Action Research 1 - TESL

(TSL3133)
Introduction to Educational Research
Dr Azleena Mohamad

Signpost

An overview of the scientific method and

educational research
The classification of types of research by
purpose
The classification of types of research by
method
Examples of types of research

Ways of Knowing

Five ways we can know something

Personal experience
Tradition
Experts and authorities
Logic

Inductive
Deductive

The scientific method

Ways of Knowing

Personal experience

Relying on ones knowledge of prior

experiences
Limitations

How one is affected by an event depends on

who one is
One frequently needs to know something that
cannot by learned through experience

Ways of Knowing

Tradition

Doing things as they have always been done

Limitations

Traditions are often based on an idealized past

Traditions can be distant from current realities and the
complexities associated with them

Experts or authorities

Relying on the expertise or authority of others

Limitations

Experts can be wrong

Experts can disagree among themselves, as in a second
opinion

Ways of Knowing

Inductive reasoning

Reasoning from the specific to the general

Limitations

In order to be certain of a conclusion one must

observe all examples
All examples can be observed only in very
limited situations where there are few members
of the group

Ways of Knowing

Deductive reasoning

Reasoning from the general to the specific

Limitations

You must begin with true premises in order to

arrive at true conclusions
Deductive reasoning only organizes what is
already known

The Scientific Method

The goal of the scientific method is to

explain, predict, and/or control phenomena
This involves the acquisition of knowledge
and the development and testing of theory
The use of the scientific method is more
efficient and reliable than any other source of
knowledge

The Scientific Method

Five steps in the scientific method

Recognition and definition of the problem
Formulation of hypotheses
Collection of data
Analysis of data
Stating conclusions
(Kerlinger, 1972; Leedy & Ormrod, 2001)

The Scientific Method

Limitations of the scientific method

Inability to answer value-based questions

involving should
Inability to capture the full richness and
complexities of the participants
Limitations of our measurement
instruments
Ethical and legal responsibilities

What is Research?

Creative work undertaken systematically

to increase the stock of knowledge (of
humanity, culture and society), and the
use of this knowledge to devise new
applications (OECD)

What is research?

activity classified as research is characterised

by originality
investigation is a primary aim
results are sufficiently general for humanity's
stock of knowledge (theoretical and/or
practical) to be recognisably increased
includes empirical and non-empirical work

Educational Research
Pair work
Why read educational research?
Why do educational research?
Prepare to share 2 or more reasons

Why read educational research?

Notions of evidence-based practice

Stay abreast of current and emerging in the field
of education (Bull, 2014)
Add to our knowledge (Creswell, 2014)
Improves practice (Creswell, 2014)
Informs policy debates (Creswell, 2014)

Why do educational research?

Add to the stock of knowledge in the discipline

(BERA, 2013)
Vital contribution to practice and policy in
education and to wider society (BERA, 2013)
Need for continued research (Boykin, 1972)
Research for the future (Boykin, 1972)

Educational Research

The application of the scientific method

to study educational problems
The goal is to explain, predict, and/or
control educational phenomena

Educational Research

Steps for conducting educational research

(Creswell, 2014)

Identifying a research problem

Reviewing the literature
Specifying a purpose for research
Collecting data
Analysing and interpreting the data
Reporting and evaluating research

Parallels the steps in the scientific method

Educational Research

Difficulties conducting educational research

Involves human beings and the complexities

associated with them
Difficulties generalizing from specific studies
Problems when imposing sufficient controls to
conduct research in educational settings
Complications when observing in educational
settings
Indirect measurement of the variables being
studied

Ethics of educational research

informed consent
gaining access to and acceptance in the research
setting
the nature of ethics in social research generally
sources of tension in the ethical debate, including
non-malecence, benecence and human dignity,
absolutist and relativist ethics
problems and dilemmas confronting the researcher,
including matters of privacy, anonymity,
condentiality, betrayal and deception

Ethics of educational research

ethical problems endemic in particular research

methods
ethics and evaluative research
regulatory ethical frameworks, guidelines and codes
of practice for research
personal codes of practice
sponsored research
responsibilities to the research community.

Classifying Research

Two helpful ways to view research

Purpose

The degree of direct applicability of research to

educational practices and settings

Method

The overall strategies followed to collect and

analyze data

The Purposes of Research

Five categories

Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Research and development (R & D)
Action

The Purposes of Research

Basic research

Collection and analysis of data to develop

or enhance theory
Examples related to learning theory

Piaget
Constructivism
Mastery learning
Gardners multiple intelligences

The Purposes of Research

Applied research

Collection and analysis of data to examine the

usefulness of theory in solving practical
educational problems
Examples

Developing a seventh grade social studies curriculum

around a problem-solving approach to learning
Examining the effectiveness of a computer-based algebra
program developed around a mastery learning approach
Accommodating varied learning styles when teaching
lessons in modern literature

The Purposes of Research

The interaction of basic and applied

research

Basic research provides the theory that

produces the concepts for solving
educational problems
Applied research provides the data to help
support, guide, and revise the
development theory

The Purposes of Research

Evaluation research

The collection and analysis of data to make

decisions related to the merit or worth of a
specific program

Merit relates to a program accomplishing what

it was supposed to accomplish
Worth relates to the value attached to a
program by those using it

The Purposes of Research

Evaluation research

Types of evaluation

Formative evaluation is designed to inform and

improve a program while it is being developed
or implemented
Summative evaluation is designed to make
decisions regarding the overall quality of the
program being evaluated

The Purposes of Research

Evaluation research

Examples

The computerized algebra program being used

in Williams Middle School has been installed
properly, is being used properly, and student
achievement is increasing as a result of its use
The computerized algebra program being used
in Williams Middle School is perceived to be an
efficient and effective expenditure of district
funds

The Purposes of Research

Research and development

The development of effective products for

use in schools
Examples

The development of the software to create a

computerized algebra program that
incorporates an individualized mastery learning
approach to teaching basic algebraic concepts
The development of a Smart Board to enhance
a teachers use of technology in the classroom

The Purposes of Research

Action research

The collection and analysis of data to provide a

solution to the practical, valued problems of
educators within their own school or organization
Examples

How can our college move to a performance based

model for undergraduate teacher preparation programs?
How can disciplinary policies be enforced consistently in
our school?

Research Approaches

Two general categories of approaches

currently being used in educational
research

Quantitative (The positivist approach)

Qualitative (The interpretative approach)

Positivist Approach
(Cohen, Manion, Morrison 2007)

Strives for :
objectivity,
measurability,
predictability,
controllability,
patterning,
the construction of laws and rules of behaviour, and
the ascription of casuality
Observed phenomena is important

Interpretative Approach
(Cohen, Manion, Morrison 2007)

Strive to understand and interpret the

world in terms of its actors
Meanings and interpretations are
paramount

Flow of the Research Process

(Quantitative & Qualitative)

Quantitative Approach

General purpose

Collect and analyze data to explain, predict, or

control phenomena of interest

Describe current conditions

Investigate relationships
Study causes and effects

Assumptions of the researcher

We live in a stable, uniform, and coherent world

We can measure, understand, and generalize
about our world
Generally regarded as a positivistic perspective

Quantitative Approach

Characteristics

Numerical data
Use of formally stated hypotheses and procedures
Use of controls to minimize the effects of factors
that could interfere with the outcome of the
research
Large numbers of participating subjects
An objective, detached researcher
Use of pencil and paper tests, questionnaires, etc.

Quantitative Approach

Four basic designs

Experimental
Quasi-experimental
Correlational
Survey

Quantitative Designs

Experimental

Purpose to establish cause and effect

relationships between variables
Examples

What is the effect of teaching with (1) a co-operative

groups strategy or (2) a traditional lecture approach on
students achievement?
What is the effect of teaching with manipulatives vs. a
traditional algorithm approach on students test scores?

The important characteristics are that the

researcher manipulates the independent variable
and controls extraneous variables

Quantitative Designs

Quasi-experimental

Similar to the experimental design, but lacks the key

ingredient, random assignment
Easily and more frequently implemented
Extensively used in the social sciences
A useful method for measuring social variables
Two classic quasi-experimental designs
The Nonequivalent Groups Design
The Regression-Discontinuity Design

Strengths of Quasi-Experimental Design

Useful in generating results for general trends in social

sciences
Difficult pre-selection and randomization of groups
Easily integrated with individual case studies
Generated results can reinforce the findings in a case
study
Allow statistical analysis to take place
Enable to reduce the time and resources required for
experimentation
Not required extensive pre-screening and
randomization

Weaknesses of Quasi-Experimental Design

Without proper randomization, statistical tests can be

meaningless
Do not explain any pre-existing factors and
influences outside of the experiment
The researcher needs to control additional
factors that may have affected the results
Some form of pre-testing or random selection
may be necessary to explain statistical results
thoroughly

Example of Quasi-Experimental Design in

Geography

Baker and White (2003)

The Effects of GIS on Students Attitudes, Self-efficacy, and

Achievement in Middle School Science Classrooms

Conducted the Nonequivalent quasi-experimental design

Two eighth grade teachers, across ten classrooms
Total 192 eighth grade students participated
Treatment group: used a Web-based GIS application
Control group: used paper maps

Treatment
Group

Control
Group

Instructor 1

51

36

Instructor 2

42

63

Example of Quasi-Experimental Design in

Geography

Impossible to randomly assign each student

to a GIS or paper mapping conditions
Randomly assigned whole classes to two
conditions
Different instructors affected the results
differently
Instructor effect played a substantial role
in student attitudes and self-efficacy

Quantitative Designs

Correlational

Purpose to ascertain the extent to which two or

more variables are statistically related
Examples

What is the relationship between ACT scores and freshman

grades?
Is a teachers sense of efficacy related to his/her effectiveness?
Do significant relationships exist between the types of activities
used in math classrooms and student achievement?

This design does NOT imply causation

Quantitative Designs

Survey

Purpose to describe the current status of a

variable of interest to the researcher
Examples

How many students drop out of school in Louisiana?

What are the attitudes of parents, students, and teachers
concerning an extended school year?
What kinds of activities typically occur in sixth-grade art
classes, and how frequently does each occur?
To what extent are elementary teachers using math
manipulatives?

Qualitative Methods

General purpose

To probe deeply into the research setting to obtain in-depth

understandings about the way things are, why they are like
that, and how participants perceive them

The need to create a sustained, in-depth, in context study that

allows the researcher to uncover subtle, less overt personal
understandings

Assumptions of the researcher

All meaning is situated in a particular perspective or context

Different people and groups often have different
perspectives and contexts, so there are many different
meanings in the world
Generally regarded as a post-positivistic perspective

Qualitative Methods

Characteristics

There are no hypotheses guiding the researcher, rather a

general issue known as the foreshadowed problem suggests
the general issues of concern
Problems and methods tend to evolve over the course of the
study as understanding of the research context and
participants deepens
Phenomena are examined as they exist in a natural context,
and they are viewed from the participants perspectives
There are few participants involved in the study
Data analysis is interpretative in nature
The researcher interacts extensively with the participants

Qualitative Methods

Three basic designs

Narrative
Ethnography
Case study

Qualitative Designs

Narrative

Purpose focus on studying a single person and

gathering data through the collection of stories
that are used to construct a narrative about the
individuals experience and the meanings he/she
attributes to them
Examples

What are the experiences of a veteran teacher who has

been moved into an administrative position in her
school?
What does inclusion mean to a special needs child who
is placed in a regular education classroom?

Qualitative Designs

Ethnography

Purpose to obtain an understanding of the

shared beliefs and practices of a particular group
or culture
Examples

What is the nature of the problems teachers encounter

when they begin using a constructivist approach to
instruction after having taught using a very traditional
approach for ten years?
Why does a sense of failure permeate everything about
this particular high school?

Qualitative Designs

Case Study

The essence of a case study, the central

tendency among all types of case study is that
it tries to illuminate a decision or set of
decisions: why they were taken, how they
were implemented, and with what result.

Yin, Robert (1994) "Ch 1: Designing Case Studies," Case Study Research: Design & Methods, 2nd edition, Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications

Qualitative Designs

Definition of a Case Study

Investigates a contemporary phenomenon
within its real-life context, especially when
The boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident.
(Case studies focus on understanding the
dynamics present within a single setting
(Eisenhardt, 1989)).

Yin, Robert (1994) "Ch 1: Designing Case Studies," Case Study Research: Design & Methods, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications
Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., (1989) "Building Theories From Case Study Research," Academy Of Management Review, 14(4) 532-550.

Usefulness of Case Studies

Case studies can be:
Exploratory
Explanatory
Descriptive (Yin, 1994)
Case studies can be used to:
Provide description
Test theory
Generate theory (Eisenhardt, 1989).
Yin, Robert (1994) "Ch 1: Designing Case Studies," Case Study Research: Design & Methods, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications
Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., (1989) "Building Theories From Case Study Research," Academy Of Management Review, 14(4) 532-550.

Combined Research Designs

Mixed Method Research

Data collection quantitative data and

qualitative data
The combination of both forms of data
provides a better understanding of a
research problem than either quantitative
or qualitative data by itself (Creswell,
2014)

Combined Research Designs

(Creswell, 2014)

Mixed method designs

Procedures for collecting, analysing and mixing
both quantitative and qualitative data in a single
study or in a multiphase series of studies
In this process need to decide on the emphasis
given to each form of data (priority), which to
collect first (concurrent/ sequential), how data will
be mixed (integrating/connecting), and whether
theory will be used to guide the study (e.g
advocacy/ social science theory)

Combined Research Designs

Action Research Designs

Often utilise both quantitative and qualitative data
But focus more on procedures useful in addressing
practical problems in schools and the classrooms
Systematic procedures used by teachers to gather
quantitative and qualitative data to address
improvements in their educational settings, their
teaching and the learning of their students
Some seek to address and solve local, practical
problems, e.g a classroom-discipline issue for a teacher
or the objective is to empower, transform and
emancipate individuals in educational settings

Summary
No
1

Quantitative
Research
Design

Experimental/ Quasiexperimental Research

Explaining whether an intervention

influences an outcome for one group as
opposed to another group

Correlational Research

Associating or relating variables in a

predictable pattern for one group of
individuals

Survey Research

Describing trends for a population of people

Qualitative
Research
Design

Ethnographic Research

Exploring the shared culture of a group of

people

Narrative Research

Exploring individual stories to describe the

lives of people

Combined
Research
Designs

Mixed Method Research

Combining quantitative and qualitative data

to best understand and explain a research
problem

Action Research

Using quantitative and qualitative data for

individuals to study education problems that
they face in their settings

Quantitative and Qualitative

Methods

Complementary nature of quantitative and

qualitative approaches

Different purposes of research

Explanatory
Exploratory

Consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of

different approaches for specific purposes

Quantitative versus Qualitative Research

Quantitative and Qualitative

Methods

The ultimate goal when choosing a design is

to produce a credible answer to the research
question

The research question drives the choice of a

research design
The characteristics of specific designs suggest
they will produce more credible answers to
specific types of research questions than other
designs

Specific purposes
Specific procedures and analyses for each design