Elasticities and strengths 2.2.

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You are here: Chapter: 2 General physics

Section: 2.2 Mechanical properties of materials
SubSection: 2.2.2 Elasticities and strengths
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2.2.2 Elasticities and strengths

Elastic properties isotropic materials
Listed below are the elastic constants in common use, any two of which are sufficient to define the elastic properties of a
homogeneous isotropic solid. The two fundamental constants are those which relate change of volume and change of shape to
applied stress. They are respectively, the bulk modulus K (as in p =
K . V/V) and the shear modulus G.
For many practical purposes, the following constants are commonly used:
Youngs Modulus, or longitudinal elasticity, E.
Poissons ratio, = lateral contraction per unit breadth divided by the longitudinal extension per unit length under an applied
longitudinal stress.
Compressibility, = 1/K.
Longitudinal modulus, M, which is the longitudinal modulus for zero lateral strain and determines the velocity of ultrasonic stress
pulses in solids.
For a homogeneous isotropic solid, the following relations exist between the constants.

(a) G =

(c) K=

E
2(1 + )
1

EG

3 3(3G

E)

(b)

K=

(d)

M=K+

3 (1

2 )
4
3

The value of Poissons ratio is usually positive and lies between 0 and

, but in some cases it may be negative.

Elasticities of metals and alloys

Material
20 C
Aluminium . . . . .
Bismuth . . . . . .
Cadmium
. . . . .
Chromium
. . . . .
Copper . . . . . .
Gold . . . . . . .
Iron (soft)
. . . . .
Iron (cast) . . . . .
Lead
. . . . . .
Magnesium . . . . .
Nickel (unmag., soft) . .
,,
,,
hard) . .
Niobium
. . . . .
Platinum
. . . . .
Silver
. . . . . .
Tantalum
. . . . .
Tin
. . . . . . .
Titanium
. . . . .
Tungsten
. . . . .
Vanadium . . . . .
Zinc . . . . . . .
Brass (70 Zn, 30 Cu) .
Constantan . . . . .

GPa

GPa

GPa

70.3
31.9
49.9
279.1
129.8
78.0
211.4
152.3
16.1
44.7
199.5
219.2
104.9
168.0
82.7
185.7
49.9
115.7
411.0
127.6
108.4
100.6
162.4

26.1
12.0
19.2
115.4
48.3
27.0
81.6
60.0
5.59
17.3
76.0
83.9
37.5
61.0
30.3
69.2
18.4
43.8
160.6
46.7
43.4
37.3
61.2

0.345
0.330
0.300
0.210
0.343
0.44
0.293
0.27
0.44
0.291
0.312
0.306
0.397
0.377
0.367
0.342
0.357
0.321
0.280
0.365
0.249
0.350
0.327

75.5
31.3
41.6
160.1
137.8
217.0
169.8
109.5
45.8
35.6
177.3
187.6
170.3
228.0
103.6
196.3
58.2
107.7
311.0
158.0
72.0
111.8
156.4

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Hidurax Special . . .
Invar (36 Ni, 63.8 Fe, 0.2 C)
Nickel Silver . . . .
Steel (Mild)
. . . .
,, (
C) . . . .
,, (
C hardened) .
,, Tool|| . . . . .
,, Tool (hardened)|| .
,, Stainless . . .
Tungsten Carbide
. .

144.5
144.0
132.5
211.9
210.0
201.4
211.6
203.2
215.3
534.4

54.4
57.2
49.7
82.2
81.1
77.8
82.2
78.5
83.9
219.0

0.333
0.259
0.333
0.291
0.293
0.296
0.287
0.295
0.293
0.22

144.1
99.4
132.0
169.2
168.7
165.0
165.3
165.2
166.0
319.0

Approx. value or values for materials of variable composition.

Cu-Ni alloy with Al, Fe and Mn additions.
Approx. % composition: Cu 55, Ni 8, Zn 27.
|| Oil hardening non-deforming tool steel of approx. % composition: C 0.98, Mn 1.03, Cr 0.65, W 1.01, V 0.1, remainder Fe.
Approx. % composition: C 0.02, Si 0.5, Mn 0.7, Ni 2, Cr 18, remainder Fe.

Elasticities of glasses
Material
20 C
Glass (Heavy Flint)
Glass (Crown)
.
Quartz (fused)
.

.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.

GPa

GPa

GPa

80.1
71.3
73.1

31.5
29.2
31.2

0.27
0.22
0.17

57.6
41.2
36.9

Several values in these tables are taken from Bradfield (1964).

Bulk moduli of elements

K

Element

Element

GPa
Aluminium
Antimony .
Arsenic
.
Bismuth
.
Bromine
.
Cadmium .
Caesium .
Calcium
.
Carbon .
(diamond)
Carbon
(graphite)

. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

75.5
42.0
22.0
31.3
1.9
41.6
1.6
17.2
542.0

33.0

Element

GPa
Chlorine
(liq) . .
Chromium
Copper .
Gold . .
Iodine . .
Iron . .
Lead . .
Lithium
.
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

1.1
160.1
137.8
217.0
7.7
169.8
45.8
11.1
44.7
118.0
25.0

Element

GPa
Molybdenum
Nickel
(soft) . .
(hard) . .
Palladium .
Phosphorus .
(red)
.
Phosphorus
(white) .
Platinum .
Potassium .
Rubidium .

231.0
177.3
187.6
182.0
10.9

GPa
Selenium
Silicon .
Silver .
Sodium
Sulphur
Thallium
Tin . .
Zinc
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

8.3
100.0
103.6
6.3
7.7
43.0
58.2
72.0

4.9
228.0
3.1
2.5

Bradfield (1964).
Markham (1968).

Bulk moduli of liquids

As the pressure increases, K increases. In general a rise in temperature decreases the bulk modulus of a liquid; water, however,
shows a maximum value of K at about 50 C (see J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson (1920) Properties of Matter, London, Charles
Griffin; Bridgman (1949)).
Liquid

Acetic acid, 116 atm

Amyl alcohol, 8 atm
.
Benzene, 8 atm
.
.
Butyl alcohol, 8 atm
.
Butyl alcohol, iso-, 8 atm
Carbon bisulphide, 837 atm
Carbon tetrachloride .
.
Chloroform, 100-200 atm .
Ether:
150 atm .
.
.
9001000 atm
.
.
9001000 atm
.
.

Temp.

GPa

20
17.7
17.9
17.4
17.9
15.6
20
20

1.45
1.12
1.10
1.13
1.03
1.16
1.12
1.1

0
0
198

0.689
1.56
0.703

Liquid

Mercury:
837 atm .
.
.
100200 atm .
.
Methyl acetate, 837 atm
Methyl alcohol, 37 atm .
Olive oil .
.
.
.
Paraffin oil
.
.
.
Pentane
.
.
.
.
Petroleum .
.
.
.
Propyl alcohol, 8 atm
.
Propyl alcohol, iso-, 8 atm
Turpentine
.
.
.

Temp.

GPa

20
15
14.3
14.7
20.5
14.8
20
16.5
17.7
17.8
19.7

26.2
30.0
1.04
0.97
1.60
1.62
0.318
1.46
1.04
0.983
1.280

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Ethyl acetate, 837 atm

Ethyl alcohol:
1500 atm
.
150200 atm
.
Ethyl bromide, 837 atm
Ethyl chloride, 837 atm
Glycerine
.
.
.

13.3

0.974

.
.
.
.
.

0
310
99.3
15.2
20.5

1.32
0.024
0.343
0.662
4.03

Water:
125 atm .
9001000 atm
9001000 atm
25003000 atm
Water (sea)
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

15
15
198
14.2

2.05
2.75
1.81
3.88
2.32

Elasticities of plastics
All plastics are visco-elastic and consequently the elasticity varies considerably with temperature and strain rate. The table below
gives approximate values at 20 C for slow rates of strain.

Material

Material

GPa
ABS . . . .
Epoxy
. . .
Nylon 6 (cast)
.
Nylon 6 (moulded)
Nylon 66
. .
Polybenzoxazole .
Polycarbonate
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

GPa

1.43.1
~3.2
2.43.1
0.83.1
1.22.9
~3.5
2.4

Polyethylene (high density) . .

Polyimide
. . . . . . .
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)
Polypropylene . . . . . .
Polystyrene
. . . . . .
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
. .
(unplasticised)

0.41.3
~3.1
2.43.4
1.11.6
2.74.2
0.4
2.44.1

Temperature coefficient of elastic constants for a range of materials

Temperature coefficient
Et = E15{1 - (t

15)}

Gt = G15{1 - '(t

15)}

At 15C
10
Aluminium
.
Brass
. .
Copper
. .
German silver
Gold
. .
Iron
. . .
Phosphor-bronze
Platinum . .
Quartz fibre .
Silver . . .
Steel . . .
Tin
. . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

in

. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .

for E

4.8
3.7
3.0
4.8
2.3
0.98
1.5
7.5
2.4

'
10

for G

5.2
4.6
3.1
6.5
3.3
2.8
3.0
1.0
1.1
4.5
2.6
5.9

Elastic properties anisotropic materials

Anisotropic materials can be either naturally occurring (e.g. wood) or manufactured (e.g. fibre reinforced composites). In general
they are characterised by twenty-one independent constants, but this is reduced to nine for orthotropic materials and five for
transversely isotropic materials. They are frequently planar in form.
The main engineering constants in use for orthotropic composites are:
longitudinal modulus of elasticity, E11
transverse modulus of elasticity, E22
through-thickness modulus of elasticity, E33
longitudinal in-plane shear modulus, G12
longitudinal through-thickness shear modulus, G13
transverse through-thickness shear modulus, G23
major Poissons ratio, 12
minor Poissons ratio, 13

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transverse Poissons ratio, 23

For unidirectionally reinforced composites, 1 = fibre direction in-plane, 2 = transverse to fibre in-plane and 3 = transverse
through-thickness (i.e. perpendicular to plane). For other materials, the directions would be defined by other features, such as the
production length-wise direction. Poissons ratio can be greater than 0.5 for angle-ply or multidirectionally reinforced materials.
Composites with fully unidirectional reinforcement are approximately transversely isotropic materials (i.e. 2 and 3 directions are
equal). The following relations exist in this case:
E33 = E22, G13 = G12,

13

= 12,

and
E22 = 2(1 + 23)G23
For orthotropic symmetry the following relations exist:
12

E11

21

E22

23

E22

13

32

31

=
,
E33 E11
E33

Elasticities of woods
All woods are elastically anisotropic and in general there are nine independent elastic constants. The values in the table below are
for some common woods and give the three principal values of Youngs modulus measured along the grain EL, in a radial direction
ER and tangential direction ET (Hearmon, 1948).
Wood

Ash . .
Balsa
.
Beech
.
Birch
.
Mahogany
Oak . .
Walnut .
Teak . .
Douglas Fir
Scots Pine
Spruce .

. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

Relative
density

EL

ER

ET

GPa

GPa

GPa

0.7
0.2
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.40.5

16
6
14
16
12
11
11
13
16
16
1016

1.6
0.3
2.2
1.1
1.1

1.2

1.1
1.1
0.40.9

0.9
0.1
1.1
0.6
0.6

0.6

0.8
0.6
0.40.6

Elasticities of fibre-reinforced plastics full set

Material

v12

v21

v23

2.5

0.30

0.01

0.55

3.9

0.36

0.02

0.48

E11

E22

E33

G12

G13

G23

GPa

GPa

GPa

GPa

GPa

GPa

High Modulus Carbon Fibre/Epoxy

unidirectionally reinforced
specimen

287

7.80

7.75

6.7

6.7

High Strength Carbon Fibre/Epoxy

unidirectionally reinforced
specimen

172

7.8

7.8

11.6

11.6

Elastic Constants measured at NPL by the Ultrasonic Technique (Read and Dean, 1978).

Elasticities of fibre-reinforced plastics in-plane properties

Material
23 C
Injection moulded, discontinuous (long) fibre thermoplastic: glass-fibre/nylon
(30% fibre by volume)

E11

E22

GPa

GPa

10.6

7.9

v12

v21

0.34

0.22

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Hot compression moulded, sheet moulding (thermoset) compond (SMC): glass

fibre strands/filler/polyester resin (62% fibre + filler by volume)
Thermoformed (press) moulded, mat + unidirectional fibres/thermoplastic
glass-fibre/polypropylene (18% fibre by volume)
Autoclaved, unidirectional continuous fibre/thermoset resin: glass-fibre/epoxy
(59% fibre by volume)
Autoclaved, unidirectional continuous fibre/thermoset resin: carbo-fibre/epoxy
(61% fibre by volume)

10.0

9.8

0.30

0.31

9.2

4.4

0.41

0.22

47.0

16.4

0.28

0.08

9.9

0.30

0.02

146

Typical values measured at NPL using mechanical test methods (Sims et al., 1993) actual values depend on fibre type,
orientation and distribution, also on resin properties and process route.
Strength properties isotropic materials
The strength properties of many materials are dependent on the rate of loading and the test temperature. This particularly applies
to plastics and glass-fibre reinforced plastics. Generally materials will reach their elastic limit prior to failure.

Substance

Tensile
strength
MPa

Metals
Aluminium (cast)
(rolled)
Brass (66% Cu, 34% Zn) (cast)
"

(rolled)

90100
90150
150190
230270

Calcium

4260

Cobalt

260750

Copper (cast)
,,

(rolled)

120170
200400

Gun metal (90% Cu, 10% Sn)

190260

Iron (cast)

100230

,, (wrought)
Lead (cast)

1217

Magnesium (cast)
,,

290450
6080

(extruded)

170190

Phosphor-bronze (cast)

180280

Steel (castings).

400600

Steel (mild) (0.2% C)

430490

High-carbon spring steel:

(annealed
(tempered)
(nickel) (5% Ni)
(nickel-chromium)

700770
9301080
8001000
10001500

Soft solder

5575

Tin (cast)

2035

Zinc (rolled)

110150

Plastics
Nylon 6

7697

Nylon 66

6283

Polyacetal

~69

Polybenzoxazole

82117

Polycarbonate

5565

Polyethylene

2135

Polyimide

69-104

Polymethylmethacrylate

50-76

Polypropylene

30-40

Polystyrene

34-52

Miscellaneous

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Catgut

420

Glass

3090

Hemp rope

60100

Leather belt

3050

Silk fibre

260

Spider thread

180

Woods:
Ash, beech, oak, teak, mahogany

60110

Fir, pitch-pine

4080

Red or white deal

3070

White or yellow pine

2050

Quartz fibre (fused)

~1000

Wires

Aluminium

200-450

Brass

350-550

Copper (hard-drawn)
,,

400460

(annealed)

280-310

Duralumin

400-550

German Silver

460

Gold

200250

Iron (charcoal, hard-drawn

,,

540-620

(annealed)

460

Molybdenum

11003000

Nickel

500-900

Palladium

350450

Phosphor-bronze (hard-drawn)

6901080

Platinum

330370

Pt + 10% Rh

630

Silver

290

Steel (ordinary)

~1100

,,

(tempered)

1550

,,

(pianoforte, hard-drawn) .

18602330

Tantalum

8001100

Tungsten

15003500

Zirconium (annealed)
,,

260390

(hard-drawn)

1000

Along the grain

Strength properties anisotropic materials

The strength properties of anisotropic materials measured in different directions may differ considerably. Differences in strengths
can be higher than those in elastic properties.
Ultimate tensile strength properties of fibre-reinforced plastics in-plane properties. (Sims et al., 1993). Typical values;
actual values depend on fibre type, orientation and distribution; resin properties and process route (NB. 11 = longitudinal
ultimate tensile strength and 22 = transverse ultimate tensile strength).

Material
23 C
Injection moulded discontinuous (long) glass-fibre/nylon (30% fibre by volume)
Hot comperssion moulded, sheet moulding material (SMC) glass fibre strands/filler/polyester
resin (62% fibre + filler by volume)
Thermoformed (press) moulded, mat + unidirectional/thermoplastic glass-fibre/
polypropylene (18% fibre by volume )
Autoclaved, unidirectional glass-fibre/epoxy (59% fibre by volume)

11

22

MPa

MPa

148

113

60

59

143

38

1139

63

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Autoclaved, unidirectional carbon-fibre/epoxy (61% fibre by volume)

2386

76

References
G. Bradfield (1964) Notes on Applied Science No. 30, Use in Industry of Elasticity with the Help of Mechanical Vibrations, HMSO.
P. W. Bridgman (1949) The Physics of High Pressure, Bell.
J. A. Ewing (1899) Strength of Material, Cambridge University Press.
R. F. S. Hearmon (1948). See also R. F. S. Hearmon, Elasticity of Wood and Plywood, Forest Products Research Special Report No.
7, HMSO.
M. F. Markham (1968) Measurements made at the NPL.
B. E. Read and G. D. Dean (1978) The determination of dynamic properties of polymers and composites, Adam Hilger.
G. D. Sims, W. Nimmo and W. R. Broughton (1993) Data measured at the NPL.
Others sources of data include,
W. Bolton (1989) Engineering Materials Pocket Book, Newnes.
Handbook of Industrial Materials (1992) Elsevier Adv. Tech.
N. A. Waterman and M. F. Ashby (1992) Elsevier Materials Selector, Elsevier Applied Science.
G.Sims

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