15.

12 Reporting
All agencies will have reporting requirements, which are based on many factors
ranging
from legislation to the aesthetics of presentation. However, there are some
philosophical
aspects of reporting which should always be considered.
The information provided in this section should allude to the fact that most fire
investigation is purely opinion based. Although there may be laboratory results,
which
support the conclusions, the diagnosis of both the starting point and the cause of
the
fire, nevertheless, are opinions. This should be reflected in any reports,
statements, etc.
which refer to the fire cause, and a clear distinction must be made between fact
and
opinion.
Similarly, unless there is indisputable proof of intent, there should be no
reference to
intent or insinuations of intent. This proof could be in the form of a time-delay
ignition
device or multiple and unconnected seats of fire, but the presence of fuel
residues,
although certainly suspicious in nature, is not in itself proof of intent because
other
explanations for their presence are possible although, perhaps, less likely.
As a consequence, if the expression . . . the fire was started. . . is used, the
writer
must be acutely aware of the inferences so contained. On most occasions, the
expression
. . . the fire started. . . is more accurate and certainly less biased.
Any opinions as to intent are more appropriately addressed during examination
in
a conference or courtroom situation when qualifications and alternative
explanations
can be expressed.
15.13 Explosion investigation
Explosion scenes, particularly bomb (improvised explosive device) scenes, are
possibly
the most challenging scenes encountered by the crime scene investigator. In
addition to
the complexity created by physical effects similar to those encountered in a
natural
disaster, most of the critical evidence is fragmented or distorted. The scientific
and
technical demands of device reconstruction and explosive residue analysis
require as
much or more expertise as other types of major criminal investigation. Most
scenes will therefore be investigated by a team of investigators, all of whom are
experts in their
individual fields.
A typical team for a scene investigation could comprise:
team leader
post-blast consultant
forensic chemist

photographer
crime scene searchers
evidence recorder.
In less significant incidents, these roles may be combined, so that the team will
be considerably
smaller. Conversely, in a major incident, this may represent the composition
of one of many sub-teams, with additional specialists co-opted as necessary.
These
additional specialists may include:
engineers
surveyors
architects
pathologists
audio-visual operators
biologists.
Although the roles of these team members are to some degree self-explanatory,
three
roles require further elaboration.
Post-blast consultant: This person will be experienced in the use of explosives,
particularly in the use of explosives against target structures. They must be
familiar
with the effects of a wide variety of explosive types, military, commercial and
improvised,
and be able to discriminate rapidly between direct explosive effects and the
results of fire, impact or structural collapse.
Since an explosion is not necessarily the result of the detonation of a high
explosive
charge, the consultant must have a good knowledge of other explosion
mechanisms,
such as fuel-air and mechanical explosions, and be able to clearly identify the
distinguishing
features of these in the immediate aftermath of the incident. The post-blast
consultant will advise the team leader as to the explosion type and where
appropriate,
the charge size, possible explosive type and charge placement.
Forensic chemist: The major role of the forensic chemist is to collect appropriate
samples for laboratory analysis, to enable the explosive components to be
identified.
This is a task, which is ideally conducted by the explosives chemist who will
perform
the analysis, since that person has the best knowledge of what sample collection
techniques, control samples and sample sizes are appropriate.
Crime scene searchers: Since in explosion scenes, the physical condition of
significant
evidence may be drastically altered, it is important that the searchers be able to
recognise
a fragment of bomb casing, to distinguish between detonator lead wires and
household wiring,
and identify unconsumed explosives, to list several requirements. The
circumstances of many explosions will also be that disaster victim identification
procedures will be in
operation, and they should be well versed in these also. Crime scene
investigators who

are tasked with this role must be bomb scene examiner trained and
experienced.
15.14 Explosion scene examination objectives
As a consequence of the trauma and confusion present at the scene of a major
explosion,
working under the pressure of media exposure and public concern, the explosion
scene
examination team must have clear objectives and remain focused on those
objectives.
These objectives may be expressed as:
determination of the cause of the explosion;
collection of evidence as to the nature of the explosion;
provision of scientific and technical advice to the incident investigators (i.e. to
the
senior investigating officer in charge of a criminal investigation, as distinct from
the scene investigators); and
reconstruction of any improvised explosive device.
15.15 Explosion scene searching
The post-blast consultant must gain a rapid overview of the whole scene, with
particular
emphasis on the type of damage to structures, the progressive nature, if any, of
blast
effects, the extent of fragment damage and of fire damage. The most significant
fact to
be determined in a major explosion is whether the incident resulted from a
dispersed or
a concentrated explosive.
Dispersed explosions are characterised by:
absence of an obvious blast seat;
extensive fire damage subsequent to the explosion;
minimal fragmentation; and
widespread low-blast pressure effects, such as ceilings lifted, window frames
pushed out and walls pushed over.
Identification of some or all of these indicators may enable an explosion to be
rapidly
classified as a dispersed explosion. While this may still be a criminal act, it may
also be
an industrial accident, a gas leak or other fuel spillage, and public concern may
be
allayed. In these circumstances, the explosive effects are, to some extent,
incidental to
the fire effects, and the investigation will essentially proceed as for a more
conventional
fire investigation.
Concentrated explosions are characterised by:
shattering damage, such as holes blown in brick walls, frames broken rather
than
bent or split;
penetration of relatively substantial material by high velocity fragments;
cratering of the ground or floor;
blast-affected materials, with gas wash and thinning effects characteristic of
intimate

contact with high explosives; and

target-related factors, which may influence the probability of a terrorist or
criminal
attack.
Concentrated explosions, whether fully confined, as in the case of a pipe bomb
or item
of military ordinance, or unconfined, as may be the case with commercial
explosives,
present a radically different view to the initial inspection, provided the evidence
has not
been obscured by a subsequent fire.
15.16 Search patterns
Given that the explosion has been determined to be a concentrated explosion,
the
team leader should plan a search to use the physical features of the scene to
best
advantage.
In a building, the individual rooms or floors make natural, albeit irregular, grid
zones. In an outdoor setting, roads and paths, fences, property boundaries and
building
lines provide zone markers. Depending on the scene, it may be appropriate to
further
grid the more critical areas.
The scene investigation team or teams will be assigned grids to search, with
consideration
given to the sequence of searching. There are competing considerations in
assigning
grid priorities, namely:
clearly, grid sections close to the explosion centre are likely to contain more
significant
evidence;
structural damage is likely to hinder investigation of these inner sections;
inner sections cannot be cleared until enough distant sections have been
searched
to permit access to the interior areas.
In these circumstances, it is most appropriate to search a sequence of grid
zones, which
will provide rapid access to the explosion centre, to permit clearance work to be
undertaken;
while clearance is underway further outer zones can be searched.
It is important that the team leader not be bound by a predetermined search
formula,
but rather, weighs individual cases on their merits. While speed is of assistance
to
investigators, thoroughness is in the long term equally or more valuable.
Regardless
of the exact search sequence, it must be planned, comprehensive and the
evidence
obtained must be preserved and labelled appropriately.
15.17 Search techniques
The team assigned to a particular area will ensure that the area has been
recorded
photographically and usually, audio-visually, before work commences. All the
items in

the grid section should be removed individually, and examined for explosionrelated material. If an item can be identified as native to the scene, has no signs
of being in
close proximity to a high explosive charge and does not contain any fragments, it
can
be cleared from the scene. Items, which do not meet these criteria, should be
subjected
to a further examination by the post-blast consultant.
Items, which are passed to the evidence recorder to be held for further
examination,
are:
items suspected of being foreign to the scene;
items with signs of proximity to a high explosive charge;
items suspected of being explosive related, such as fragments of fuse; and
items suspected to contain fragments.
All evidence collected is handled in accordance with standard crime scene
handling
procedures, with the following exceptions:
paper and nylon bags will be inappropriate for many samples, in view of the
sharp
edges encountered in explosion debris; and
the advice of the forensic chemist should be sought in relation to sampling for
explosive residues.
Deceased persons or parts of deceased persons collected from the scene may
well contain
fragments. It is not uncommon for significant sections of bomb casing to be the
cause
of death. These bodies or parts of bodies should be escorted to the mortuary; an
experienced
crime scene investigator should attend to consult with the pathologist regarding
recovery
of fragments.
15.18 Chemical analysis
The forensic laboratory will examine items from the scene for explosive residues.
Residues may be found on fragments, even fragments recovered from bodies, on
shreds
of fuse, on dust from the crater, on furniture or floor coverings close to the blast,
etc.
Close consultation between the team leader and forensic chemist will assist in
focusing
the search.
15.19 Device reconstruction
Armed with device fragments from the scene, information as to size and
placement of
the charge from the post-blast consultant, and advice from the chemist as to the
filler
material, the team leader and/or post-blast consultant can begin the process of
reconstruction.
This is a time-consuming and painstaking task, but will be of enormous
assistance in both the investigative and judicial phases of the investigation. It
may be of
assistance to test devices thought to be similar, and to compare fragment sizes,
blast
effects and residues.