DUBLIN CITY UNIVERSITY

Optical Communications System Design

EE555
Exam Solutions
SEMESTER ONE EXAMINATIONS 2007/2008

Question 1
Write a brief note on each of the following topics (each part carries 5 marks):
a) State the main differences between a LED to a LASER [2.7.4]
A LED emits spontaneous radiation which is broad in its spectral nature
and incoherent.
A laser emits stimulated radiation, which has a narrower linewidth and is
coherent (same phase, polarisation, wavelength, direction)
Lasers are more efficient due to stimulated emission dominating over
spontaneous emission
A laser is a threshold device, a LED isnt
A laser has a strong dependence of threshold current and hence output
power, on temperature, whilst an LED has a weak temperature
dependence
Although the two devices can generate similar amounts of optical power,
the better directed laser beam means that more light from a laser can be
coupled into fibre.
[5 marks]
b) Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) [3.2.2]
Evaporation technique that is used in the manufacturing process for
lasers
System consists of deposition chamber that is maintained at very low
pressure and one or more effusion cells that contain very pure base
materials.
Electron beam directed into effusion cell heats material to liquid state,
resulting in atoms evaporating out of materials, exiting through shutter
and depositing on the wafer. Shutter is computer controlled allowing
precise control over the thickness of each layer
Evaporated atoms interact with each other only when they reach the
wafer
Adv: ability to form multiple layers on wafter during one process step,
very controlled process
Disadv: low film growth resulting in low productivity and high expense
[5 marks]
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c) Operation of a Mach-Zehnder Interferometer as used for External

Modulation [4.1.1]
Uses electro-optic effect (refractive index of material is changed by the
application of an applied electric field) in lithium niobate to alter the
optical path length and cause either constructive or destructive
interference at the output node of the device
Structure of device consists of a block of lithium niobate from which two
waveguides are cut with electrodes placed on either side of the
waveguide (interaction length)
Light enters the device, it is split equally among the two branches and
propagates over the same distance until recombining at the output node.
Electric field, which is proportional to the electrical data being
transmitted applied to one arm of the modulator, altering the optical path
length, resulting in either constructive or destructive interference at
output node.
Adv: signal nearly chirp free, low temporal jitter, large bandwidth
Disadv: increased cost and insertion loss
[5 marks]
d) 3 Network Topologies [5.2]
Point-to-Point
i. Simplest and involve direct fibre connection between nodes
ii. Suitable for all network categories
iii. Might need to use amplifiers with distance exceeds 20km
iv. Station processes electrical data, with opto-electronic
conversion taking place in the node
Broadcast and Distribution
i. Information distributed to a group of subscribers using either
Star or Bus
ii. Star: Nodes connected by point-to-point links to a central node
called the hub (star formation). Stars connected by point-topoint links. Central node can be active or passive: active, signal
converted to electrical domain and the electrically distributed to
individual nodes; passive, distribution takes place in optical
domain
iii. Bus: single fibre carries all data transmitted. Access to bus
achieved using optical couplers, with can either active or
passive as with the star. Problem can be the power loss for a
large number of users, might need optical amplifiers
Local Area Networks
i. Large number of users within a local area
ii. Allows users to access network randomly and transmit to any
other users
iii. Transmission distances are less than 10km, so fibre loss is not
an issue
iv. Bus, Star or Ring can be used. Ring is were consecutive nodes
are connected by point-to-point links to form a closed ring.
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Node is an active device that monitors information transmitted

around ring for data, listening for its address
[5 marks]
e) Optical Switch requirement [9.5.1]
Low insertion loss: takes into account coupling loss, waveguide loss and
excess loss. Will be important in a large network as it can affect overall
power budget
Switching speed: amount of time taken from when command is given to
where insertion loss reaches 90% of value. Required switching time
depends on the particular application: protection millisecond; packet
nanosecond; OTDM picosecond
Crosstalk: measure of amount of interference between channels, with
low level of crosstalk and extinction ratio representing high signal
quality. Typical values around 40dB
Wavelength response: wavelength dependent response would allow
switch to carry out wavelength selection and detection without the need
for external filtering. Reduce cost and overall loss of switch
Bit rate and protocol transparency: ensures that switch can operate at
future data rates and protocols without the need for upgrades
[5 marks]

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Question 2
a) Laser structure question..poor carrier and optical confinement comment
on heterojunction lasers, stripe geometry, buried heterostructure [2.8, 3.1]
Heterojunction Lasers
Disadvantage of simple PN junction are their inherenet efficiency due to
the very poor optical and carrier confinement, resulting in the need for
large threshold currents which increases cost and excessive heating
Improved using heterojunction devices, which has a lightly doped or
intrinsic active region sandwiched between two different bandgap
semiconductors which have a wider band gap and lower refractive index.
Bandgap difference forms a potential barriers in both the CB and VB
which prevents injected carriers from diffusing away from the active
region. This allows active region to be made very narrow.
The change of refractive index provides a more efficient waveguide
structure compared to homojunctions, confining the optical carriers to
the active region. This also helps reduce the amount of optical carrier
absorption that can occur outside the active region. This helps to reduce
the threshold current level required for device operation.
Stripe Geometry
Narrow stripe that extends the entire longitudinal direction of the laser
Removes gain in any of the lateral modes, and confines population
inversion to narrow region reducing operating current, reducing heat,
improving reliability
Example is a MESA stripe: involves etching away the undesired regions
of the semiconductor and coating with an oxide insulator either side of
the active region. Confines injected carriers to a narrow channel running
from the contact, through top material and into active region
Buried Heterostructure
Provides better lateral confinement than MESA, where active region
surrounded on all four sides by materials of lower refractive index.
Regrown areas act as dielectric waveguide due to their lower refractive
index, which has the affect of confining the optical power just as the
lateral heterojunction confines the carriers.
[8 marks]
b) Describe how a DFB lasers operates, and state the major difference between a
DFB and a DBR [3.3.1] [3.3.2]
DFB
Employs a wavelength selective component close to the active region
Feedback provided throughout the devices length, and not just by the
cavity facet as in a FP laser.
A grating is etched into the top layer surrounding the active region,
running the entire longitudinal direction of the device. The grating
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feedback is wavelength specific, allowing DFB output to be singlemoded.

Grating is a periodic variation of the refractive index of the guiding
layer, with the feedback provided by backward Bragg scattering. The
reflected wave then couples with other propagating waves.
The wavelength that is reflected is governed by the Bragg condition,
with the desired wavelength experiencing constructive interference. The
number of periods used in the grating determines the wavelength.
The grating is produced during the formation of the DH structure by
chemically etching away one of the epitaxial layers and using
holographic techniques to form the corrugation structure
During DFB operation, some of the light leaks out form the active region
and enters the surrouding cladding regions (evanescent light). This light
is then filtered by the Bragg grating, with the feedback only providing
optical gain in one of the modes propagating within the active region.
The tuning range can be slightly tuned using temperature control. The
spectral width can be as narrow as 1MHz.
DFB Vs. DBR
Gratings used in DBR are placed outside the active region
Has 3/4 separate different sections (gain, mirror, phase)
Wider tuning range achieved by injecting current into the phase and
mirror sections, chanign the carrier density which changes the refractive
index
Allow wavelength tuning of 40nm over the entire C-band
Suffer increased losses and the optical signal generated within the
active region has to propagate through the unpumped phase and mirror
sections
Can be overcome by incorporating SOA into device design to boost the
output optical power.
[8 marks]
c) A 10 channel wavelength division multiplexed system is designed to operate
over a distance of 200km using single mode fibre with a loss coefficient of
0.2dB/km. The link contains three optical amplifiers, each with a gain of 15dB,
and the transmitted power per channel is 0.032mW. Given that the loss of each
optical filter before the receiver is 2dB, and the loss encountered by each
channel on passing through a 1 x 10 or a 10 x 1 coupler is 6dB, calculate the
required receiver sensitivity for each wavelength in mWs allowing for a power
margin of 4dB.
Power out = Power In Loss + Gain
= 0.032mW - (Loss) + Gain
= -15dBm - (fibre loss + filter loss + coupler x 2 + power margin) +
amplifier gain
= -15dBm - (40dB+2dB+12dB+4dB) + 45dB
= -15dBm -13dB
= -28dBm
[9 marks]
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Question 3
WDM
a) Write a brief note on the following topics with relation to wavelength division
multiplexed optical communications systems; [8.1]
i. Maximum number of channels that can be transmitted
Amplification range of the EDFA limited to the c-band. Thus in
order to increase the amount of data that is transmitted the
wavelength channels have to be positioned as close as possible
without interfering
Thus one of the most important parameters will be the spectral
width and wavelength stability, with external modulation of singlemoded lasers preferred
[4 marks]
ii. Optical Amplification of the WDM signal
Used to overcome fibre loss
Boosters are used immediately after the transmitter or multiplexer
to increase the power of the signal entering the fibre. Inline
amplifiers are then used to amplify the signal periodically between
the transmitter and the receiver. Pre-amplifiers are used before the
receiver/Demultiplexer to increase received power and
transmission distance.
EDFA are used as they amplify over the entire C-band, with high
amplification (30dB)
Problems associated with introduction of nonlinear effects, noise
added and the non-uniformity of the gain spectrum
[4 marks]
iii. Demultiplexing of the WDM signal at the receiver
Two ways to carry it out: optical filters or use a AWG
For filtering, a passive fibre coupler splits the received signal into
N different copies where N corresponds to the number of data
channels transmitted. Each copy of the WDM signal then enters a
filter which isolates one wavelength channel. The isolated signal is
then detected using a photodetector. Important parameters are
insertion loss, filter bandwidth. Problems are need for large number
of filters if transmitting large number of channels, and insertion
loss
AWG works by splitting the input WDM signal by diffraction via a
lens and waveguide into N different copies. Each copy than
propagates through an arrayed waveguide, where adjacent
waveguides have a specific length difference. This introduces a
phase shift between adjacent channels. When signals exit arrayed
waveguide, they are spread by diffraction again at a specified
wavelength. As different copies have experienced different phase
shifts, destructive interference in the output waveguide allows
certain copies of the same wavelength to be eliminated, thereby
extracting individual wavelengths.It has a lower insertion loss for a
larger number of wavelengths when compared to optical filters
[4 marks]
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b) The dispersion paramters of a single mode optical fibre is D=15ps/(km.nm) at a

wavelength of 1550nm. If this fibre is used to transmit an NRZ signal at a bit
rate of 10Gb/s, what is the required bandwidth of the receiver when the
transmission distance is 20km? The laser transmitter used is at a wavelength of
1550nm, has a spectral linewidth of 0.1nm, and a 3dB bandwidth of 12GHz.
Assume that overall risetime must be kept below 70% of the bit period for a
NRZ communication system.

Tsys=(Tt/x^2+Tfibre^2+Tr/x^2)^1/2
Tsys= bit period x 0.7=70ps
Tt/x=0.35/12GHz=29ps
Tfibre=D x L x sigma_lambda=30ps
70ps=29ps^2+30ps^2+Tr/x^2
Tr/x=56ps
BW of Tr/x=0.35/62ps=6.25GHz
[13 marks]

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Question 4
OTDM
a) OTDM vs WDM [9.1]
OTDM allows high aggregate data rates to be transmitted over a
single wavelength by using ultrashort optical pulse to represent data
and multiplexing these optical data pulses in the time domain, instead
of the wavelength domain as in WDM
[5 marks]
b) Bit-interleaving [9.2]
Multiplexes in the time domain by allocating each channel specific
bit slots in the overall multiplexed signal.
The main component is a RZ pulse source. The optical pulse train
generated at a repetition rate R is split into N copies of itself by a
passive optical coupler, where N is the number of channels being
transmitted. Each copy of the pulse train is then individually
modulated with electrical data ata a repetition rate R. As the
modulators are operating at the individual channel data rate, they are
readily accessible using current electronic components.
The modulated optical signal then passes through a fixed fibre delay
length which delays each channel by 1/RN relative to adjacent
channels in the system. This ensures that the optical data channels
arrices the output at a time corresponding to its allocated bit slot in
the overall OTDM signal. The N optical data channels are then
recombined using a second fibre coupler resulting in the OTDM data
signal
[8 marks]
c) What would be the required pulse width for a bit-interleaved OTDM pulse
source operating at 10GHz, transmitting 16channels be? Remember to
avoid ISI, the bit slot is about 3 times the pulse width.
Bit period=1/rep. rate
=100ps
Bit Slot per channel=100ps/16channels=6.25ps
Pulse width=Bit Slot/3=2ps
Using the same pulse width found, how many channels could be
accommodated if the repetition rate was increased to 40GHz?
Bit period=25ps
Bit slot=6ps
Channels=Bit period/bit slot=25/6= 4 channels
[5 marks]
d) Why is an optical pulse source of the most important elements of an highspeed OTDM network? List the important criteria that has to be met [9.3.1]
Important element as the overall data rate of the system is essentially
determined by the temporal separation between data channels
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 Important criteria are:

o Pulse duration: determines the upper limit of the bit rate and
must be short enough to support the desired overall transmission
rate. For Tb/s sub-picosecond pulses are required.
o Spectral width: pulses should as a spectrally pure as possible in
order to minimise fibre dispersion and maximise transmission
distance. Ideally the pulse source is required to be transform
limited, that is, the spectral width of the generated optical pulses
are as small as possible for the associated pulse width
o Timing jitter: it is the random fluctuation in the pulse repetition
period and can be responsible for degradation of the temporal
resolution, thereby limiting the number of channels in an
OTDM network. Should be less than 7% of the width of the
temporal bit slot for BER of 10e-12
o Stability: temperature fluctuations can effect the optical path
length which can result in the bit-interleaving process suffereing
from significant crosstalk between adjacent pulses.
o Other parameters: tunable wavelength and repetition rate, and
SMSR should be >30dB
[7 marks]

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Question 5
a) BER and Eye Diagrams [5.3.2]
BER:
- gives quantitative analysis of system performance
- Essentially the number of bits received in error divided by total number
of bits sent
- Usually around 10e-9 for optical communications system
- BW of detector and amplifier also affect the BER
Eye Diagram:
- Superposition of all possible bit sequences overlaid
- Opening of the eye gives a good indication of the overall system
performance
- Eye closes vertically due to receiver noise
- Eye closes horizontally due to limited BW in the system
[5 marks]
b) [6.2.1]
1

z 2 2
T2
; L D = O
T1 = T0 1 +
2
L D
Calculate the maximum transmission distance when T1=40ps, T0=2ps, B2=20ps2/km
TO2
LD =
2

z=

z
z
z
= 2 = 22
LD
T0
T0
2

z
T1 = T0 1 + 22
To

T1 T0 T02 80ps 2 4ps 2

=
= 3.8km
2
20ps 2 /km

[6 marks]
c) A hybrid radio/fibre system is to be used to transmit an RF data signal (at a
frequency of 28 GHz) from a central station to base stations. From the base
station, the microwave signal is sent over air to the network users. The system
uses a laser diode followed by an external modulator, to which the RF data is
applied. Given the following information, calculate the minimum transmission
power out of the laser in the central station such that the system operates
correctly:
The RF power level applied to the modulator is such that the modulation
index of the optical signal is 1 (100 %)
The insertion loss of the modulator is 3dB
The attenuation coefficent of the fibre is 0.2dB/km
Length of fibre=20km
The responsivity of the detector is 0.8 A/W
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 The detected RF signal passes through a 50 Ohm electrical amplifier with a

gain of 16 dB before being transmitted over air using an antenna
Transmitted RF power must be greater than 20 dBm for correct operation
Fibre dispersion and detector noise can be neglected
Electrical power in a sinewave with a peak-to-peak voltage VP is (VP)2/2R

Power in Base Station

- from antenna back, we have -20dBm, RF amplifier 16dB gain, need -36dB
electrical power after detector
- convert -36dB electrical to current, and then use responsitivity of detector
to find minimum received power
o 10^-36/10=0.251uW
o Using equation given, Vp=sqrt(2*R*P)=5.01mV
o I=Vp/50=100uA (100e-6A)
- Optical Power from responsitivty (0.8A/W)
o 100e-6/800e-3=125uW
- Convert to dBm [10log(125e-3)] =-9dBm
Power Budget Part
- Power out = Power In Loss
o Power out=-9dBm, Loss = 0.2 x 20km= 4dB
o Power in = Power Out + Loss
o Power in = -9dBm + 4dB = -5dBm
Transmitter
- Power into fibre = Power out of laser modulator insertion loss
- Power out of laser = Power into fibre + modulator insertion loss
- Power out of laser =-5dBm + 3dB = -2dBm

[12 marks]

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