Chapter 1 the Concept of Strategy

1. The successful careers of both Queen Elizabeth II and Lady Gaga may be
attributed to the fact that both:
Correct Answer: have consistency of direction based on a clear goals
2. For both individuals and businesses, successful strategies are characterized by:
Correct Answer: clear goals, understanding the competitive environment,
resource appraisal & implementation
3. The main problem of SWOT as a framework for strategy analysis is that:
Correct Answer: distinguishing opportunities from threats and strengths from
weaknesses is often difficult
4. Strategic fit refers to:
Correct Answer: the consistency of a firms strategy with its external and internal
environments
5. Ryanairs strategic position is as Europes lowest-cost airline may be attributed
to:
Correct Answer: an integrated, consistent set of activities to maximize productivity
& minimize operating costs
6. The principal similarity between business and military strategy is that:
Correct Answer: they share many common concepts and principles
7. The main reason for the transition from corporate planning to strategic
management during the latter half of the 1970s was:
Correct Answer: a more turbulent business environment that became increasingly
difficult to predict
8. The primary distinction between corporate strategy and business strategy is:
Correct Answer: CS is concerned with where the firm competes; BS with how it
competes
9. In all organizations, strategy making involves a combination of top-down strategy
design and decentralized emergence. The balance between the two depends
mainly upon:
Correct Answer: how turbulent and unpredictable is the external environment of the
organization
10. The applicability of the tools and techniques of strategy analysis to not-for-profit
organizations is:

Correct Answer: greater for organizations that charge for services & face
competition than monopolists who do not

Chapter 2 Goals, Value and Performance

1. Every business enterprise has a distinct purpose, however, common to all
businesses is the goal of:
Correct Answer: creating value
2. A major impediment to the stakeholder view of the firm is:
Correct Answer: the practical problem of taking account of multiple goals in
strategic decision making
3. The primary justification for the assumption that primary goal of strategy is to
maximize profits over the long term is:
Correct Answer: in todays intensely competitive markets, firms must focus on profit
maximization in order to survive
4. The principal difference between accounting profit and economic profit is:
Correct Answer: EP is pure surplus; AP includes the normal return to the providers of
equity capital
5. To diagnose the sources of a firms poor financial performance, it is useful to:
Correct Answer: disaggregate overall return on capital into its component items
6. In appraising a firms profit performance:
Correct Answer: return on invested capital is a better indicator than return on sales
7. The Balanced Scorecard is a technique of performance management that
establishes and monitors four dimensions of performance:
Correct Answer: financial, customer, internal, and learning/innovation performance
8. The main lesson to be drawn from Boeings deteriorating performance during the
late 1990s when top management emphasized the pursuit of profit and shareholder
value is:
Correct Answer: management should focus upon the factors that drive profitability
and shareholder value
9. Michael Porter and Mark Kramers notion of shared value reconceptualises CSR
(corporate social responsibility) by emphasizing:
Correct Answer: CSR as a value creating activity

10. In formulating strategies under uncertainty, real option analysis is a valuable

strategic tool because:
Correct Answer: it allows firms to create value from flexibility and a wider range of
growth opportunities

Chapter 3 Industry Analysis: The Fundamentals

1. Value is created when:
Correct Answer: the price that the customer is willing to pay for a product exceeds
the firms cost of supplying it
2. Niche markets (small markets for specialized goods and services such as
chewing tobacco, sausage skins, and gambling machines) tend to be profitable
because:
Correct Answer: they can often be dominated by a single firm or by a very small
number of firms
3. The pharmaceutical industry is highly profitable because:
Correct Answer: patents on drugs limit new entry and ensure that each supplier of a
patented drug is a monopolist
4. Supplying personal computers (PCs) has been a low profitability business for most
of the major suppliers (HP, Lenovo, Acer, Dell) for many years. The low profitability
of the PC industry is the result of:
Correct Answer: strong supplier power, lack of product differentiation, and growing
substitute competition
5. In Household and Personal Products (cleaning products, toiletries, cosmetics, etc.)
the major barriers to entry are:
Correct Answer: product differentiation and limited access to channels of
distribution
6. Industries where high levels of industry rivalry cause fierce price competition and
lack of profits are those where:
Correct Answer: there is excess capacity, commodity products, high fixed costs, and
exit barriers
7. Industries supplying differentiated products tend to earn higher profits than
industries supplying commodity products because:

Correct Answer: competition in commodity markets is mainly price competition

which is destructive to profit margins
8. In the airline business, the main factors that determine the relative success of an
airline (key success factors) are
Correct Answer: the airlines load factor, revenue per passenger mile flown, and the
costs per passenger mile flown

Chapter 4: Further Topics in Industry and Competitive

Analysis
1. Empirical research shows that proportion of inter-firm differences in profitability
that industry factors explain is:
Correct Answer: less than 25%
2. Video game consoles and video games are complementary products: the
availability of one increases the value of the other. How this value is distributed
between the suppliers of video game consoles and the suppliers of video games
depends upon:
Correct Answer: relative bargaining power
3. While the Porter five forces framework views industry structure as determining
competitive behavior, Joseph Schumpeter and the Austrian School view:
Correct Answer: competition as determining industry structure
4. The key implication of hypercompetition in business is that:
Correct Answer: competitive advantage is temporary
5. The value of game theory to the field of management is in:
Correct Answer: frame strategic decisions, predict outcomes of competitive
situations, ID optimal strategic choices
6. In a market where Firm A and Firm B are leading suppliers, if Firm A initiates a
price cut, the likelihood that Firm B responds with an identical price cut will be
greater:
Correct Answer: if Firm Bs medium term goal is to maximize market share

7. Competitive intelligence, the systematic collection and analysis of information

about rival firms, is:
Correct Answer: a useful activity that forms an element of firms environmental
scanning and strategic analysis
8. The main use of industry segmentation analysis is:
Correct Answer: identify the most attractive segments for a firm to locate within
9. A firm will choose to compete across multiple segments rather than specialize in
a single segment if:
Correct Answer: the same resources and capabilities can be shared across different
segments
10. The main usefulness of strategic group analysis is in understanding:
Correct Answer: the positioning of different firms and patterns of competition within
an industry

Chapter 5: Analyzing Resources and Capabilities

1. Strategy needs to take account of both the requirements of the firms external
environment and the firms own resources and capabilities. Resources and
capabilities rather than requirements of the external environment offer a stronger
basis for strategy formulation when:
Correct Answer: the external environment is in a state of flux
2. The difficulties faced by Eastman Kodak and Olivetti in adapting to radical
technological change within their markets point to:
Correct Answer: the difficulties established firms experience in building the new
technological capabilities
3. There are two primary sources of profit (or economic rent):
Correct Answer: market power and superior resources
4. To identify a firms resources and capabilities, it is useful:
Correct Answer: undertake an analysis both of key success factors and the value
chain
5. A major reason for the high valuation ratios (ratio of stock market value to
balance sheet net asset value) for some companies is:

Correct Answer: the undervaluation of intangible resources on companies balance

sheets
6. Firms with outstanding capabilities are typically those which:
Correct Answer: are able to integrate their resources most effectively
7. Enterprise Resource Planning software (such as that supplied by SAP) is unlikely,
on its own, to be source of competitive advantage because:
Correct Answer: it is available to any firm that wishes to purchase it; hence, it is not
scarce
8. A well established brand can be a source of sustainable competitive advantage
because:
Correct Answer: brands tend to lose value when transferred to another firm & new
brands are slow & costly to build
9. It is better for an investment bank to have its trading capabilities based upon
proprietary trading systems than upon the skills of a few star traders because:
Correct Answer: they are in a position to negotiate pay which appropriate the major
part of the profit they create
10. When a company has weaknesses relative to competitors among strategically
important resources and capabilities, the appropriate strategic response is to:
Correct Answer: outsource those activities while positioning the business to reduce
remaining weaknesses

Chapter 6: Organization Structure and Management

Systems
1. In most large companies strategic planning is:
Correct Answer: a process that combines top-down initiatives and directives and
bottom-up proposals
2. the most valuable contribution of strategic planning processes to the success of
companies:
Correct Answer: creating a dialogue for sharing knowledge and ideas, and building
consensus
3. The main changes in strategic planning systems over recent decades are:
Correct Answer: shorter time horizons, less emphasis on detailed planning & more
emphasis on overall direction
4. The primary mechanisms through which companies translate strategic plans into
action are:

Correct Answer: operating plans and capital expenditure budgets

5. The main factors facilitating the emergence of large industrial enterprises
towards the end of the 19th century were:
Correct Answer: the introduction of limited liability, the railroad, and the telegraph
6. The Tata Group and the Virgin Group are examples of:
Correct Answer: holding companies
7. The agency problem refers to the:
Correct Answer: misalignment of goals between a principal and his/her agent
8. The major influence on the organizational culture of most companies is the:
Correct Answer: the personality and beliefs of the founder
9. In doubles tennis, the main mechanism through which the players coordinate
their actions is:
Correct Answer: mutual adjustment
10. Organic organizational forms are preferable to mechanistic organizational forms:
Correct Answer: for firms in dynamic, uncertain environments

Chapter 7 the Sources and Dimensions of Competitive

Advantage
1. Competitive advantage can be defined as a firm's:
Correct Answer: potential to earn a rate of profit that is persistently higher than its
rivals
2. A firms competitive advantage is not necessarily revealed in higher profitability,
it may be reflected in:
Correct Answer: expanding market share and/or increasing employee bonuses
3. When an industry is subject to externally generated changes, the firms which are
most likely to establish a competitive advantage are those:
Correct Answer: that respond quickly to change and have the R&Cs that are aligned
to the emerging success factors
4. An isolating mechanism is a barrier that prevents the erosion of a firms
competitive advantage. Which of the following is not an isolating mechanism:
Correct Answer: competitive advantage based upon exploiting pricing anomalies
5. Advertising costs as a percentage of sales revenue for soft drink brands with
large market shares (such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola) are lower than for brands
with small market shares (Dr Pepper, Schweppes, Fresca). This is because:
Correct Answer: advertising campaigns are subject to a large minimum budgets
(indivisibilities)
6. In retailing, the cost advantages of large retail chains (such as Wal-Mart in the US,
Tesco in Britain, Metro in Germany, and Carrefour in France) is primarily the result
of:
Correct Answer: lower costs of bought-in products as a result of superior bargaining
power
7. Compared with simple products like flour or toilet paper, complex products such
as cars or hotels:
Correct Answer: greater potential for differentiation
8. In supplying lifestyle products which are designed to meet consumers social
and psychological needs, the key to differentiation advantage is:
Correct Answer: product integrity
9. Banks spend more money on their head office buildings than most other large
corporations because:

Correct Answer: they offer experience goods, hence they need to signal wealth
and stability
10. Firms that pursue cost advantage will different structures and systems than
those pursuing differentiation advantages. Among the following features, which is
not typically found among firms pursuing cost advantage:
Correct Answer: low levels of job specialization

Chapter 8: Industry Evolution and Strategic Change

1. The main forces driving industry evolution are:
Correct Answer: technology and demand
2. Which of the following developments is not a typical feature of the transition from
the introductory to the growth phase of the industry life cycle:
Correct Answer: the shift of production from mature to emerging countries
3. There are two primary sources of profit (or economic rent):
Correct Answer: network effects
4. Shakeout --a period when many firms exit from an industry following a period of
intense competition-characterizes an industrys transition from:
Correct Answer: from growth to maturity
5. The field of organizational ecology studies:
Correct Answer: the evolution of the population of firms in an industry
6. Which of the following is not a source of organizational inertia?
Correct Answer: The primacy of shareholder value maximization as a corporate goal
7. When an industry is subject to technological change, the ability of new entrants
to displace incumbent firms will be increased by the following factors:
Correct Answer: the extent to which the technological change is a source of
architectural innovation rather than component innovation
8. The steam ship was invented in 1781, yet sailing ships remained dominant for
ocean transport for another 100 years. The main reason was that:
Correct Answer: sailing ships were faster and cheaper over most of the period
9. When a company organizes its research, new business development, and product
development activities into separate organizational units firm its operational and
administrative activities, this is an example of:

Correct Answer: structural ambidexterity

10. The main reason why a firms distinctive capabilities reflect the conditions that
the firm faced during the early years of its development is because:
Correct Answer: capabilities that develop early become embedded in a firms
organizational culture

Chapter 9:
1. The basic difference between invention and innovation is:
Correct Answer: invention is the creation of new product or process; innovation is
its commercialization
2. The lags between the creation of new knowledge, invention, innovation, and
diffusion are:
Correct Answer: long but getting shorter
3. Chester Carlson (the inventor of xerography, the dominant plain-paper copying
technology of 1970-90) received only a tiny share of the value which his invention
generated. This was because:
Correct Answer: commercializing the invention required substantial complementary
resources
4. For a start-up company with an innovatory software product, it would chose to
commercialize its innovation internally rather than license or joint-venture, if:
Correct Answer: its patent position is weak and it believes that commercialization
requires limited investment
5. In exploiting a new product market or a new technology, established companies
tend to be followers rather than early movers because:
Correct Answer: their stronger complementary resources mean that they have
luxury of waiting
6. Which of the following strategies is not advisable for a firm wishing to minimize
the risks from innovation?
Correct Answer: Avoid outsourcingkeep most activities in-house
7. In the market for smartphones, network externalities for the leading platforms
(Android, Apple iPhone, and Blackberry) are primarily the result of:
Correct Answer: the availability of complementary products
8. The key lesson from the standards war between Sonys Blu-Ray and Toshibas HDDVD is:

Correct Answer: assembling and retaining allies is more important than first-mover
advantage
9. Cross-functional product development teams, product champions, and incubators
are devices used by large established companies:
Correct Answer: to reconcile entrepreneurial initiative with the resources and
capability advantages of the large firm

Chapter 10:
1. Warren Buffets distinction between a franchise and a business refers to:
Correct Answer: the advantages that result from a distinctive differentiation
advantage
2. In mature industries, the most important sources of cost advantage are:
Correct Answer: low-cost inputs, low overheads, and economies of scale
3. In a mature industry, the trend to commoditization makes differentiation a
challenge. The major source of differentiation in mature industries is:
Correct Answer: image differentiation and providing complementary services
4. Competition in mature, low-technology industries such as tires, brassieres, and
fishing rods shows that:
Correct Answer: there is a steady stream of technological innovations
5. Which of the following tends not a major source of strategic innovation in mature
industries?
Correct Answer: Deploying state-of-the-art technology to upgrade products
6. To realize the potential for strategic innovation, managers in mature sectors need
to escape from industry recipes. J-C Spender concept of an industry recipe
refers to:
Correct Answer: the mental frameworks & systems of belief that that are common to
these senior managers
7. The management systems of leading firms in mature industries such as UPS, WalMart, Nucor, and ExxonMobil are characterized by:
Correct Answer: financial controls & operating practices which are tightly integrated
with high performance targets

8. The single most important factor that determines the profitability of a declining
industry is:
Correct Answer: the adjustment of capacity to demand
9. Conditions conducive to adopting a leadership strategy in a declining industry
are:
Correct Answer: Both (a) & (c)

Chapter 11:
1. The opening quotation concerning Bath Fitter illustrates the following benefits of
vertical integration:
Correct Answer: avoiding the transactions costs involved monitoring and enforcing
contracts with external suppliers
2. The corporate scope of Samsung Electronics may be described as follows:
Correct Answer: a broad product, geographical and vertical scope
3. The growth in the size and scope of business enterprises for most of the 19th and
20th centuries can be attributed to a drop in administrative costs of firms relative to
the transaction costs of market. This resulted from:
Correct Answer: the impact of various techniques in increasing the efficiency and
scope of business management
4. Since 1990, refocusing and outsourcing has caused large industrial corporations
to narrow their product and vertical scope. The main reasons for this trend are:
Correct Answer: the impact of increasing competition from companies based in
merging market countries
5. The reason that the producers of wood pulp are often forward integrated into the
production of paper is:
Correct Answer: to be able to respond quicker to demand fluctuations because of
superior coordination
6. The reason that most food processing firms do not backward integrate into
farming is that:

Correct Answer: Both (a) and (b)

7. Starbucks is owns and operates most of its retail outlets; McDonalds franchises
most of its retail outlets. An advantage of franchising over vertical integration is:
Correct Answer: franchising subjects the operators of retail outlets being subject to
high-powered incentives
8. Vendor partnerships based on relational contacts-such as the relationships
between Toyota and its major component suppliers-are more successful than either
pure market contracts or vertical integration because:
Correct Answer: they combine the coordination benefits of vertical integration with
incentive and flexibility benefits
9. The main lesson to be drawn from the delays to the launch of Boeings 787
Dreamliner is that, when developing complex products that embody diverse new
technologies:
Correct Answer: the principal firm must possess well-developed integration
capabilities

Chapter 12:
1. The shift in the production of soccer balls from Pakistan to China is primarily the
result of:
Correct Answer: the process technology that has reduced the labor intensity of
manufacture
2. Firms internationalize through two mechanisms:
Correct Answer: trade and direct investment
3. According to Porters national diamond analysis, the competitive advantage of
Swiss firms in watches, German firms in luxury cars, and Japanese firms in cameras
is a result of:
Correct Answer: the characteristics of local demand in each of these countries
4. Toyota operates automobile assembly plants in all five continents of the worlds.
This reflects:
Correct Answer: Toyotas ability to transfer its production capabilities worldwide
5. The value chain for a product will tend to be dispersed across different countries
when:
Correct Answer: different stages of the value chain require different types of
resources and capabilities

6. A start-up company based in Canada and led by an academic microbiologist has

patented genetically-modified, drought-resistant maize particularly suitable to arid
regions of Africa. The firm has been unable to attract significant venture capital
investment. How should the firm exploit commercial opportunities for its product in
Africa?
Correct Answer: It should license its patent to a multinational company and continue
research on other projects
7. Many retailers that have been outstandingly successful in their home markets
have experienced much poorer performance when they have entered overseas
markets. These include: Tesco, Marks& Spencer, Laura Ashley, and Body Shop in the
UK); Best Buy, Sears, Macys and Wal-Mart in the US. This reflects:
Correct Answer: the lack of efficiency benefits from international scope with the
need for national differentiation
8. A common approach to reconciling the benefits of global scale with the need for
national differentiation is to:
Correct Answer: creating standard product platforms, then adapting product
features, complementary services, etc.
9. The centralized hub strategy that Japanese multinationals pursued during the
1970s and 1980s is likely to be most successful in industries with the following
characteristics:
Correct Answer: large economies of scale and limited need for national
differentiation
10. The Dutch-based electrical and consumer electronics multinational, Philips, has
transferred the headquarters for several of its global business away from the
Netherlands. In terms of Bartlett and Ghoshals typology of multinational strategies,
this represents a transition from:
Correct Answer: a decentralized federation to a transnational

Chapter 13:
1. The emergence of conglomerates-widely diversified companies-during the
1960s and 1970s, was a result of:
Correct Answer: the belief that the tools of strategic & financial management can be
applied to any type of business
2. Diversification whose sole impact is to reduce the variability of profits does not
create value for shareholders because:
Correct Answer: if risk can be spread by diversifying portfolios, this adds no
additional value in risk spreading
3. In general, the benefits that firms realize from diversifying into a more attractive
industry tend to be small because:

Correct Answer: the benefits from being in a more attractive industry tend to be
outweighed by the costs of entry
4. When diversification combines two businesses in different industrial sectors, the
key determinant of whether the diversification creates value is whether the
diversification:
Correct Answer: enhances the competitive advantage of either or both of the two
businesses
5. Which of the following is not an example of an economy of scope from
diversification?
Correct Answer: Royal Dutch Shell engaging in forest development to offset some of
the carbon dioxide it produces
6. The creation of shared service organizations is an example of diversified firms
creating value by:
Correct Answer: exploiting economies of scope in business services
7. Despite the heterogeneity of the goods and services supplied by General Electric
(e.g. locomotives and consumer credit), we can consider GEs diversification to be
into strategically related industries because:
Correct Answer: it applies similar general management capabilities across all its
businesses
8. What does the expression conglomerate discount mean?
Correct Answer: The stock market tends to value diversified companies at less than
their break-up value

9. The failure of empirical research to find unambiguous evidence that related

diversification outperforms unrelated evidence points to:
Correct Answer: All of these

Chapter 14:
1. The main purpose of a portfolio planning matrix is to:
Correct Answer: represent the different businesses in terms of key strategic
variables for profit potential
2. Most portfolio planning matrices are based upon two dimensions:
Correct Answer: competitive advantage and market attractiveness

3. The basic purpose of the Ashridge portfolio display is to:

Correct Answer: assess the potential for a corporate parent to add value to its
individual businesses
4. Strategic Milestones, the Balanced Scorecard, and Strategy Maps are all devices
which aim to:
Correct Answer: improve the effectiveness of strategy execution
5. The choice between strategic planning and financial control as a corporate
management style for a particular company depends upon:
Correct Answer: whether the goals of the company are growth or profitability
6. A number of large corporations have separated their corporate headquarters into
a corporate management unit and a shared services organization. The anticipated
benefit of this separation is to:
Correct Answer: encourage the units supplying services to be more responsive to
the needs of the businesses
7. Although sharing resources among the different businesses within the
multibusiness corporation can offers substantial cost economies, these savings are
often offset by:
Correct Answer: the costs of coordinating such resource sharing

8. The biggest downside of legislation to improve corporate governance by imposing

more stringent reporting requirements on public companies and increasing the
penalties that individual directors face for negligence and misconduct is:
Correct Answer: preoccupation with compliance means that boards of directors offer
less strategy guidance

Chapter 15:
1. Most of the biggest mergers and acquisitions since 2000 have been horizontal-i.e.
between companies in the same industry. This reflects the fact that:

Correct Answer: horizontal mergers and acquisitions offer greater potential for cost
reduction than any other type
2. Walt Disney Companys acquisition of Pixar was motivated primarily by the:
Correct Answer: desire to acquire Pixars capabilities in computer animation
3. The wave of mergers and acquisitions in the beer industry that have created
giants such as Anheuser Busch Inbev, SAB Miller and Heineken have been
motivated primarily by the desire to:
Correct Answer: extend geographical scope
4. The continuing popularity of mergers and acquisitions among companies despite
the lack of empirical evidence of their benefits suggests:
Correct Answer: Both of these answers
5. An acquiring company often pays an excessive price to acquire a target company
because:
Correct Answer: All of these
6. The main reason that empirical research fails to show that horizontal mergers and
acquisitions are more profitable than other types of mergers and acquisitions is
that:
Correct Answer: the mergers and acquisitions with the greatest potential returns
also involve the greatest risks
7. Which of the following was not a contributory factor to the success of Disneys
acquisition of Pixar?
Correct Answer: Disneys rapid integration of Pixar within its own animated
productions unit
8. The main reason that a strategic alliance are often an attractive alternative to a
merger or acquisition is that alliances:
Correct Answer: permit firms to access one anothers R&Cs without the costs and
risks of a merger or acquisition

9. What distinguished a joint venture from other types of strategic alliance is that in
a joint venture?
Correct Answer: The partners create a new company which they jointly own

Chapter 16:
1. Nassim Taleb uses the term black swan to refer to an event that is rare,
unpredicted, and has a major impact. If black swan events are major sources of
change and uncertainty in the world, the key implication that Taleb draws is:
Correct Answer: the need for individuals and organizations to develop robustness to
unpredictable change
2. The first 13 years of the 21st century have been characterized by unprecedented
turbulence in the global economy, politics, and society. Two reasons for thinking that
this turbulence may continue into the future are:
Correct Answer: a decline in US global influence, increased global
interconnectedness, disturbances are amplified
3. Digital technologies are increasing the intensity of completion in the markets for
electronic hardware because they are causing:
Correct Answer: the markets for once-separate products to converge
4. A major implication of the corporate scandals, the financial crisis, and concerns
over top management remuneration for the need for firm strategy to pay greater
attention to:
Correct Answer: sustaining social legitimacy
5. The most effective remedy for the problems caused by top managements pursuit
of shareholder value is likely to be:
Correct Answer: management focusing upon the drivers of long run profitability
6. If competition, market turbulence, and accelerating technological change are
increasing the pace at which firms competitive advantage is eroded, to sustain
competitive advantage companies need to:
Correct Answer: create multiple sources of competitive advantage
7. During turbulent times, real options are increasingly important sources of value.
The following are strategic measures can create option value for a firm:
Correct Answer: initiated multiple strategic alliances
8. Replacing mass manufacturing by lean manufacturing:
Correct Answer: can reduce operational performance if HRM is not adapted to the
new manufacturing processes
9. Complex biological and social systems demonstrate the capacity for selforganization. Self-organizing systems require:
Correct Answer: indentity, information, and relationships

10. As organizations and their environments become more complex and less
predictable, the kind of leadership that fosters effective organizational adaptation is
increasingly characterized by:
Correct Answer: management of identity, meaning, and the emotional climate of the
organization