What is history-?

Although history commonly used to refer to events which happened earlier in time, but history in
academic study is either the study of the past or the product of our attempts to understand the past,
rather than the past itself
Indian HistoryThe history of India begins with human settlement that has been confirmed to over 9000 years ago
in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.However, evidence of human activity shows the
presence of Homo sapiens as long as 75,000 years ago in Indian subcontinent
Stone AgeGenerally Stone Age/Ice Age is divided into following 3 eras1.

Paleolithic Period/Era-

The term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek
literally meaning Old age of the stone or Old Stone Age. This period is also known as Ice Age. The
Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools or objects found in nature. Man during
this period was essentially a food gatherer. He was totally dependent on nature for his food supply
requirement that contains animals and edible plants. In course of time he learnt to control fire which
helped in improving the pattern of living in many ways. Men were organized in small wandering groups
known as Bands.It was towards the end of the Paleolithic period that the modern human being (Homo
sapiens) first appeared around 36,000 BC. Robert Bruce foot was the first person to discover a
Paleolithic site in India in 1863. The tools were usually made of hard rock quartzite and therefore
Paleolithic man in India is also called Quartzite Man. Few important sites of this era in India are
Kashmir Valley, Sohan Valley, Potwar region and Luni in Rajasthan. The Paleolithic era is followed by
the Mesolithic
1.

Mesolithic Period/Era-

Mesolithic literally means Middle Stone Age. It was a period in the development of human
technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. There was
rise in temperature and the climate became warm and dry. The climatic changes affected human life and
brought about changes in fauna and flora. The technology of producing tools also underwent change and
the small stone tools were used. Man was predominantly in hunting/gathering stage but there was
shift in the pattern of hunting from big game to small game hunting and to fishing and fowling. Man
started to live in bigger groups called Tribes. Bagor (Rajasthan) on the river Kothari is the largest
Mesolithic site in India. Chotanagpur Plateau and Garo Hills are also counted in prominent Mesolithic
sites
1.

Neolithic Period/Era-

It is considered as last phase of Stone Age. This phase refers to transition in land use. Food gathering
and hunting societies started to settle in village andcultivation became prime work in their life. The
Neolithic is not a specific chronological period, but rather a suite of behavioral and cultural
characteristics. Stone Age was followed by Bronze/Copper Age
Bronze/Copper Age [Chalcolithic Phase]In this phase human being discovered copper and used it for making tools and for other known
purposes. This phase refers to a process of cultural development and transmission of ideas on small
scale. Indus valley civilization flourished on bank of Indus in North-West Asia is considered as 1 st and
most important civilization in South-Asian History
Indus valley civilization [2500 BC-1500 BC]The sensational discoveries made at Harappa in West Punjab andMohenjodaro in Sind has
revolutionized idea of ancient Indian history. Indus valley civilization of India is even superior to that

of Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Indus-Valley people were well-acquainted with the use both of
cotton and wool. The numerous specimens of pottery, seals, bracelets etc reveal that arts and crafts
flourished. The people lived a very comfortable life in well built houses and baths. The streets were
all well planned and drainsregularly drained out. It was essentially urban civilization. The
merchant class contributed to the general prosperity and trade contacts seem to have been established
with the Sumerian [Bahrain] and Mesopotamian [Iraq] civilization of those times. Sir John
Marshall the eminent Indologist came up with name of this civilization as Indus valley because it was
settled around river Indus
Major Sites/cities-

Harappa-

This is 1 discovered site of Indus valley by eminent Indologist Sir John Marshall in 1921 at the
st

bank on Ravi. The Indus civilization was originally called Harappan civilization after this site. A grain
house and proof of water transportation founded at this site

Mohenjodaro [Maut ka Tila]-

Mohenjodaro (Sind) is situated on the right bank of the Indus. This city was discovered by Mr.
Rakhal Das Bennerji in 1922. Mohenjodaro is thelargest of all the Indus cities and has a
population estimated to between 41,000 and 35,000. The Great Bath place of Mohenjodaro is the
most important public place measuring 39 feet (length) x 23 feet (breadth) x 8 feet (depth). Located at
the centre of the citadel it is remarkable for beautiful brick work. Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in
gypsum and mortar. Archeologist Wheeler discovered a monumental like temple and
administrative units.

Chanhudaro- [Mackay 1925]

Chanhudaro lies on the left bank of the Indus about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro. No citadel had
been discovered here so this is the only exceptional site in this case. A small pot was discovered at
Chanhudaro which was probably an inkpot. Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly
sturdy and well baked

Kalibanga-

Kalibanga (Rajasthan) was on the banks of the river Ghaggar which dried up centuries ago. It is
one of two Indus cities which have both proto-Harappan and Harappan cultural phases. In its protoHarappan phase the fields were ploughed. But in the Harappan phase they were not ploughed but dug
up. It is discovered by Amalanand Ghosh in 1951.
Traces of the remains of massive brick walls around both the citadel and the lower town have been
discovered here. Archaeologists discovered two platforms with fire altar suggesting the practice of cult of
sacrifice. Leg bone of elephantwas also found at Kalibanga

Lothal-

It was only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport
of the Indus people. Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC). The only other
Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmadabad. Lothal is at the head of the Gulf
of Cambay. Fire altars indicating the probable existence of a fire cult have been found. Evidence for the
use of horse comes from a doubtful terracotta figurine of a horse. Impressions of cloth are noticeable on
some of the sealing found here. This site was discovered by S.R. Rao in 1954.

Banawali-

Banawali (Haryana) was situated on the banks of the now extinct Saraswati River. It has evidence of
having both proto Harappan and Harappan cultural phases. It shares almost all the common features of
Indus cities such as town planning, grid system, drainage system and the like. Site discovered by R.S.
Bisht in 1973.

Surkotada-

Surkotada (Gujarat) is at the head of the Rann of Kutch. It is the only Indus site where the remains
of a horse have actually been found. It must have been another port city though no docking
facilities as at Lothal have been found here

Dholavira-

Dholavira (Gujarat) excavated is in the Kutch district. It is the latest Indus citydiscovered in India and
also one of the largest sites of the civilization. The excavation work was carried by R.S Bisht and his
team in 1990-91. It shares almost all the common features of Indus cities such as town planning, grid
pattern, drainage system and elaborates fortification. The unique feature of this site is its division in
three sections as compare to two parts in other sites. J.P. Joshi in 1967-68 had a pivotal
contribution in discovery of this site
Town Planning in Indus civilizationThe most significant characteristic feature of the Harappan Civilization was its urbanization. The
cities show evidence of an advanced sense of planning and organization. Each city was divided into the
citadel area where the essential institutions of civic and religious life were located and the residential
area where the urban population lived. In the citadel the most impressive buildings were the granaries
which were store -houses. The town was extremely well planned. The street ran straight and at right
angles to each other following the grid system. The rectangular town planning was unique to the
Harappan and was not known in Mesopotamia or Egypt. The streets were very wide and
thehouses built of burnt bricks lined both sides of the street. In Egypt and Mesopotamia dried or
baked bricks were used. The houses were of varying sizes which suggest class differences in Harappan
society. A well laid drainage system kept the cities clean
TradeTrade with neighboring civilizations like Mesopotamia and Sumerian was in vogue. There was
prevailed barter system of exchange but various kind of seals also used for same purpose. Lothal was
main port at that time. The Harappan cultivated wheat and barley the two main food crops. Peas and
dates were also grown. In addition sesame and mustard were grown and used for oil. However the
people cultivated rice as early as 1800 BC in Lothal. The Harappans were the earliest people to grow
cotton. Irrigation depended on the irregular flooding of the rivers of Punjab and Sind.
The various occupations in which people were engaged spanned a wide range.Spinning and
weaving of cotton and wool. Goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones and metal
workers made tools and implements in copper and bronze
** Copper was main metal used by people because iron was not known to them at that time
***Main types of seals are the square type with a carved animal and inscription and rectangular type
with inscription only
***Cow and Lion were not known. Ragi was also not known to the Indus people
ReligionClay figures of the Mother Goddess as the symbol of fertility have been found- these were worshipped by
the people. A seated figure of a male god carved on a small stone seal was also found. The seal
immediately brings to our mind the traditional image of Pasupati Mahadev. Certain trees seem to
have been treated as sacred such as pipal. They also held the bull sacred
Script and Languages-

Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish, varieties of the human
form etc. This script is not deciphered yet. The language of the Harappans is still unknown and
must remain so until the script is read
Decline of civilizationHistorians have different opinions regarding the causes of the decay and disappearance of the
Harappan culture. Historians are of the view that the decline of the Indus Civilization was not the result
of a single event; it was a slow decline and a result of combination of factors like natural disaster and
Aryan invasion etc
Iron Age [1000 BC- 100 BC]In this phase human being discovered iron and used it for making tools and for other known
purposes. On the basis of available radiocarbon dates it was suggested that iron working might
have begun in Malwa {M.P.} around 1100 BC. After that various communities became familiar
with wide use of iron
Vedic Period [1500 BC-600 BC]The Harappan civilization was followed by Vedic or Rig-Vedic culture which was completely opposite to
it. The Vedic culture was founded by the Aryans. They were immigrants and arrived in India
between 2000 and 1500 BC. The origin of the Aryans is still an unsettled affair. Historians have
following different views on the origin and migration of Aryans to India-

Central Asia Theory-

Aryans originally lived in Central Asia. This theory was propounded by Prof Max Muller a German
scholar of comparative languages. He stated that the ancestors of the Indians, Greeks, Persians,
Romans, Germans and the Celts must have lived together originally

Arctic Theory-

This theory was put forwarded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Tilak in his bookArctic Home in the
Vedas opined that the original home of the Aryans was a place of extreme cold. The Vedas refer to days
and nights lasting for 6 months which are found in Arctic region

Sapt-Sindhu Theory-

According to the eminent historians A C Das and K M Munshi the Aryans originally belonged to the
Sapt-Sindhu or Punjab. This point of view was put forward by A C Das in his book Rig Vedic India.
He says that all the plants, rivers, crops and animals mentioned in Rig-Veda and other ancient books
were found in ancient Punjab. The geographical conditions in Rig-Veda points out to this region.
But this theory is not convincing. If the Aryans had been indigenous inhabitants of the Sapt Sindhu
area there would have been no need for them to desert such a fertile area and go to other parts. Aryans
were unaware of animals such as elephant and lion which were found mainly in India .

This proves that Aryans were foreigners.

Tibetan Theory-

According to Swami Dayanand Saraswati the original home of the Aryans was Tibet. This view has
been expounded by them in the Satyartha Prakash. According to him Aryans worshipped the sun
and fire as it was extremely cold in Tibet. All the trees and animals mentioned in the Rig Veda were
found in Tibet.

South-East European Theory-

The theory generally accepted these days is that the original home of the Aryan was in south-east
Europe. According to MacDonnell the common trees like the oak, the birch and the willow and the
common animals like the horse and the cow with which the ancestors of the Aryans were familiar could
in those days be found only in southern Europe. This theory is also disputed by some western scholars

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India the greater part of northern and northwestern India was inhabited by a group of people known asDravidians. They later migrated to
southward direction of India
Some notable points-

There is no trace of totemism (clan associated with a particular animal or plant)

and animal worship

The first three Vedas Rig, Sam and Yajur Veda are collectively known as Trayi
There were as many as 33 gods. Pushan was considered as god ofShudras
No Sati and child marriage customs even widow remarriage was allowed

Continue..
Indian Freedom Struggle at a Quick Glance-

Foundation of INC in 1885 at Bombay by AO Hume as Safety Valve with 72 delegates

The period between 1885 to 1905 belongs to Moderates as they dominated its goals, objectives,
working and principles

1st Session was presided by WC Banerjee

3rd Session of 1887 was presided by 1st Muslim President i.e. Tayabji
Under the leadership of William Digby, the Congress opened a branch in England in1888 and
started publishing a magazine called India

1st time National Song was sung in the Calcutta Session (1896) of INC. i.e., Vande Mataram
On 19 July 1905 the Government of India formally proposed the partition of Bengal. According
to this proposal Chittagong, Rajshahi and Dacca were merged with Assam to form the new
province. Curzon announced the partition of Bengal on 16 October 1905

Muslim League was established in 1906 by Aga Khan

In 1907 Surat Session witnessed open clash between Moderates and Extremists, that lead split
of congress 4 next 10 years

Morley-Minto Reform came in 1909 which introduce separate representation for Muslim
Community

Partition of Bengal restored in 1911 and Capital of British Empire transferred to Delhi from
Calcutta

1st time National Anthem (Jana Gana Mana) was sung in Calcutta session (1911) of INC
Gandhi ji returned to India on 9th Jan 1915 from South Africa, which is celebrated as NRI day in
India these days

1st Joint Session of Congress and Muslim League held at Lucknow (1916) known as Lukhnow
Pact. Here Moderates and Extremists became united once again

The annual session of Congress in 1917 was presided by Annie Besant in form of 1 st Woman
President of INC

Rowlett Act came in 1919 along with Jaliawala Bagh Massacre

The word Satyagraha was used for the first time in Anti Rowlett agitation
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms also came in 1919 which introduce Diarchy at provinces
Simon Commission came to India in 1928. Clement Attlee was a member of Simon Commission
who subsequently became the British Prime Minister and later was to oversee the granting of
independence to India & Pakistan in 1947

Non-Cooperation movement started in 1920 under leadership of Gandhi ji

A group of Industrialist had started anti-non-cooperation association in
1920 Purushottama Das Thakur Das was prominent. Others were Jamnadas Dwarkadas and
Setalved

Chauri Chaura incident and Non-Cooperation was suspended by Gandhi

During Ahmadabad Session of INC (1921), C. R. Das was elected its President but Azamal Khan
presided over the session because C.R. Das was in prison

C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru organized Swaraj Party in 1922 due to failure of Non-Cooperation
Movement

During its Delhi session (1923) INC decided to establish All India Khadi Board
Only session presided over by Gandhi Belgaum (1924)
Sarojini Naidu became 1st Indian woman president of congress by presiding annual session of
1925

Complete Independence/Puran Swaraj was demand for the first time in Congress Session of
1929 at Lahore

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was the youngest president of INC

LAL, BAL, PAL & Aurobindo Ghosh were well known Extremists
Sir Saiyyid Ahmed Khan was founder of Aligarh National Movement. He brought out a paper
with the title of the Loyal Muhammadans of India. In 1875 he found the Muhammadan AngloOriental College at Aligarh, which later grew into the Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. William
Graham wrote in the biography of Sir Saiyyid Ahmad Khan. He also founded the Patriotic
Association with the assistance of Raja Shivprasad of Banaras. He brought out an Urdu Paper
with the title of Tahaib-al-Akhlaq

Deoband Movement was founded by Maulana Hussian Ahmad and Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad
was associated with it. It was represented by Mohammad Qasim Nanautavi (1832-1880) and
Rashid Ahamd Gangohi (1828-1916). Found the Dar-ul-Ulema madarsa at Deoband

Wahabi Movement was started by Shah Walliullah

Ahmadia movement by Mirza Gulam Ahmad
Ahrar movement by Mula Mohammad Ali in 1910
The Indian House had been founded by Shyamji Krishna Verma
In Bengal an organization by the name of Anushilan Samiti was founded. Birandra Kumar
Ghose and Bhupendra Nath Dutta [Younger Brother of Swami Vivekananda] had started the
newspaper Yugantar in 1906

Lala Hardayal (1884-1938) had played an important role in the Gadar Movement. He founded
Gadar Party along with Sohar Singh Bakhna in 1913 at San Francisco in North America and
brought out a Urdu and Gurumukhi weekly viz Gadar

It was Lokmanya Tilak who had set up a Home Rule League at Pune in April 1916. Both Annie
Besant and Tilak had agreed to conduct this movement in cooperation with each other

In 1887, Gandhi went to England for higher education and returned to India in 1892 after
becoming a Barrister

In 1893 he went to South Africa for a year spent twenty two years in that country
He returned to India on 9th January 1915 NRI Day
Gandhi recorded his initial thoughts in 1909 in Hind Swaraj
Gandhi began his experiments with Satyagraha Champaran in Bihar in 1917 Indigo
Planters. Committee of enquiry of which Mahatma Gandhi himself was made a member

In 1918 the mill workers of Ahmadabad got into dispute 35 Percent increases. He established
Ahmadabad Mill Workers Association. 1st time on fast

Gopal Krishna Gokhale as his political Guru (mentor) and he was very much impressed by work
of Leo Tolstoy

On 30th March 1919, He launched his first nationwide hartal against Rowlett Act which was
called Black Law [empowered arrest without reasons]

Jaliawala Bag massacre [13th April 1919] followed by Hunter Commission [Submit report in
1920 and declared General Dyer as the defender of the British Empire.

Rabindranath Tagore renounced knight hood titles as a mark of protest

Khilafat Movement was started just after the finishing of WW-I. Sultan of Turkey was regarded
as the Caliph or the religious head of the Muslims all over the worlds a movement to express
the Muslim support for the Caliph of Turkey against the allied powers, particularly Britain was
the main objective of Khilafat movement. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Dr. M.A. Ansari, Dr.
Saifuddin Kitchlew, Maulavi Abdulbari (Lukhnow), Hakin Ajmal Khan and the Ali brothers were
the prominent leaders of this movement. All India Khilafat Conference was held in 1919 and in
March 1920, a committee under the leadership of Maulana Shuakat Ali and Mohammad Ali was
also sent to England. British Government signed Treaty of Tibers on 10 August 1920 Turkey
was partitioned Sultan was made a prisoner and sent to Constantinople. On 1, August 1920, in
a communication to the governor General, Mahatma Gandhi announced his plan to begin noncooperation with the Government as a sequel to the Rowlett Act, Jaliawala Bagh massacre and
the Khilafat movement. Gandhis plan was approved by the Indian national congress in a special
session at Calcutta in December 1920

Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant and Bipin Chandra Pal were not in agreement with the
congress declaration of non-cooperation and, thus they left the Congress. Later in 1922, Khilafat
meeting in Malabar incited so much of communal feelings among the Muslims peasants (The
Moplah) that it took an anti-Hindu turn in July 1921 Moplah rebellion followed by Chauri
Chaura incident in 1922. Gandhi announced the suspension of the movement. C. R. Das and
Motilal Nehru left congress to form Swaraj Party.

Failure of Non-Cooperation Movement yield Revolutionary movement by Youngsters

On 9, August 1925 when the money sent by the government from Saharanpur to Lucknow by
train was looted at the Kakori railway station. In December 1927, on the charges of conspiracy,
*Ram Prasad Bismil, Rajendra Lahiri, Roshan singh and **Ashfaqulla Kahn were hanged

*Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil occupies a special place. He published book with the title How did
America get Freedom and a pamphlet with the heading A Message for the countrymen

**Ashfaqulla Khan was the first Muslim revolutionary of India to be hanged for the sake of the
countrys freedom

Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, while delivering a speech on the floor of the British
Parliament challenged the Indians to produce a Constitution

Congress took the challenge and Report published by this Committee in July 1928 came to be
known as the Nehru Report

Muslim League Central Sikh League, Sardar Kharak Singh rejected Nehru Report and Jinnah,
thereafter convened an All Indian conference of the Muslims where he drew up a list of fourteen
point demand

Gandhi reached the coast of Dandi on 5 April 1930 after marching a distance of 200 miles with
78 handpicked followers and on 6 April formally launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by
breaking the salt laws known as Dandi March

Many Muslims kept themselves aloof from this movement northwest Frontier Province an
organization of Khudai Khidmatgar (Servants of God) was formed under the leadership of Khan
Abdul Ghaffar Khan. Most of the volunteers donned red clothes, because of which they came to

be known as the Red Shirts. The Khudai Khidmatgar accepted the leadership of Mahatma
Gandhi and participated in the movement in full measures

On 8 March 1931 the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. As per this pact Gandhi agreed to suspend
the Civil Disobedience Movement and participate in the Second Round Table conference but
most of the leaders did not like this pact

On 16 August 1932, British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald made an announcement, which
came to be as the Communal Award

Gandhi protested against the Award and went on a fast unto death in the Yerawada jail on 20
September 1932

Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Ghan Shyam Das Birla, C. Rajagopalachari and
Dr. Ambedkar gathered at Pune and hammered out an agreement with the consent of Gandhi
and Dr. Ambedkar. This agreement came to be called as the Poona Pact British Government
also approved of it

After 3rd round of Round conference in March 1933, the British Government issued a White
Paper, which became the basis for the enactment of the Government of India Act, 1935