Techniques of Argumentation

(Lecture 16: Reasons, opinions, and authority)

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When claims conflict

Aristotle: Opposite assertions cannot be true at the same

time
Law of Non-Contradiction: No proposition may be

simultaneously true and false.

When faced with the conflicting claims p and Not-p how

ought one proceed?

Weigh the evidence and reasons supporting the claims
It is rational to believe a proposition only if there is good

reason to.

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Thats just your opinion

What is an opinion?
Plato distinguished doxa from episteme
Belief and Knowledge
Certain beliefs amount to knowledge
beliefs that are true
beliefs that are based on good reasons (justification)
An opinion is a belief
they are either true or false
they are either based on good reasons or not

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Opinions and entitlements

Everyones entitled to their own opinion

entitled to think whatever you like
entitled to think whatever you like free of criticism
entitled to have your views taken seriously
Youre rationally entitled to believe only what there is

good reason to believe

Many opinions are not supported by the evidence; and

many are false

All opinions were not created equal!

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A matter of opinion
Thats a matter of opinion
opinions differ on the matter
many different opinions on the issue
there is no fact of the matter
Licorice is tasty
Its tasty to you but not to me
You like it but I dont
The issue is entirely subjective
Cant really disagree and argue over such issues
Dont confuse reason governed opinions with arational

subjective tastes
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 Intelligent design movement and evolution

Global warming and climate change

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Experts
What is an expert?
Someone who is more knowledgable on a particular subject
than most others
Experts are more likely to be right
(i) They have access to more information on the subject
(ii) They are better at judging and analyzing the
information
There is a lot of information out there in this complex

world, so we must rely on experts for our knowledge of

certain things
We cant be experts in every subject
A division of intellectual labor

The Expert Principle. If a claim conflicts with expert

opinion, there is good reason to doubt it.

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Appeal to authority
Appeals to authority can go wrong
Just because someone is a expert in one subject it doesnt

make them an expert on every subject.

Einstein advocated for a vegetarian diet
A PhD in Mathematics writes a self-help book
The pope on evolution

Just because someone is well-known and on TV it doesnt

make them an authority

Tom Cruise on psychiatry
Celebrity endorsements of politicians

Religious, cultural, and social leaders often have

leaderships roles, but this authority should not be

confused with general expertise
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Authority and the Web

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Web sources
Authority
Who wrote it?
What are their credentials?
Purpose
Why did they write it?
What standpoint are they pushing?
Bias
What biases might the author have?
What conflicts of interest?
Who funds the website?

Support
Does the author provide good reasons?
Cite credible sources?
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The whole problem with the world is that fools and

fanatics are always so certain of themselves, but wiser
people so full of doubts -(Bertrand Russell)

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