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Lecture 1A.1: Introduction To Steel's Role in Construction in Europe
Lecture 1A.1: Introduction To Steel's Role in Construction in Europe
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STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
ECONOMIC & COMMERCIAL FACTORS
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel was first produced in the Middle Ages, but it was not until just over a century ago
that it was used for structural engineering.
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Today, many remarkable structures demonstrate the possibilities of this well developed
material in their clear and transparent appearance, Slides 1 - 5.
Slide 2
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nearly all architectural wishes are some of the reasons to choose this material for the main
structure and for other elements of a building or other construction.
Safe and strong steel structures are assured by well-educated designers with a Quality
Assured and Quality Controlled production. A long life with a small amount of
maintenance can be guaranteed by using well designed details, a high level of preproduction in modern well-equipped shops with skilled employees and modern corrosionresistant systems.
Slide 6 : Relative material costs showing the relative change in prices between steel and
concrete in recent years
Improvements in basic production have been matched by investment in better rolling
mills. The latest hot rolling mill can produce sections to a wider variety of shapes with
close tolerances, good surface finish and consistent, homogeneous composition. Slide 7
gives an indication of the range of sections that are produced. Heat treatments in-line
permit the greater control and enhancement of mechanical properties. Cold rolling can be
used to produce thin gauge strip material which can subsequently be formed into a wide
range of shapes, Slide 8.
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Slide 7 : Range of typical standard hot-rolled sections manufactured by the steelmaking
industry
Slide 8 : Range of typical cold-rolled profiles manufactured from thin galvanised sheet
This revolution in manufacturing techniques has been accompanied by, and has probably
been possible because of, a major restructuring of the entire industry. It is worth recalling
that the European Coal and Steel Community (one of the founding components of the
European Community) was established in 1952 to ensure the restructuring of these crucial
industries after World War 2. It has been a difficult and painful process for both traditional
industries but a lean, fit and modern steel industry has finally emerged.
Slide 9 : Mechanical properties for a range of steels showing the wide range of
characteristics which different steels exhibit
Improvements in mechanical properties are best typified by a simple example. The Eiffel
Tower was undoubtedly an engineering triumph when it was completed in 1888. Making
the best use of the available materials, it contains around 7000 tonnes of iron. A redesign
today would require just 2000 tonnes.
The breadth of steels also encompasses corrosion resistance. Weather resistant steels that
can, in appropriate circumstances, be left unpainted throughout the life of the structure are
now used for many bridges, Slide 10. Stainless steels are available in an almost
bewildering range of compositions. Appropriate choice of chemistry and finish produces a
durable and attractive structure, Slide 11. Coated steel products are very widely used for
cladding, Slides 12 and 13.
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Slide 13 : Use of cold rolled steel for cladding: (Entrepot de la Societe Calberson,
France).
2.3 Design
Design in steel used to be regarded as a 'black art' where one only reached a level of
competence after 20 years of hardwon experience. Whilst, of course, experience is still
very important, the designer is now much better supported and is able to be more accurate.
Computers have made routine, levels of analysis that would otherwise have taken much
manual calculation. Codes of practice have become more comprehensive. The advent of
limit state design concentrates the designer's mind on the most important aspects of a
particular design. The Eurocodes [1 - 4] are the culmination of many years' hard work,
drawing together the best information on steel and composite design.
Two example illustrate the refinements in structural form that have been achieved by the
improvements in understanding of structural behaviour, analysis and design. The portal
frame, the subject of much research from 1950 to the present day, is an elegant, minimalist
structure, see Slide 14. Its inherent efficiency of shape (its centreline closely follows the
thrust line that would be associated with an axial equilibrium path, thus minimising
bending moments) is enhanced by modern plastic or elastic design. Plastic design permits
redistribution of the moments so that the bending moment envelope is the closest possible
fit to the envelopes of uniform strength associated with prismatic sections; a haunch is
used to resist the peak moment at the eaves. Elastic analysis and modern methods of
fabrication permit the construction of a frame whose varying strength distribution is a
close fit to the elastic bending moment envelope.
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Slide 16 : Behaviour of box girder bridges
2.4 Fabrication
In parallel with the improved efficiency of steel production, there have been significant
increases in the productivity of the steel fabrication industry, with roughly a doubling in
output per man between 1980 and 1990. The introduction of numerically controlled
machine tools has not only greatly reduced the time in both preparing and handling the
material but has also made an important contribution to achieving higher quality. The shot
blasting of steel sections and the process of painting can now be carried out automatically,
while sawing and drilling operations have also been automated. In the most modern plants,
conveyor systems are available which transfer material from machine to machine.
A good example of a piece of modern fabrication equipment is the numerically controlled
plant for flame cutting castellated sections. Such equipment offers substantial
improvements in quality and productivity compared to traditional equipment, see Slide 17.
3. ADVANTAGES OF STEEL
3.1 Speed of Execution
There is increasing pressure on all civil and structural engineering projects to reduce the
periods of execution. Nowhere has this had a more dramatic impact on methods of
execution than in the streamlining and simplification of a modern composite building.
Much execution is now by management contract in which the conventionally sequential
activities of design, substructures execution, superstructure execution, envelope execution
and finishing are overlapped to reduce the overall contract period. The contractor becomes
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In many cases the benefits of faster speed of execution can be translated into substantial
financial savings for the client. These savings are particularly significant in situations
where he has made substantial initial investment in acquiring the site. Slide 27 shows the
execution programme achieved at the Finsbury Avenue Project in London. This
programme represented a 40 week saving over conventional construction in in-situ
concrete. While, for a typical building the costs of the two solutions are similar, at around
900 ecu/m2 at 1990 prices, studies of London development costs suggest time-related
savings of up to 7 mecu per week (for the whole building) for earlier completion in a
buoyant letting market, potentially dwarfing the total cost of the structure.
Slide 28 : Long span floor systems for office buildings - alternative solutions
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of longer spans in this context have already been discussed in the previous Section. It is
likely that some part of the long-life structure is going to require modification to
accommodate some radical change in information systems or services.
The attribute of adaptability is of particular importance in refurbishment contracts,
whether it is a case of strengthening existing structures or complete re-construction behind
retained facades (Slides 36 and 37). Steel is delivered to site pre-fabricated; it does not
need propping once in position nor does it suffer from shrinkage or creep. It can therefore
take load immediately. When it is chosen for the structure behind a retained facade, the
frame can be inserted through pockets cut in the structure. Modern techniques like metal
deck floors can be used with advantage in accommodating irregular floor plans and
extensive services can be installed, just as in a new building.
3.4 Quality
Employment patterns in construction have recently changed considerably. Most site work
is now carried out by small, labour-only subcontractors. These companies have little longterm involvement in the construction sector and are too informal to make any investment
in training. The striving for further economy has reduced the overall level of site
supervision.
In this environment it is difficult to maintain the quality of on-site construction. However,
a steel frame is a factory made, precise product, produced by a stable, well-trained
workforce. Only the erection of pre-fabricated members is left for the site - a process
which is easily controlled.
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of its built environment and the greater willingness of an increasingly competitive
commercial industry to respond to the needs of society and its customers.
It is possible to speculate on some of the directions that further development might take.
Quality Assured and Quality Controlled production methods will give cheaper and
better results with less time consuming repairs.
An increasing role for computers will lead to a greater refinement of design both to
minimise fabrication and construction costs (for everyday structures) and to permit
the more adventurous use of steel (for monumental structures).
Developments in steel production. At present very high strength steels (f y>500
N/mm2) carry a substantial price premium. However further developments in online thermo-mechanical treatment are likely to reduce this premium considerably.
As the price of high strength steel drops so designers will become more
adventurous in using their full potential. This will tax engineers' ingenuity to the
full because the stiffness of steel (modulus of elasticity) does not vary with
strength. Structural forms with greater inherent stiffness will have to be developed
if these higher strengths are to be mobilised.
Greater range of sections and products. Modern rolling techniques, for both hot
and cold products, are increasing in flexibility of use. Thus a greater range of
sections will be made available to the designer, a further spur to him to use his
ingenuity for greater structural efficiency.
Fire and corrosion resistance. As techniques for fire and corrosion resistance
improve further, designers will have a greater opportunity to express the steelwork
leading to more elegant and exciting structures.
The environment. As society pays greater attention to environmental issues, its
demands for buildings will evolve. Insulation standards will rise requiring more
attention to details of construction. There will be increasing usage of demountable,
recyclable buildings and components, for which steel is eminently suitable.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Steel is a modern material, produced in large quantity with high and reliable
quality.
Steel is available in a wide range of hot and cold rolled products, as plates and
profiles.
Steel is easily manufactured into end products.
Most of this manufacture takes place in quality controlled workshops.
Site connections can easily be made and can carry load immediately.
Given good corrosion protection and maintenance, steel has an indefinite life.
Erection on site can take place quickly with little risk of delay.
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Steel structures are light and strong and only require simple foundations.
Existing steel structures can easily be adapted to new demands.
Quality Control and Quality Assurance will give a further guarantee of the
economic application of steel structures.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation)
[2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and
Rules for Buildings, CEN Brussels, 1992.
[3] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV 1994-1-1:
Part 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN (in press).
[4] Eurocode 8: "Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures" CEN (in preparation)