The photoelectric effect

The negatively charged zinc plate illuminated by

ultraviolet radiation loses charge, suggesting that the
radiation is ejecting electrons from its surface.
It only loses charge when it is negatively charged.
This suggests that it is negative charges that are
ejected by the ultraviolet radiation.
The piece of glass absorbs ultraviolet radiation. When
it reduces the ultraviolet radiation, the discharge
slows. This shows that it is the ultraviolet radiation
that ejects the electrons from the zinc.
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons
from the surface of a material due to the exposure of the material to
electromagnetic radiation.
Normal, visible, light does not release electrons however long it is left and whatever
its intensity.
When the ultraviolet lamp is first turned on there is no delay in the production of
electrons. If the discharge were relying on a continuous stream of light, there would
need to be a delay to build up enough energy in the metal to eject each electron. The
fact that there is no delay is evidence that the energy arrives in quanta.
The experiment shows that it is the wavelength of the radiation that is important rather
than the intensity.

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Observations of Photoelectric Effect

1.Existence of threshold frequency
For a given metal, no photoelectrons are emitted if the frequency of the incident light is lower
than a certain frequency.
If the light frequency is below this threshold frequency for that metal, no photoelectrons can
be emitted, no matter the intensity of the incident radiation is or for how long it falls on the
surface of the metal.
2. Emission is instantaneous
Emission of photoelectrons takes place almost instantaneously after the light shines on the
metal, with no detectable time delay.
It does not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation.
3.Maximum Kinetic Energy of the photoelectron is independent of intensity of incident
electromagnetic radiation
Photoelectrons emitted from a metal have a range of velocities from zero up to a maximum .
The maximum kinetic energy was found to depend linearly on the frequency of the radiation
and is independent of its intensity.
4. Rate of emission of photoelectrons proportional to intensity of incident
electromagnetic radiation

Failure of classical wave theory

According to classical wave theory,
Intensity of a wave is the energy incident per unit area per unit time.
Energy carried by an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of the wave.
Classical wave theory cannot explain the first 3 observations of photoelectric effect.

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1. Existence of the threshold frequency

Since energy of the wave is dependent on the square of its amplitude, the classical wave
theory predicts that if sufficiently intense light is used, the electrons would absorb enough
energy to escape. There should not be any threshold frequency.
2. Almost immediate emission of photoelectrons
Based on classical wave theory, electrons require a period of time before sufficient energy is
absorbed for it to escape from the metal. Accordingly, a dim light after some delay would
transfer sufficient energy to the electrons for ejection, whereas a very bright light would eject
electrons after a short while. However, this did not happen in photoelectric effect.

3. The independence of kinetic energy of photoelectron on intensity and the dependence

on frequency
According to classical wave theory, if light of higher intensity is used, the kinetic energy of
an ejected electron can be increased. This is because the greater the intensity, the larger the
energy of the light wave striking the metal surface, so electrons are ejected with greater
kinetic energy. However, it cannot explain why maximum kinetic energy is dependent on the
frequency and independent of intensity.

Understanding Photoelectric Effect

Light, and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, is emitted in discrete packet of
energy. Each packet was called a quantum of energy (or photon).The energy of a photon is
proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
When light is directed at a metal surface,
A stream of photon bombards the surface of metal
Any free electron near the surface could be struck by a photon and gains energy
If the gain in energy is sufficient to overcome the electromagnetic force of attraction
between the electrons and the positive nucleus, the electron can leave the plate
Each photoelectron from a metal plate has gained the whole amount of energy of a
single photon. The photon will be reflected or transmitted, if not absorbed. The
photons energy cannot be shared among the electrons it must give up all its energy
to a single electron.

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Einsteins photoelectric equation

K max hf

Since electrons are held by attractive forces to the atoms, to escape form a metal, an
electron must do a certain amount of work to remove itself from the surface to
infinity. An electron in a metal can only escape if it gains enough energy from a single
photon to enable it to do the necessary work. So, individual photon must each supply
more than a certain amount of energy.

The work function of a material is defined as the minimum amount

of the work necessary to remove a free electron from the surface of
the material.

hf is the energy of the photon. where h = the Planck constant = 6.63 x 10-34 Js
Work function,
This is the minimum energy required for an electron to escape from the surface of
a material
Kmax = maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
The electrons with maximum kinetic energy come from the surface of the metal.
Due to collisions with other atoms, those below the surface emerge with a smaller
kinetic energy.

Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of an incident radiation required to

just remove an electron from the surface of a metal.

Threshold frequency f0

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As: hf = + EKmax
If the incoming photons are of the threshold frequency f0, the electrons will have the
minimum energy required for emission
and EKmax will be zero
therefore: hf0 =
and so:

f0 = / h

The vacuum photocell

Light is incident on a metal plate called the photocathode.

If the lights frequency is above the metals threshold frequency electrons are emitted.
These electrons passing across the vacuum to the anode constitute and electric current which
can be measured by the microammeter.

Obtaining Plancks constant

By attaching a variable voltage power supply it is possible to measure the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons produced in the photocell.
The graph opposite shows how this energy varies with photon frequency.
hf = + EKmax
becomes:
EKmax = hf
which has the form y = mx +c
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with gradient, m = h
Hence Plancks constant can be found.

The electron-volt

The electron-volt (eV) is equal to the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is
accelerated by a potential difference of one volt.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

Ionisation

An ion is a charged atom

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Ions are created by adding or removing electrons from atoms

The diagram shows the creation of a positive ion from the collision of an incoming
electron.

Ionisation can also be caused by:

nuclear radiation alpha, beta, gamma

heating

Ionisation energy

Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one electron from the ground state
of an atom.

Ionisation energy is often expressed in eV.

Excitation

Excitation is the promotion of electrons from lower to higher energy levels within
an atom.

In the diagram some of the incoming electrons kinetic energy has been used to
move the electron to a higher energy level.

The electron is now said to be in an excited state.

Atoms have multiple excitation states and energies.

Electron energy levels in atoms

Electrons are bound to the nucleus of an atom by electromagnetic attraction.

A particular electron will occupy the nearest possible position to the nucleus.

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This energy level or shell is called the ground state.

It is also the lowest possible energy level for that electron

Energy levels are measured with respect to the ionisation energy level, which is
assigned 0 eV.

All other energy levels are therefore negative. The ground state in the diagram
opposite is - 10.4 eV.

Energy levels above the ground state but below the ionisation level are called excited
states.

Different types of atom have different energy levels.

De-excitation

Excited states are usually very unstable.

Within about 10 - 6 s the electron will fall back to a lower energy level.

With each fall in energy level (level E1 down to level E2) a photon of electromagnetic
radiation is emitted.

emitted photon energy = hf = E1 E2

Excitation using photons

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An incoming photon may not have enough energy

to cause photoelectric emission but it may have enough to cause excitation.
However, excitation will only occur if the photons energy is exactly equal to the difference
in energy of the initial and final energy level.
If this is the case the photon will cease to exist once its energy is absorbed.

Electron diffraction

A narrow beam of electrons in a vacuum tube is directed at a thin metal foil. On the far side
of the foil a circular diffraction pattern is formed on a fluorescent screen. A pattern that is
similar to that formed by X-rays with the same metal foil.
Electrons forming a diffraction pattern like that formed by X-rays shows that electrons have
wave properties.
The radii of the circles can be decreased by increasing the speed of the electrons. This is
achieved by increasing the potential difference of the tube.
In 1923 de Broglie proposed that particles such as electrons, protons and atoms also
displayed wave like properties.

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The de Broglie wavelength of such a particle depended on its momentum, p according to the
de Broglie relation:
=h/p
As momentum = mass x velocity = mv
= h / mv
This shows that the wavelength of a particle can be altered by changing its velocity.
The dual nature of electromagnetic radiation

Light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation behave like waves and particles.

On most occasions one set of properties is the most significant

The longer the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave the more significant are the
wave properties.

Radio waves, the longest wavelength, is the most wavelike.

Gamma radiation is the most particle like

Light, of intermediate wavelength, is best considered to be equally significant in both

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