0

124

summM(A)=0
Fa*x1-Fr*(x1+x2)-Bz*(x1+x2+x3)=0
Bz=(Fa*x1-Fr*(x1+x2))/(x1+x2+x3)=-54,6006 N
summFz=0
Az-Fa+Fr+Bz=0
Az=Fa-Fr-Bz= 166,602N

Mb1=Az*x1= 3,4986Nm
Mb2=Az*(x1+x2)-Fa*x2= -1,1466Nm
Mref=root(Mb^2+3/4(alpha0*T)^2)= 8,3904Nm
alpha0=0,7
d>root^3((32*Mref)/(pi*sigmaballow))= 10,1388mm
sigmaballow= 82N/mm^2

FOURTH SHAFT

T=Told/ratio2= 6,29Nm
Fr=T/(d/2)= 251,60N

x1= 50,00mm
x2= 30,00mm
x3= 25,00mm

125

d(gear)= 50,00mm
ratio2= 2,00

summFx=0
Ax=0 and Bx=0
summFy=0
Ay=0 and By=0

summM(A)=0
Bz*x2+Fr*(x2+x3)=0
Bz= -461,27N
summFz=0
Az+Fr+Bz=0
Az= 209,6667N

Mb1=Az*x2= 6,29Nm
Mref=root(Mb^2+3/4(alpha0*T)^2)= 7,355 Nm
alpha0= 0,7
d>root^3((32*Mref)/(pi*sigmaballow))= 9,703614216mm
sigmaballow= 82N/mm^2

126

CALCULATIONS OF THE FITTINGS

127

FIRST SHAFT

128

129

130

SECOND SHAFT

131

132

133

THIRD SHAFT

134

135

136

FOURTH SHAFT

137

138

139

8.BEARINGS SKF CALCULATIONS

BEARING 1

BEARING 2

140

BEARING 3

BEARING 4

141

BEARING 5

BEARING 6

142

BEARING 7

BEARING 8

143

ANNEX D
DRAWINGS
In this annex are presented all WORKSHOP DRAWINGS for the Wind
Turbine

GROUP 2
6/11/2012

TABLE OF CONTENT

1. WIND TURBINE ASSEMBLY -

1ASM-2011B

2. ROTOR ASEEMBLY -

1ASEM-2011

3.GEARBOX ASSEMBLY-

2ASSEM2011

4. COUPLING ASSEMBLY-

ASEM3-2011

5.HUB COVER -

1D-2011

6. HUB BACK COVER -

2D-2011

8.MOUNTING PLATE

3D-2011

9. SHAFT1-

1SH-2011

10.SHAFT2 -

2SH-2011

11.SHAFT3-

3SH-2011

12.SHAFT4-

4SH-2011

13. GEAR1-

1G-2011

14.GEAR2-

2G-2011

15.GEAR3-

6G-2011

16.BLADE

6D-2011

10

A
11

6
16

12

13

15

14

BEARING

19

TOWER SHAFT

18

BREAK DISK

17

BEARING HOUSE

16

COUPLNG ASSEMBLY

15

GEARBOX ASSEMBLY

14

CRANK

13

NACELLE BASE

12

HUB

11

BLADES

10

NACELLE

TAIL PIVOT

TAIL BOOM

TAIL VANE

MOUNTING FLANGE

MOUNTING BRAKETS

STEEL TUBE TOWER

GUY WIRE

FOUNDATION

QTY.

Description

Item no.

1
18

19

20

A
SCALE (1 : 10)
Qty.

Item

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Drawing no.:

WIND TURBINE MAJOR COMPONENTS

Material / Model no.

Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2
Student ID:

IY11219

8.12.2011

Initial:

DMV

1ASM-2011B

16 ELASTOMER
15 COUPLING FITING
14 MAIN BEARINGS
13 MAIN SHAFT
12 BRAKING DISK
11 BACK HUB COVER SCREWS
10 BRAKE MOUNTING SCREWS

13

14

15

16

15

BREAKING SYSTEM

BACK HUB COVER

WASHER

HEX NUT

BLADE S822 x 3

BASE PLATE FOR THE BLADES

BLADE MOUNTING SCREW

HUB COVER

HUB COVER MONTING SCREW

Item Description
no.

12

11
10

9
6

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GROUP 2 24.11.2011

1:5

Student ID:

Drawing no.:

ROTOR ASSEMBLY

IY11219

1ASEM-2011

Initial:

DMV

SolidWorks Student Edition.

For Academic Use Only.

TABLE OF CONTENT

12
9

10

13

HEX NUTS

12

MOUNTING SCREW

11

OUTPUT SHAFT

10

BEARINGS

SECONDARY PINION

SECONDARY GEAR

INTERMEDIATE SHAFT

MAIN PINION

MAIN GEAR

MAIN INPUT SHAFT

MAIN BEARING PAIR

GEARBOX COVER

GEARBOX HOUSING

Item no.

Description

5
10

11

1
Qty.

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Drawing no.:

GEARBOX ASSEMBLY

Material / Model no.

Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2 22.11.2011

Student ID:

IY11219

Initial:

DMV

2ASSEM-2011

ELASTOMER PART

COUPLING PART 1

COUPLING PART 2

QTY.

Item no. Description

Qty.

Item

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Engineering College of Aarhus

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Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:2
Drawing no.:

COUPLING 1

Material / Model no.

Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2

Student ID:

IY12119

22.11.2011

Initial:

DMV

ASSEM3-2011

231

R20

79.82
23.78
90

172

R15

180

R172

13.50

23

23

R164.37

R40

A
A-A

Qty.

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COVER

1D-2011

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:5
Drawing no.:

PLASTIC
Material / Model no.
Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2

Student ID:

IY11219

22-11-11

Initial:

1D-2011

DMV

3X

221

R162

22.40

R40

30

A-A

21.48

121.77

R168.79

R100

R5

10

24

45
R90.17

R172

10

221

R1

B-B
1

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BACK COVER

2D-2011

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

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Drawing no.:

PLASTIC
Material / Model no.
Date:
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GROUP 2

Student ID:

IY11219

22-11-11

Initial:

2D-2011

DMV

3 X M10x1.0
12 X

20

266.86

11

266.86

3 X 45

36

320

30

106.50

D-D

45

46.50

30

4 X 45
90

A-A

4 X 45

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Mounting plate for the Blades

3D-2011

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:5
Drawing no.:

Steel
Material / Model no.
Date:
Group ID:

Group 2

Student ID:

IY11219

22-11-11

Initial:

3D-2011

MDV

GENERAL TOLERANCES (FREE SIZE TOLERANCE)

PER DIN - 7148-m

Note:

LINEAR DEVIATION

1) Deburr sharp edges aprox 0.5 x 45

ANGULAR DEVIATION

0.5
6
30
120
10
50
120
UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO
6
30
120
400
10
50
120
400

2)All nudges should have a min radi of 0.5

Rz 25
3) All surfaces finished at

0.1

Unless otherwise specified

0.2

0.3

0.5

30

20

10

ABOVE 400 mm SEE DIN 7148-m

2 X 45

0.01 B

50

45

14

60

0.01

60

R2

griding
Rz 6.3

+0.02
+0

+0.02
+0

R10

50 k6

+0.06
+0.04

griding
Rz 2.5

45 s6

2 X 45

200

0.3 A

50 k6

griding
Rz 6.3

10

165

185

2 X 45

45
65

230

105

10

Qty.

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MAIN ROTOR SHAFT

1SH-2011

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:2

Drawing no.:

STEEL
Material / Model no.
Date:
Group ID:

GROUP2

Student ID:

IY11219

24-11-11

Initial:

1SH-2011

DMV

GENERAL TOLERANCES (FREE SIZE TOLERANCE)

PER DIN - 7148-m

Note:

LINEAR DEVIATION

1) Deburr sharp edges aprox 0.5 x 45

0.5
6
30
120
10
50
120
UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO
6
30
120
400
10
50
120
400

2)All nudges should have a min radi of 0.5

Rz 25
3) All surfaces finished at

0.1

Unless otherwise specified

0.2

+0.06
+0.04

45

40 s6

+0.02
+0

0.3

0.5

30

20

10

ABOVE 400 mm SEE DIN 7148-m

griding
Rz 6.3

50 k6

60

+0.02
+0

griding
Rz 6.3

50 k6

45

ANGULAR DEVIATION

0.02 A
2 X 45

B
R2
40

R1

R1
20

20

22

140
1

Qty.

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GEARBOX INPUT SHAFT

2SH-2011

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:2
Drawing no.:

STEEL
Material / Model no.
Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2

Student ID:

IY11219

22-11-11

Initial:

2SH-2011

DMV

GENERAL TOLERANCES (FREE SIZE TOLERANCE)

PER DIN - 7148-m

Note:

LINEAR DEVIATION

1) Deburr sharp edges aprox 0.5 x 45

ANGULAR DEVIATION

0.5
6
30
120
10
50
120
UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO
6
30
120
400
10
50
120
400

2)All nudges should have a min radi of 0.5

Rz 25
3) All surfaces finished at

0.1

0.2

Unless otherwise specified

0.3

0.5

30

20

10

griding
Rz 6.3

2 X 45

15

25

15

2 X 45

20 k6

+0.02
+0

0.3

20 k6

griding
Rz 6.3

+0.02
+0

ABOVE 400 mm SEE DIN 7148-m

12.50
49

33
83
104

116

Qty.

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INTERMEDIATE SHAFT

3SH-2011

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:1
Drawing no.:

STEEL
Material / Model no.
Date:
Group ID:

GROUP2

Student ID:

IY11219

24-11-11

Initial:

3SH-2011

DMV

GENERAL TOLERANCES (FREE SIZE TOLERANCE)

PER DIN - 7148-m

Note:

LINEAR DEVIATION

1) Deburr sharp edges aprox 0.5 x 45

ANGULAR DEVIATION

0.5
6
30
120
10
50
120
UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO UP TO
6
30
120
400
10
50
120
400

2)All nudges should have a min radi of 0.5

Rz 25
3) All surfaces finished at

0.1

0.2

griding
Rz 6.3

0.5

30

20

10

griding
Rz 6.3

2 X 45

12

12

20

2 X 45

0.3

ABOVE 400 mm SEE DIN 7148-m

+0.01
+0

15 k6

15 k6

+0.01
+0

Unless otherwise specified

38

20

25

10
115

Qty.

Item

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OUTPUT SHAFT

4SH-2011 STEEL

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

2:1

Material / Model no.

Date:
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GROUP 2

Student ID:

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Initial:

DMV

Drawing no.:

4SH-2011

SPECIFICATIONS
Note:
REMOVE ALL SHARP EDGES.
LEAVE 1 X 45 MIN CHAMFER

40

9x

20

95

MODULE
NUMBER OF TEETH

2
75

MAX DIAMETER

154

MIN DIAMETER

145.12

PITCH DIAMETER
ADDENDUM
DEDENDUM
DISTANCE BETWEEN AXES

150
2
2.334
100

154
130
+0.03
0

40 H7

R2.5

20

2.5 X 45

A-A

R1
56

Qty.

Item

Ingenirhjskolen i rhus

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering College of Aarhus

SolidWorks Student Edition. Description:

For Academic Use Only.

SPUR GEAR Z75

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:2
Drawing no.:

STEEL
Material / Model no.
Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2

Student ID:

IY11219

23-11-11

Initial:

1G-2011

DMV

SPECIFICATION

Note:
REMOVE ALL SHARP EDGES.
LEAVE 1 X 45 MIN CHAMFER

15

R2

NUMBER OF TEETH

50

MAX DIAMETER

104

MIN DIAMETER

95.332
100

ADDENDUM

DEDENDUM

2.334
75

104

DISTANCES BETWEEN AXES

84

20

griding
Rz 2.5

32

6X

PITCH DIAMETER

20

+0.02
0

56

MODULE

R2

A-A
2.5 X 45

Qty.

Item

Ingenirhjskolen i rhus

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering College of Aarhus

SolidWorks Student Edition. Description:

For Academic Use Only.

SPUR GEAR Z50

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:2
Drawing no.:

Material / Model no.

Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2

Student ID:

IY12119

23-11-11

Initial:

6G-2011

DMV

SPECIFICATIONS
Note:

54

All edges deburr at 1 X45

50
45

MODULE
NUMBER OF TEETH
ADDENDUM
DEDENDUM

2
25
2
2.334

2.5 X 45

+0.02
0

20

14.2

20

griding
Rz 2.5

0.9

33
1

Qty.

A-A
1

Item

Ingenirhjskolen i rhus

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering College of Aarhus

SolidWorks Student Edition. Description:

For Academic Use Only.

PINION SPUR GEAR Z25

2G-2011

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:1
Drawing no.:

STEEL
Material / Model no.
Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2

Student ID:

IY11219

24-11-11

Initial:

2G-2011

DMV

221

50

221

105
122.67

11

12

4X

65

116.20

D-D
SCALE (1 : 2)

40

DETAIL B
SCALE (1 : 5)

52.50

1500

1320

1130

R45

85

100

.7

B
1

Qty.

Item

Ingenirhjskolen i rhus

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Engineering College of Aarhus

SolidWorks Student Edition. Description:

For Academic Use Only.

BLADE S822

6D-2011

Item no. Drawing no.

Scale:

1:20
Drawing no.:

WOOD
Material / Model no.
Date:
Group ID:

GROUP 2

Student ID:

IY11219

22-11-11

Initial:

6D-2011

DMV