Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Language Teaching and Learning in ESL Classroom
Language Teaching and Learning in ESL Classroom
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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permission from the publisher.
All names of teachers, teacher learners, students and places are pseudonyms or are used with permission.
Teacher and student work samples are used with permission.
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders for permission to reprint borrowed material. We
regret any oversights that may have occurred and will rectify them in future printings of this work.
ISBN: 978-1-935987-02-4
Library of Congress Control Number:
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Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter 2:
Chapter 3:
Chapter 4:
Chapter 5:
Chapter 6:
61
Chapter 8:
Chapter 9:
101
iii
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iv
Table of Contents
151
Part V: Self-Examination
Chapter 18: ESL Online and Adult Educators
by Rosie Maum
241
Chapter 19: The Plight of the Adjunct: A Critique on Policies
by Scott Drinkall
247
Chapter 20: Funding IEP Professional Development
by Alan D. Lytle
255
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Introduction
The eld of English as a second language (ESL) is vast and complex. In different forms, it not
only navigates through K-12, college and graduate school, but it also shakes hands with adult
education, literacy, teacher education, and global education as in teaching English as a foreign
language. This book was compiled with the hope that professionals within all disciplines of
education, in addition to the ones mentioned above, can grasp the extent of how the eld has
evolved in recent years.
The authors in this compilation bring forth new issues to the eld of ESL and EFL or revisit
old issues with new insights. They are diverse and write from the perspectives of the countries they
originate from or where they are currently employed. The authors are either from Bolivia, China,
Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Honduras, United Arab Emirates, and the United States or write from
the perspectives of being there for many years.
The chapters in this volume are not only reections of ESL in the U.S., but they also portray
contemporary EFL issues directly or indirectly related to some of the countries mentioned above.
Section one of this volume concentrates on classroom techniques. This comprehensive section begins
with Magraths methods for teaching the multilevel classroom; here he demonstrates how to adapt
the same exercises to beginner, intermediate and advanced students. In chapter 2, Redding uncovers
her own system for using pop and rock music in the classroom while Mandi and Josh Morris show us
in chapter 3 how to succeed in the ESL classroom teaching Korean students. Carmona (chapter 4)
introduces the steps for English language learners (ELL) to participate in global advocacy from their
own classrooms; there are also sample lessons and projects included.
Coombe, Al-hamly and Troudy (chapter 5) examine teacher testing literacy concentrating on
challenges and suggestions. Fuentes Valentino (chapter 6) ends the section with the development of
the ESOL-infused lesson plan; it is crucial reading for K-12 school teachers who have ELL students
in their classrooms and future teachers in teacher education programs who must be inclusive in their
lesson plans.
The second section is dedicated to research. Price contributes her action research study
completed while working at Icesi University in Colombia in chapter 7; an investigation was conducted
to discover if the students writing improved using CALL (computer-assisted language learning) and
the Moddle platform. On the other hand, McElroy, Pugalee, McElroy (chapter 8) carry out a study
at the community college level; they tackle adult ELL students perceptions of how their teachers
taught in their own country vs. how instructors teach in the U.S. In chapter 9, Marinaccio-Eckel
dissects a summer literacy program for ELL students to uncover if their reading skills improve and
in chapter 10, Aubrey scrutinizes the TEFL certicate industry in Thailand.
Hess and Garzon (chapter 11) introduce the third section with an inspirational research on
successful women who had gone through their own ESL program as the authors investigate the
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vi
Introduction
meaning of success. Chapter 12 is where Lapp and Whelan Ariza meticulously show how to support
an intergenerational literacy center in Florida. Allison and Quirke (chapter 13) introduce the complex
methods of how to successfully mentor a colleague into a leader and in chapter 14, Sun defends the
importance of professional development to generate leaders.
Three chapters on collaboration are included in section four. Lytle (chapter 15) argue the
importance of collaboration to revamp an intensive English language program (IEP) in Arkansas.
Pratt-Johnson and Marrett (chapter 16) use collaborative reection to assist instructors from outside
the discipline to teach ELL students, and in chapter 17, Keith and Fuentes Valentino methodically
identify the key goals for cultivating a bilingual gifted program in a developing country basin their
research in Honduras.
Self-examination is the given name for the fth and nal section because as a discipline, ESL must
always evaluate itself. In chapter 18, Maum deliberates on the inevitability for adult ESOL educators
to employ new technology in the classroom and the implications for the future of adult ESOL
students who are not computer literate. Drinkall (chapter 19) re-examines the plight of the adjunct
instructor with some positive ideas, and in the last chapter, Lytle (chapter 20) cleverly contemplates
the different budgetary techniques that may be employed to fund professional development.
Our discipline has evolved rapidly in the U.S. as well as abroad. Having also participated in
the foreign language education domain, I can safely say that ESL has surpassed the methodology,
practice and use of technology in the classroom. It has given me new perspectives to teach other
languages.
Jose A. Carmona
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PART
CLASSROOM
TECHNIQUES
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1
The Multi Level ESL Classroom
Douglas Magrath
Introduction
The multi-level classroom presents a unique challenge to the adult education ESL teacher used to
the standard model of a group of students working through a book at the same pace. Students learn
at different rates and employ various strategies; they may also acquire different skills resulting in a
group that has some members very procient in reading, while others may read poorly but be able to
speak quite well. The most extreme example of a multi-level class is where some students only need a
review while others who are newly arrived and non-literate will need to start from the alphabet. The
author will make suggestions, present some teaching tips and sample exercises.
Denition
Multi level classroom is an umbrella term to cover a multitude of situations. In a multi-level ESL class,
there are following types of learners:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Language Learning
What does the classroom instructor do when faced with a situation where a large ESL class has
members of different skill levels progressing at different rates? Some will understand; others will
3
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Classroom Techniques
just repeat without understanding while some may just sit and watch. Some may have had more
exposure to the language than others; in addition, some students may be better able to employ learning strategies and appear to pick up languages quicker.
Students understand language at their level of prociency, and this understanding aids in language
acquisition (Krashen and Terrell, 1983, p. 55). The language lessons need to be part of a larger lesson
plan that actively involves the learners in a realistic situation where English is a tool for transmitting
a message or solving a problem. Activities should allow a natural exchange of information either
orally or in writing. A lock-step presentation of structure drills will not meet these students needs
since they are at different levels. Taylor, writing for ESL teachers, states:
. . . . simple codes used in a communicative setting may provide better coverage of the full
range of linguistic interaction than systematic, sequential syllabuses which, at this point at
least, cannot possibly meet all learner needs. (Taylor, 1982, p. 35)
Taylor advocates a realistic setting that provides plenty of language beneting all the students. The
content is made up of issues that encourage students to read, write and think in the target language
rather than complete a set of drills. (p. 37) The point is to establish a language-rich environment
that provides plenty of input and allows student output and participation. Vocabulary and syntax
should be simplied to be accessible to all. High frequency words-money- are used rather than lower
frequency words such as currency (Kalivoda, 1986).
Another hint for those teaching a large number of students at different levels is grouping to
downsize each section to a more manageable level. Obviously the class can be grouped by level or by
task-reading, writing, listening, or other criteria. An effective approach will use grouping methods
that allow the learners to work on a variety of tasks in the various skill areas. (Halgesen, 1986,
p. 77) The students work together and assist each other as needed. Everybody cooperates and works
together to reach a goal since the learning task is based on interaction and reciprocal interdependence among the members of the group and requires mutual help (Bejarano, 1987, p. 485) Learning
tasks fostered language acquisition in Bejaranos study because they set up an immediate need for
active participation by all group members. (145)
Texts can be modied to be more learner friendly without compromising their integrity. There
are two types of modication: elaboration and simplication. Elaboration enriches the text by adding
paraphrases and explaining thematic elements without changing the original text. (Kim, 2006, p. 344)
Simplication rewrites the text in special English and makes the text lose its originality. Elaboration
is like a commentary that enhances but does not replace the original.
Strategies
Scaffolding
This term is used to describe the step-by-step process of building students ability to complete tasks
on their own. Scaffolding consists of several linked strategies including modeling academic language,
contextualizing academic language using non-verbal cues, visuals, realia, gestures, and demonstrations, and using hands-on activities to enhance comprehensibility building on a priori knowledge.
(Northwest, 2003) A student works with the teacher or more likely with a more advanced student
or native speaker to grasp a challenging concept or skill. Students work not only on vocabulary
and grammar, but also on the content area. The CALLA approach (Cognitive Academic Language
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Learning Approach) trains content teachers to incorporate language teaching strategies into their
classes. (Pally, 2000, pp. 67) CALLA considers three main components in teaching concepts: the
concept itself, the language appropriate within the context and the strategies that ESL learners will
use to master the concept. (Yahya and Furner, 4950)
Interaction
Another hint for those teaching a large number of students at different levels is grouping to downsize
each section to a more manageable level. Obviously the class can be grouped by level or by taskreading, writing, listening, or other criteria. An effective approach will use grouping methods that
allow the learners to work on a variety of tasks in the various skill areas. (Halgesen, 1986, p. 77) The
students work together and assist each other as needed. Everybody cooperates and works together to
reach a goal since the learning task is based on interaction and reciprocal interdependence among
the members of the group and requires mutual help (Bejarano, 1987, p. 485) Learning tasks fostered
language acquisition in Bejaranos study because they set up an immediate need for active participation by all group members. (145)
Focus on the negotiation of meaning in real-life situations as is the case in cooperative learning
activities. Possibilities include group discussions and problem solving activities (information-gap)
skits, role playing. (Northwest, 2003)
Other Techniques
Enunciate clearly, but speak in a normal voice, keep up a familiar routine, repeat and review as often
as necessary, provide summaries and outlines, avoid slang and list objectives clearly.
Reading Activities
The daily press provides a real chunk of language as used by native speakers. Discussion of an article,
advertisement or editorial cartoon can emphasize cultural differences and give practice in speaking.
In the following exercise, an advertisement is used as a prompt. The class can be divided up by level
according to the system in use in the program or school with allowance for some overlapping:
Activity 1
Show a printed advertisement.
1. Low Levels: Look at the advertisement. What is the product? What does it do? Do you
want to buy one?
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Classroom Techniques
2. Middle Levels: Do exercise one, and then Look at the advertisement. Describe the
product. Do you need or want it? Why or why not? Describe a similar product.
3. Higher Levels: Do exercise two. Write your own advertisement for the product. Are
you convinced by the printed advertisement? Role play calling the company for more
information. Write a telephone script. (Magrath 1 1995, p. 101)
The exercise can also be done with a news item: Show a newspaper clipping.
1. Low Levels: Look at the headline. Who is Mr.______________? (President, Prime
Minister, Banker, etc)
2. Middle Levels: Read the article. Who is Mr. X? What did he do? Where? When?
Where? Why? Change the paragraph to the present as if you are observing the
event now.
3. Higher Levels: Summarize the news article in your own words. Describe a similar
event in your own experience. Write a letter to the editor in response to the article.
(Magrath 1, (1995, p. 102)
Homework or additional class assignments can include writing a letter to a columnist, writing a
want-ad to sell an item, choosing some help-wanted ads to answer and then writing cover letters and
a brief resume. (Blatchford, 1986, p. 133)
An article on current social concerns can be a good starting point for multi-level reading and
grammar activities. The following activities are based on a short article on the problems of trash,
landlls and the need for recycling. Class levels range from lower intermediate to advance.
Activity 2
Read the short article: Lets Talk Trash ( Jacquart, 1990)
All levels: answer the comprehension questions:
1. Each American throws out about _________ pounds of trash per month.
a) 50
b) 1,300
c) 108
d) 220
2. They throw away 16 billion disposable diapers.
a) useful
b) useless
c) usable
d) They can be thrown away
3. The containers are reusable. They _________.
a) can be used again
b) cant be recycled
c) must be thrown away
d) can not be used
4. Recycling means _________.
a) going through a cycle
b) riding a bicycle
c) reusing materials
d) putting things into the trash
5. About _________ aluminum cans per person are tossed out each year.
a) 450
b) 250
c) 2,250
d) 800
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Classroom Techniques
Listening Activities
Dictations work well with students who have a good auditory memory. Ilyan (1986) suggests a
student assisted dictation exercise for numbers that can be expanded in a number of ways. In the
basic exercise, the teacher writes numbers on cards. A student picks a card and allows the class to
see the number while reading it to the teacher who writes the number on the board as dictated by
the student without looking at the card. The teacher then asks the class if the number on the board
is correct. This exercise is an informal test for the reader, a review for the class and a new lesson for
the lower level students. (Ilyan, p. 95) Similar exercises involve a student dictating a bus schedule,
movie or TV listing or other list to the teacher or volunteer at the board. Again, the beginners
would be learning basic language functions such as numbers, days of the week and places while the
more advanced would be reviewing previous material and learning organizational skills in the new
language. These students could then plan their bus ride or leisure activity by using the information provided. Rogers and Medley (1988) suggest using authentic audio or video taped materials in
language classes. The multi-level class can benet from such materials as they are presented so the
students can access the content both cognitively and affectively. (p. 468) A good exercise would be to
play a tape of a tour itinerary or a vacation commercial:
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Activity 1
Are you planning a vacation? How about a quiet island in the Pacic Ocean? Palm Island
is a great place for a vacation. You can hike in the mountains, swim and relax on the beach,
and eat in wonderful restaurants. Palm Island is only one hour from Malibu by plane, but it
seems like another world. Contact your travel agent to get more information about beautiful
Palm Island or call 1-800 Palm Isle. Hotel-airline packages available from $299. (Adapted from
Pavlik, 1985, p. 90)
1. Lower Levels: The item presented is a (a) weather report (b) sports report (c) travel
advertisement.
2. Middle Levels: Do exercise 1. What activities are available? How can you get to Palm
Island? Where do you leave from? How long does it take to get to Palm Island? How
much does it cost?
3. Higher levels: Do exercise 2. How do you arrange your trip? Is it a camp site or a full
service resort? Would you like to go? Why? Suggest other activities not listed in the
commercial. Write (or make an oral presentation) a summary of your last trip; or-You
are setting up a vacation plan for your class. Try to sell it to them.
Other possibilities for presentation via tape are weather reports, sports reports or even an excerpt
from a cooking show. (Magrath 2 (1995, pp. 184185)
Activity 2
Listen to the conversation-then answer the questions:
Hello, Computer-Serve. Mr. Mark speaking.
Hello, I am interested in your assistant writer position.
How did you learn about this position?
I read your advertisement in the TIMES.
Have you worked with computers?
Yes. I was an assistant in the State College computer lab.
Have you had any formal training?
Yes. I took basic programming and spreadsheets.
What grade did you get?
I got an A.
All Levels: true/false:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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10
Classroom Techniques
Answers
join
opening
think
who
job
talk
Higher levels:
1. Do a dictation by copying the original conversation.
2. Listen to this new conversation, and then ll in the information on the career information card.
Hello, I am calling about the laboratory assistant job advertised in the paper?
Oh yes. Your name, please?
John Roberts.
And how old are you?
I am 25.
Do you have any lab experience?
Yes, I was a lab assistant at River Community College.
Did you graduate from high school?
Yes, and I have almost nished my AS degree. I am majoring in biology.
Can you come for an interview Tuesday, March 5th in the morning at 8:30?
Yes, I can.
OK. We will see you then.
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11
Now write a letter requesting an interview. (Adapted from Pavlik, 1985, pp. 3435)
In listening exercises, the focus is on the message rather than on a specic set of grammar points.
The students at various levels can understand the material on a range from what sort of material it is
(lower levels) to specic details (mid to higher levels). Learners who work well with groups benet
from these activities They enjoy games and teaching or leading others in the class.
In general, listening activities should be constructed around a specic topic or task so students
can feel that they have accomplished something useful (Dunkel, 1986, p. 103). Higher level students
can role play a situation by acting out parts while the lower level learners listen and respond. Use
a regular language learning activity (see chapter 1), and devise a way for learners to understand it a
several levels. Take the activity about the sick traveler for example:
Activity 3
You and a friend are staying in a small hotel in __________. Around midnight your friend
complains of being sick. (cramps, chills, fever). You go to the desk in the lobby and ask for help.
1. Explain the problem to the desk clerk.
2. Ask if there is a drugstore in the neighborhood that stays open late at night.
3. Ask for directions on how to get there; repeat the directions to verify that you have heard
them correctly.
4. Go to the drugstore and explain your friends problem to the druggist.
5. Ask for some medicine.
6. Find out if there are special instructions as to how the medicine should be taken.
(Bragger and Rice, 1984, p. 524; Bragger, 1985, p. 93)
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Classroom Techniques
12
Activity 1
1. Lower Levels: a basic description of the car-size, color number of people in the
advertisement can be composed. If the target structure is be, ask questions about
the size of the people, shape, color, model, age, etc. of the car.
2. Middle Levels: Do exercise one, and then add verbs to describe what the people are
doing (or will do or have done).
3. Higher Levels: Do exercise two, and then discuss the roles cars play in US or the target
culture. After the oral work students can write their own impressions or read an article
about cars or transportation. (Bragger, 1985, 967).
Activity 2
To introduce or review prepositions, the instructor can reproduce an apartment guide or a hotel
directory. We are staying at the City Inn, on the third oor in a double with TV etc. All groups
can participate in the initial conversation based on the directory:
We are looking at the ______ APARTMENT GUIDE. We are going to visit the Alhambra
Arms apartments.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Where are the Alhambra Arms apartments? They are on Fourth Street.
Is the complex near a shopping center? Yes, it is 1/2 mile from Freds Market.
Which oor is the vacancy on? The vacant apartment is ______ the rst oor.
When can we move in? We can move in ______ July 1.
When is the rent due? It is due ______ the rst of every month.
The instructor initially uses the target structures in explaining the guide. When the students
understand, the teacher begins asking questions using simple yes-no questions to elicit responses
from the lower levels. Questions involving more difcult constructions and concepts are used for the
middle and higher levels. Students can then form teams and give each other directions. (Krashen and
Terrell, 1983, pp. 112114) The higher group can role play checking in to the hotel or inspecting
the apartment. The middle and higher groups could also create a new guide based on some provided
information.
Students participate based on their individual abilities. More advanced students can write out
the answers and give reasons why they have chosen to take the apartment or not or in the case of the
hotel guide, which hotel they would prefer.
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13
The instructor needs to keep the exercises interesting and relevant. Just working through
structured exercises is not enough since the students may just store the forms away in memory and
really acquire the material (Taylor, 1982, p. 37)
The teacher may enter into an extensive oral exchange with the members of the multi-level
group adjusting for individual students ability to understand:
Activity 3
I have a wallet. Its my wallet. What color is it?
________________________________________
Yes, its black. What else is black? Is your jacket black?
________________________________________
I have dollars in my wallet.
I take out the dollars. I count them 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
How many dollars (How much money) do I have?
________________________________________
I put the dollars on the table. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
How many dollars are on the table?
________________________________________
We count the dollars. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
(Kalivoda, 1986, p. 114)
A student reading can be a good summing up exercise since is allows the students to produce
at their level of ability. It is also an additional opportunity for cooperative learning activities.
Learners enjoy generating and sharing their own creative readings because the content is familiar
and predictable. (Isserlis, 1992, p. 7) New words are in the context of the learners daily lives, and
they can bridge the gap from what they know to new information. These activities can be done
individually or in groups and give the students the chance to do something original in English. The
nal version of student stories can be duplicated (with errors removed) and used as the book for
the class.
Activity 4
STUDENT TEXT AND EXERCISES
Yesterday, Tony came to visit our class.
We wrote about Tony.
We talked to Tony.
Teresa wrote about Tony on the blackboard.
His name is Tony.
He lives in Warren. He is single.
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14
Classroom Techniques
He lives in Warren with his family.
He has 1 brother.
He works at a department store.
He came to watch our class.
Exercise:
His _____ is _______.
He _____ in Warren. He is _____.
He lives in ____ with _____ family.
...
Tony is a man.
Tony lives in Providence.
Tony lives with his wife.
...
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
(p. 7)
Conclusion
The teacher of a multi-level class should be prepared to help students become good learners since
much of the work will be individual or small group assignments. Learners can be taught to apply
various cognitive strategies as they interact with the material to be learned (Chamot and Kupper,
1989, p. 16). They should be encouraged to review former lessons to reinforce vocabulary, structures
and semantic/cultural topics; at the same time they preview coming lessons both in the book and on
tape if available. If they do these activities, the new material will be somewhat familiar by the time
the class begins to study it. They practice skimming and scanning looking for meaning clues in context, and they are not afraid to guess if necessary. They learn new words in semantic groups and try
to form associations between words and use memory hooks. Successful learners take notes writing
down key words; they also are willing to record classes for later playback or do extra listening in the
lab. They gain further comprehensible input by engaging the teacher in additional conversation
whenever possible and by trying to read books and periodicals outside of class.
The multi-level class presents a unique challenge to both instructor and learners; it is this
authors hope that the preceding discussion will have at least offered some guidance to teachers as
they cope with the ever increasing number of English as a second language students in both ESL and
regular content area classes.
The Author
Douglas Magrath teaches Arabic Studies and ESL at Embry-Riddle University in Prescott, AZ. He
has also taught ESL and College Prep English at Daytona State College and Seminole Community
College near Orlando, Florida. He has published in the elds of Arabic Studies and language
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15
teaching methodology including the New Ways series, (TESOL), Perspectives on Community College
ESL vol. 3: Faculty, Administration and the Working Environment, (TESOL), Foreign Language Annals,
(ACTFL) and The Journal of Arabic Literature.
References
Bauman, Jane Stroup. (October 22, l983). How to Modify Dialogues for Multiple Use in the
Classroom. TXTESOL IV, North Texas State University, Denton.
Bejarano, Yael, (September, 1987). A Cooperative Small-Group Methodology in the Language
Classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 21:3, (pp. 483504).
Blatchford, Charles H, (1986). Newspapers: Vehicles for Teaching ESOL with a Cultural Focus,
Culture Bound, Ed. Joyce Merril Valdes, Cambridge University Press. (pp. 130136).
Bragger, Jeannette D, (1985). Materials Development for the Prociency-Oriented Classroom.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY IN THE CLASSROOM AND BEYOND. Ed.
Charles J. James. National Textbook Co. Lincolnwood, IL.
Bragger, Jeannette D. Rice, Donald B. (1984). Allons y Le Francais par Etapes, Heinle and Heinle,
Boston, MA.
Chamot, Anna Uhl and Kupper, Lisa, (February, 1989). Learning Strategies in Foreign Language
Instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 22, 1, ACTFL Yonkers, New York. USA (pp. 1324).
Dunkel, Patricia, (1986). Developing Listening Fluency in L2: Theoretical Principles and
Pedagogical Considerations. Modern language Journal, 70:2 (pp. 99106).
Halgesen, Marc E, (1986). Coping with the Multi-Level Classroom: How to Modify Materials
and Methods for Individualization. in Selected Articles from the TESOL Newsletter, Ed. John F.
Haskell, TESOL, Washington, DC pp. 7779.
Ilyan, Donna, (1986). Testing Adult Immigrants in Open Enrollment Programs. in Selected Articles
from the TESOL Newsletter, Ed. John F. Haskell, TESOL, Washington DC pp. 9597.
Isserlis, Janet, (September, 1992). Learner Generated Materials Every Day. Adult Education
Newsletter, TESOL 19, 2 p. 7.
Jacquart, Joanne, (1990). Lets Talk Trash. Windows to the World, Professional Freelance Writers of
Orlando, Cablevision of Central Florida, Orlando, FL pp. 5153.
Kalivoda, Theodore B, (1986). Listening Skill Development through Massive Comprehensible
Input. Planning for Prociency: Dimension Language 86, Eds. T. Bruce Fryer and Frank W.
Medley, Jr. SCOLT, Atlanta, pp. 111116.
Kim, Youngkyu, ( June 2006). Effects of input elaboration on vocabulary acquisition. TESOL
QUARTERLY, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 341371.
Krashen, Stephen D. Terrell, Tracey D. (1983). The National Approach. Pergamon, Oxford.
Magrath, Douglas, (1995). Multilevel Discussion New Ways in Teaching Listening, Eds. David
Nunan and Lindsay Miller, TESOL, Alexandria, VA pp. 101102.
Magrath, Douglas, (1995). Multilevel Interaction, New Ways in Teaching Listening, Eds. David
Nunan and Lindsay Miller, TESOL, Alexandria, VA pp. 183184.
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, (May, 2003). General Principles for Teaching ELL
Students, www.nwreal.org/request/2003may/general.html
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p
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Introduction
Before addressing the pragmatics of music selection and lesson creation involving pop and rock
music, it might be benecial for readers to realize that the most current brain research fully supports the use of music in learning. One can even go so far as to say that music is the superhighway to
the brain, and Id go so far as to say that for language acquisition purposes, music can work almost
magically if carefully applied.
Theoretical Background
To begin with, researchers are now much clearer about how the brain works from a physical standpoint.
Music activates not only the auditory functions, but in fact, stimulates multiple cognitive brain
sites ( Jensen, Music, 2000). One of the chief functions of our brains is to recognize patterns:
The theory [hypothesis of neural synchrony (Shaw 1998)] states that the activation between
family groups of cortical neurons assist the cortex in pattern recognition. This multiple-site,
cross activation may be necessary for higher brain functions including music, cognition, and
memory ( Jensen, Music, 2000).
In other words, just the mere processing of music stimulates our memory centers and prepares the
way for higher brain functions. The very act of listening to music may strengthen one or more
of our memory systems . . . while engaging our brain for prediction, analysis, sequencing, and
encoding ( Jensen, Music, 2000). The beauty of this is that students do not have to consciously think
about anything. The mere act of listening to music will put their brains into a higher gear, so
17
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Classroom Techniques
to speak, so that their learning is optimized without any conscious effort. British businessmen and
researcher Colin Rose puts it nicely:
If youre listening to a song, the left brain would be processing the words and the right
brain would be processing the music. So its no accident that we learn the words of popular songs very easily. You dont have to make any effort to do that. You learn very quickly
because the left brain and the right brain are both involvedand so is the emotional center
of the brain in the limbic system (Dryden 1994).
Thus, just from a physical standpoint alone, using music grabs our students attention and primes
their brains for higher brain functions.
Secondly, researchers are discovering that if a lesson engages a persons emotions, recall
increases. The beauty of this is that music automatically engages emotions. Jensen explains:
[M]usic activates and elicits emotional responses in the parts of the brain that are also
responsible for long-term memory. This means that when information is imbued with music,
theres a greater likelihood that the brain will encode it for the long-term (Music 2000).
According to J. Le Doux, author of Emotion, Memory, and the Brain, it is emotions that
motivate us to focus our attention, emotions that create meaning in our lives, and in fact, emotions
have their own memory pathways (1994). Furthermore, the more intense the emotion, the stronger
the brain imprints the information (Cahill 1994). Thus, when an educator develops a lesson plan that
helps trigger an emotional response (which is almost guaranteed by incorporating music), learners
will retain what is taught.
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Brain Research
Another important nding of the recent brain research points to issues that impede higher brain
functioning and learning. Here again, music plays an important role. The Caines research in this
area is well established and shows that when students perceive a threat or a threatening or
stressful situation, a phenomenon called downshifting occurs: Downshifting is a psychophysiological response to threat. . . . Downshifted learners then bypass much of their capacity for higher
order functioning and creative thought (Caine and Caine 1994). It is simple; when we are scared or
we feel threatened, we play it safe. We fall back on what we know best. We do not try new things.
We do not take risks. We do not use higher level, more complex brain capabilities; we use instinct
instead. We do not learn as fast. As Jensen puts it:
Threats activate defense mechanisms and behaviors that are great for survival but lousy
for learning. Survival always overrides pattern-detection and complex problem solving. . . .
Learners with lower stress can put together relationships, understand broad underlying
theories, and integrate a wider range of material (Teaching 1998).
A study done by W. J. Jacobs and L. Nadel suggests that our ability to recall is what is most affected
by stress, both the short-term and the long-term memory (1985). More specically, when under
stress, the brain produces the peptide cortisol, high levels of which can kill brain cells in the hippocampus. According to J. D. Vincent, these particular brain cells are critical to explicit memory
function (1990). Thus, under stress, we downshift, our brains do not function well for absorbing
new things, and even if by some miracle we did learn something, we would remember very little of
it later.
As a result, it is extremely important, therefore, that we keep our students as relaxed as possible, in order to keep stress levels low, thereby optimizing their learning. The key here is that
music can relax our students and prevent downshifting. Brain researcher Terry Webb explains
that certain types of musical rhythms help relax the body, calm the breath, quiet the chatter and
evoke a gentle state of relaxed awareness which is highly receptive to learning new information
(qtd by Dryden, 1994). Thus, music is a natural means by which we can relax our students, if it is
properly employed.
Multiple Intelligences
In addition to considering how the brain works, one must also consider Howard Gardiners work on
multiple intelligences. Not all learners learn exactly the same way. One size does not t all. David
Lazear spells out the seven major intelligences as follows: (1) Verbal/Linguistic: a student who focuses
mostly on language; (2) Logical/Mathematical: a student whose talent lies in scientic thinking;
(3) Visual/Spatial: the ability to form mental images and pictures in the mind; (4) Body/Kinesthetic: the
ability to use the body to express emotion; (5) Musical/Rhythmic: the recognition and use of rhythmic
and tonal patterns, sensitivity to sounds from the environment, the human voice, and musical instruments. Of all forms of intelligence, the consciousness altering effect of music and rhythm on the
brain is probably the greatest (Lazear xv); (6) Interpersonal: the ability to work cooperatively with
others in a group; and (7) Intrapersonal: when a student has knowledge of the internal aspects of the
self, such as knowledge of feelings, emotional responses, thinking processes, self-reection, and a
sense of spirituality (Lazear 1991). Lazear emphasizes that the more of these intelligences a teacher
can incorporate into a lesson, the deeper and more thorough the learning will be (xxi). Thus,
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Classroom Techniques
a carefully constructed lesson plan using music can, in fact, engage all of these learners, with the
possible exception of the Logical/Mathematical learner.
The recent advances in brain research explain why musical lessons have had such great efcacy
in helping ESL students become uent more quickly:
The music stimulates multiple cognitive sites in the brain and grabs students attention;
The music relaxes students while engaging their emotions, thereby lowering their stress
(cortisol) levels and increasing their endorphin and dopamine levels. This helps students
relax, take risks, and remember what they have learned;
The music primes the brain for higher-level thinking, i.e., prediction, analysis, creative
thought, and problem-solving, etc., which explains why students progress more rapidly using
musical lessons built around pop and rock music; and
Such lessons address all learning styles except, perhaps, the Logical/Mathematical learner.
Thus, most students benet from these lessons while only a small percentage does not.
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simple and memorable, and they dont require any kind of vocal gymnastics, typically. For example,
in my Rock Talk series of ESL books/CDs, I use the Beatles song, Revolution, to teach the long
u vowel sound. It was a top twenty hit (in 1968), and repeats the sentence, You say you want a
__________; well you know, we all want to ____________. The entire song consists of plugging in
some sort of long u word in blank number one, so repetition is guaranteed. If you look at the vocal
range, its sung almost exactly where one would speak the words, so it meets my criteria of being sung
at the speaking level.
Next, when I build lessons around pop/rock songs, I follow the radio pattern of tempo choice,
that is, three up-tempo songs to one ballad or slower song. Revolution meets this criteria as
the hit form of the song was the mid- to up-tempo version. I follow this pattern because most of my
students have two jobs (or more) and theyre pushing themselves to learn English in order to advance
in their jobs or simply to survive more easily. Either way, an up-tempo tune usually gives my tired
students more energy. Thats helpful if youre teaching early in the morning, after lunch, or late at
night. I do all three regularly, so I know the value of that up-tempo song.
Another criteria I have is to find singers that have clear enunciation. This one can be challenging and causes me to have to go to older hits to nd that understandable vocal. Being a singer
before I was a professor, and still being a singer for that matter, I simply take songs and recut them
to suit my ESL purposes. Not everyone can do that, but it will frustrate your students if they cant
understand the words. The last thing we want to do is frustrate students as that destroys the brain
chemistry weve worked so hard to establish.
The nal criteria in terms of song choice for me is the content of the lyrics. I tend to thematically
group songs so that a discussion can then ensue about a particular cultural theme. Using Revolution
from my Long U Chapter in Rock Talk and the Vowel Sounds as an illustration, I use the lyrics to
Revolution as a jumping off point to discuss politics. The lyrics are as follows:
You say you want a revolution, well, you know
We all want to change the world
You tell me that its evolution, well, you know
We all want to change the world.
You say you got a real solution, well, you know
Wed all love to see the plan
You ask me for a contribution, well, you know
Were all doing what we can
You say youll change the constitution, well, you know
We all want to change your head
You tell me its the institution, well, you know
You better free your mind instead.
I focus only on these lyrics. What I gain from using a song such as this is students repeating
(without thinking) embedded American English intonation patterns, rhythmic patterns, the long
u vowel sound, a bit of reduced speech (ala ya know), and embedded idiomatic expressions
(e.g., free your mind). Pop songs tend to have fairly frequent use of idiomatic expressions. I
get to introduce students to multi-syllabic long u words in an effort to expand their vocabulary,
namely, revolution, evolution, solution, contribution, constitution, and institution.
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Classroom Techniques
From a grammar and morphology standpoint, I use what is present in the song lyrics. In this case,
I can focus on the idea that words that end in tion are nouns. I then create a cloze exercise using
at least ten new words to achieve a quick check for student comprehension of the vocabulary. In
this particular chapter, I use the lyrics to Revolution to identify the innitive verb forms since
its present, e.g., to change and to see. Finally, I create a cloze exercise in which I use the new
vocabulary words in a story form and ask students to correctly ll-in-the-blank to complete the
story. For example, the exercise reads:
I once knew a man who escaped from a mental _______________. He was ghting for
political ______________. He wanted to change the _________________ of the United States.
Some people were afraid of him, but I wasnt. I think he was a genius. As a matter of fact, he
might _________ the world by his example. He is a very unattached and __________ man.
With this short exercise I know whether or not my students can use the new vocabulary to which
theyve just been introduced.
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7.
8.
9.
10.
23
any vocabulary that strays away from my phonics focus (e.g., the long u in Revolution).
Its important to answer any questions because it will quiet the brain chatter that brain
researcher, Terry Webb, described above.
Next, I have the class complete the grammar/cloze exercises Ive created, so that I can check
on their comprehension of the new vocabulary and grammar concepts.
Eighth, I create a few role-play scenarios and have students act out a story somehow pertinent to the songs Ive chosen for the lesson. Creating such successful role-play scenarios can
be challenging. Take your time in creating them and feel free to change the circumstances if
the role-play is simply not compelling or not working.
We then spend a signicant amount of time discussing the theme of the song. In the case of
Revolution, we discuss politics perhaps starting with the U.S. Constitution, for example.
At this point, I can also introduce core curriculum, such as the reading of an article, for
instance, that relates to the song and its theme. In this way, Ive used the music as a means to
set up the optimum brain chemistry by relaxing the class, etc., and they are ready to receive
the core curriculum concepts in such a way that their retention will be signicantly higher
than if I had simply jumped immediately into my core curriculum. Ive used music as a tool
to set up maximum learning and retention. Ive also used it to set up a safe, non-threatening
environment in order to prevent the downshifting I discussed earlier.
Last but not least, I always assign some kind of writing homework around the class discussion
that occurred as a result of the songs theme. In the case of Revolution, I asked the students
to write a paragraph (or page, depending on the class level) expressing their opinion on the
following topic: Is the political system different in your country than in the United States?
Which system do you think is better or worse and why?
The above ten-step pattern is the usual way I build ESL lessons around a pop or rock song. Over
the years, however, I have expanded the pattern somewhat, but the above ten steps are nearly always
included in any pop/rock lesson plan I create.
The most important thing, of course, is the song choice. I, personally, have tested hundreds
and hundreds of songs over the years. While I am a tenured community college professor now,
I did my time as a freeway yer, teaching at three different schools (including an adult school
setting), as well as teaching from 7:30 a.m. until 10 p.m. ve days a week. I taught students from a
wide variety of cultural backgrounds as well, including Latino, Asian (including Korean, Chinese,
and Japanese), and Middle Eastern (including Armenian, Iranian), and Russian. I tested my songs on
various demographics at different times of day and kept track of which songs worked best with whom
and when. From this testing (which took three years), I have created the Rock Talk series. I earned
my B.A. in Theater Arts from UCLA and was an actress for a number of years before becoming a
country singer/songwriter with my own band. All of these experiences with acting and music have
informed my use of music in the ESL classroom. Another thing to note is that it is next to impossible to gure out exactly which songs will work with whom unless you keep track. There were times
that I thought for sure a song would absolutely work with my students (e.g., Spirit in the Sky by
Norman Greenbaum) and it absolutely did not, or when I tried a song just for kicks and it worked
like a charm every single time no matter what the circumstance (e.g., Barbara Ann (the Beach Boys)
or Hit the Road Jack (by Ray Charles)). Youll nd your list of sure-re winners and I tend to use
those lessons particularly when my department chair or some local dignitary is visiting my classroom
for some reason or other.
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Classroom Techniques
Conclusion
Ill leave the reader with an example of something else I do frequently, but only because I am a
songwriter in addition to being an ESL instructor. Ill take a top pop/rock hit such as Born in the
USA by Bruce Springsteen. Ill replace his lyric with some lyrics of my own that are content relevant
to my students. So instead of Born in the USA, I created a song called Here in the USA. Because
this was a top hit, some students may have heard the tune before. Because the lyrics are relevant to
their own situation, they pick up the words quickly. I use the song as a means of building community
not only within my own classroom but as a means of building community within the schools ESL
Program as a whole. It becomes a source of pride for them. In addition, when they turn on the radio
and hear the original song, theyve told me that it helps them feel more a part of American society.
My ultimate goal is to empower my students to fully participate in American society both by helping
them gain mastery over English in their everyday life, but also by helping them to become bicultural.
Music is a kind of universal language that transcends any particular language, and because of its
universality, its an ideal bridge to use as a means of mastering a particular language, such as English.
There are free lessons to try at www.eslrocks.com as well as an instructional video on YouTube under
Jenny Redding. Good luck in creating your own lessons. Itll be fun and effective for both you and
your students!
The Author
Jenny Redding is a tenured ESL/English Professor at Oxnard College currently serving as the
campus Basic Skills Coordinator (2 years) and faculty Curriculum Co-Chair (past 6 years). Currently,
Ms. Redding is also serving as Academic Senate Secretary (2 years) and regularly attends the campus
SLO coordinating entity (Learning Outcomes Team6 years) and the Student Success Committee
(2 years). Finally, Ms. Redding also serves on the campus Planning and Budgeting Council (past
5 years). From 20052007, Ms. Redding was Oxnard Colleges Academic Senate President.
Ms. Redding is also author of the Rock Talk series of ESL books that utilize pop/rock music
to assist English Language Learners with their accent reduction issues and basic reading and writing
skills. Her most recent series is called The Hollywood Classroom wherein she uses blockbuster
movies in teaching ELLs English grammar. Ms. Redding is also a country singer/songwriter (alias
Jenny James) and has recently had songs placed in television and lm.
Having received her Theatre B.A. from UCLA, Ms. Redding went on to earn her MA in English
Literature from UCLA and also earned her TESOL Certicate from UCLA Extension. Prior to
becoming a community college instructor, Ms. Redding was an actress (Screen Actors Guild member)
and a country singer/songwriter with her own band.
References
Cacioppo, John T. (editor), et al. (2002). Foundations in Social Neuroscience. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
MIT Press.
Cahill, L., B. Prins, M. Weber, and J. McGaugh (Oct. 20, 1994). Adrenergic Activation and Memory
for Emotional Events. Nature 371, 6499: 702704.
Chapter_02.indd 24
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25
Caine, R. N. and G. Caine. (1997). Education on the Edge of Possibility. Alexandria, Virginia: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Caine, R. N. and G. Caine. (1994). Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain. Menlo Park,
California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Dryden, G. and J. Vos, Ed.D. (1994). The Learning Revolution. Rolling Hills Estate, California:
Jalmar Press.
Gardner, H. (1987). Developing the Spectrum of Human Intelligences: Teaching in the Eighties, a
need to Change. Harvard Educational Review.
Jacobs, W. J. and L. Nadel. (1985). Stress-Induced Recovery of Fears and Phobias. Psychological
Review 92, 4: 512531.
Jensen, E. (2000). Music with the Brain in Mind. S. D., California: The Brain Store, Inc.
Jensen, E. (1998). Teaching with the Brain in Mind. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Lazear, D. (1991). Seven Ways of Teaching. Arlington Heights, Illinois: IRI/Skyllight Training and
Publishing, Inc.
Le Doux, J. (1994). Emotion, Memory, and the Brain. Scientic American. 270, 6: 5057.
Vincent, J. D. (1990). The Biology of Emotions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Basic Blackwell.
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Classroom Techniques
Appendix A
Recommended Readings
Doidge, Norman. (2007). The Brain that Changes Itself. New York, New York: The Penguin Group.
Gladwell, Malcolm. (2005). Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking. New York, New York:
Little, Brown and Company.
Medina, John. (2009). Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School.
Seattle, WA: Pear Press.
Zull, James E. (2002). The Art of Changing the Brain. Sterling, VA: StylusPublishing.
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p
a
h te
Introduction
Asian students are very often characterized as being respectful, quiet and obedient students.
Commonly we hear teachers make comments to the extent of, All Asians are good at math,
and All Asians are respectful to their teachers. Americans could learn a few things from them!
In order to understand Asian students and their approach to learning and education, we need to
understand a basic framework of how the standard educational system works in many Asian countries, particularly in Northeast Asia, and the disparity that exists between this and the western-style
educational system.
Many of the core concepts that create and support the educational system in Northeast Asia
differ drastically from the functioning system in the United States and many other western countries.
We are taught to question, to think outside the box, and to avoid memorizing for the sake of memorization; rather, we are encouraged to take true value from what we are taught and absorb it as longterm meaning. The contrast between Western educational ideals and the Northeast Asian system
is well noted in this excerpt from Dr. Robert H. Kim, from the Washington Ofce of the State of
Superintendent of Public Instruction (1978):
It [the competitive testing system] has created an environment in the schools where children are taught to learn by rote memory, teachers discourage students creative thinking,
and teachers and students are compelled to pay attention more to the types of questions
asked by colleges and universities in their entrance examinations than to the creative process
of individual growth and learning (p. 13).
27
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Classroom Techniques
Lixin Xiao (2006) takes the differences between the Western and Eastern styles of learning a step
further when he studies how Chinese students perceive their English language instruction in an
Ireland school system. The study revealed that some Chinese students, . . . did not seem to enjoy
their study at the schools very much nor could they fully recognize the pedagogical value inherent
in the communicative approach (p. 5). Xiaos research revealed the belief among many Chinese
students that the communicative approach in a classroom is ineffective and even a waste of classroom and student time. Xiao explains that Chinese students come from an educational background
that uses the transmission style of learning and teaching, which is extremely different from the
communicative approach to teaching, making it inherently difcult for Chinese, or Northeast Asian,
students to be comfortable in this type of system and classroom. Yet when Asian students come to
the United States to study English, this is, quite often, the exact kind of classroom that they nd
themselves in.
In the United States, we pride ourselves on being individualistic. Particularly in adolescence,
children start feeling pressure to standout as individuals amongst their peers. As educators, we
encourage activities in class where all students have the opportunity to formulate, voice, and even
argue their own opinions. We setup group activities in our student-centered classrooms, where
students are asked to engage one another intellectually to solve problems. We teach by means
of drama, hands-on activities, and students vocal stimuli. Dr. Kim (1978) sheds light on how
distinctly different this is from the Korean educational system where children are very strongly
discouraged from ever communicating with their classmates or getting up from their seats.
Dr. Kim continues:
The activity-centered classroom is rare and schools based on the open classroom concept
are an anomaly in Korea. Once school is called into session, a student is expected to sit in
his chair and remain silent, unless he is asked specically by the teacher to answer a question
put to him. (p. 15)
Asian countries societies are based on collectivism, which affects every aspect of their culture in the
same way individualism affects all aspects of western culture. These two societal characteristics are
described by Hofstede as follows (2006):
On the individualist side we nd cultures in which the ties between individuals are loose:
everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side we nd cultures in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong,
cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) that
continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. (p. 11)
Because Asian culture is deeply integrated in collectivism, Asian students feel extreme amounts of
pressure to always save-face, whatever the cost. Asians care a great deal about how they are perceived
and, at times, will even go to excessive extremes to do so, as noted by Kim: In order to maintain
good face many Koreans engage in social and economic activities against their true wish or ability.
A Korean may borrow money to entertain his friends or relatives so that he may not lose face (p. 9).
For this reason, Asian students prefer not to answer questions quickly wile in class; rather, many
Asian students desire to have time to contemplate the question in order to produce a perfect answer
and avoid the possibility of losing face in front of his or her instructor and classmates. Lixin Xiao
(2006) found similar results in his study, which showed that Chinese students thought carefully
before speaking English in class, and that they tended to focus more on accuracy than on uency,
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29
as this would help them avoid making mistakes or experiencing loss of face (p. 7). Such conscience
speech productions are not common in our culture, where students are encouraged to throw-out
answers at will because teachers believe this sparks classroom discussion, involvement, and cognitive
problem solving.
Language Analysis
At this point we are going to look in detail at the Korean language taking specic note about the
similarities and differences that exist between it and the English language. Understanding our students heritage language enables us to have a broader and more comprehensive concept of potential
trouble spots for our ESL or EFL students. Even beyond this, analyzing and understanding our
students native language(s), even on a basic level, provides us with the necessary knowledge to help
students pull strengths from their L1 into their second language acquisition. Along these same lines,
providing our students with simple tools such as knowing cognates that exist between their L1 and
their target language can be extremely useful in students expanding their vocabulary and therefore
creating a broader base of communication. When teachers possess a basic understanding of our
students heritage language, we show our students that their L1 is important to us and should be
supported and maintained alongside second language acquisition.
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Classroom Techniques
say, I am going to the zoo. For sounds in English that do not have a direct syllable representation
in Hangul, Koreans combine sounds from their forty letters creating a phonetic representation for
English letters and blends.
A unique aspect of Hangul is that four of their nineteen consonants are double consonants where
the speaker forces even more air up from the diaphragm creating highly tense and aspirated sounds,
as charted by Jeyseon & Kangjin Lee (2008):
Plain
[p/b]
baby
[t/d]
day
[ch/j]
angel
Aspirate
Tense
[k/g]
begin
[p]
public
[t]
atomic
[ch]
achieve
[k]
akin
[pp]
spoon
[tt]
state
[tch]
pizza
[kk]
skate
In Korean, as shown in the chart above, the same symbol [ ] is used to represent two distinct
sounds in English: /p/ and /b/. The same is true for [ ], described as /t/ and /d/ in English and
[ ], converted as /k/ and /g/. Two distinct phonetic sounds in English represented as one symbol in
Hangul creates innumerable opportunities for negative transfer from Korean to English. The second, third and fth largest cities in Korea fall victim to this negative transfer: Pusan, also pronounced
as Busan; Daegu or Taegu and Daejoen or Taejeon. It is not uncommon for government signs and
maps to have multiple romanizations for the same city. Rules do exist constraining the speaker to
which phonetic sound should be used when romanizing Korean; however, when asking a Korean to
differentiate between whether they are pronouncing a /p/ or /b/, the answer they produce is more of
a toss up than a sound fact. The rule is explained by Jeyseon and Kangjin Lee (2008) as:
The sounds , , and are transcribed respectively as g, d, and b when they appear before
a vowel. They are transcribed as k, t, and p when followed by another consonant or forming
the nal sound of a word. (p. 10)
Each of the four Koreans that we interviewed were asked about this Romanization rule, and all
denied that it made any sense or even existed. Every one systematically claimed that Hangul has only
one phonetic sound for each symbol and that this fact never varies. According to Dr. Y. Sohn, the
position of the tongue when Koreans pronounce the symbols [ ], [ ], [ ], and [ ] is different than
its position when English speakers pronounce the corresponding letters in English and this is what
creates the phonetic confusion for English speakers and for Koreans learning English. He went on
to explain that [ ] is pronounced with the tongue in a dental position instead of an alveolar position
like when English speakers pronounce /t/ and /d/, which creates a sound that is a pure mixture of /t/
and /d/ (Personal Communication, 04/19/09).
One of the most common mistakes Koreans fall prey to is the failure to distinguish between /l/
and /r/. The rule that exists for transcribing [ ] as /l/ or /r/ states that when [ ] is followed by a
vowel it should be translated as /r/ and translated as /l/ when followed by a consonant or written at
the end of a word. [
] is transcribed as /ll/ in English (Jeyseon & Kangjin Lee, 2008). This mispronunciation is constantly leading to comical instances like when an entire class of rst grade ELLs
call their classmate, Lion! instead of Ryan. In an example that Bill Bryson wrote in his book Mother
Tongue, we nd another humorous instance of an Asian co-worker who cannot pronounce /b/, /l/,
or /r/ correctly in English and when things go awry, he mutters, Bruddy hairo! to express his
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31
frustration instead of the more commonly known, Bloody hell! (2001). Again, this common error
can be directly derived from Hangul having one symbol to represent two distinct phonetic sounds in
English as shown in the following chart:
Gum Ridge
Liquid
[l/r]
lid
rabbit
The vowel system in Korean consists of two semi-vowels, y and w, which are attached to eight different vowels creating thirteen diphthongs (Jeyseon & Kangjin Lee, 2008). Korean vowels are categorized into front or back and round or unround (Jeyseon & Kangjin Lee, 2008). These diphthongs
are represented by single symbols in Hangul, though they would be commonly considered two or
more separate sounds in English. Every sound used to create vowels and diphthongs in the Hangul
alphabet exists in English except for the one vowel sound [] discussed above.
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Classroom Techniques
little about their own grammatical system. Sun-Hee Lee agreed that two consonants could ll the
nal block position explaining that, The consonants share the vowel in the middle, so its ok, but
if there was another consonant you must have vowel, too (Personal Communication 04/21/09).
Syllable blocks are built of positions for the consonant and vowel or diphthong, which create squares
made up of initial consonant positions followed by a vowel or diphthong position (T. Nam, Personal
Communication, 04/19/09).
Literate children in Korean would still be at a somewhat disadvantage when learning how to
read in English considering that their alphabet does not have its roots in the Roman alphabet. There
are, however, some similarities that would be benecial for a Korean, literate child: such as, him or
her being accustomed to reading from left to right, having some of the same punctuation marks, even
if the rules are not always exactly alike, and a signicant amount of cognates.
A function in Hangul that does not exist in English is the use of the [ ] symbol, which is essentially a silent or zero consonant used to prevent words from ever beginning with a vowel when written. Words can be phonetically vowel initial and are quite usually, but when written they absolutely
must, without any exception, be preceded by the [ ] silent consonant. In English, it is notably not
unusual for words to contain silent letters in the initial, medial or nal position as in knowingness
where there is a silent /k/ in the initial position, a silent /w/ midway through and an additional /s/
in the nal position that works as no sort of s emphasis, as might be expected. The predominate
difference between the silent [ ] consonant in Hangul and silent letters that somewhat randomly
appear in written English is that a very precise rule creates a clear guideline about when to use the
zero consonant in Korean, whereas in English, our silent letters have more to do with etymology
and also from hundreds of years worth of borrowing words from an incredible amount of languages on earth, which has created a lack of any systematic reasoning for the written silent letters
in English.
Hangul Sample
Transliteration
Modeun Ingan-eun Tae-eonal ttaebuteo Jayuroumyeo Geu Jon-eomgwa Gwonrie Iss-eo
Dongdeunghada. Ingan-eun Cheonbujeog-euro Iseong-gwa Yangsim-eul Bu-yeobad-ass-eumyeo
Seoro Hyungje-ae-ui Jeongsin-euro Haengdongha-yeo-yahanda.
Translation
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) Retrieved April 18, 2009, http://www.
omniglot.com/writing/korean.htm
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Grammatical Features
Korean follows a subject, object, verb (SOV) sentence-pattern. If no object appears in the sentence,
then the subject is directly followed by the verb likewise to English, but once an object is placed
in the sentence, the arrangement changes to be quite unlike English. Who does what to whom is
based on case endings in Korean. As stated by Bill Bryson in The Mother Tongue, Koreans have to
decide between six different sufxes depending on to whom they are speaking and their related status
(p. 18, 2001). Subjects, objects, nouns, pronouns, and verbs (though the verbs are not conjugated) are
all susceptible to changing between these six different case endings depending on the person being
addressed. Mi-Sun Lee explained that Koreans do not use all six sufxes as commonly any longer,
and that Koreans have become more casual or relaxed in their addresses towards people (Personal
Communication, 04/19/09).
Korean contains the same specic question words as English, such as who, what, where,
when, why, and how. Korean also has the ability to form questions in the same manner as English,
though, once again, their sentence structure is more exible than English (Dr. Y. Sohn, Personal
Communication, 04/12/09).
Korean seems to loosely have articles, but not in the same structured sense that English does. As
stated by Dr. Y. Sohn, Koreans try hard to avoid using articles and do not use them at all to distinguish plural and singular like in English with a versus the (Personal Communication, 04/12/09).
Sometimes the plural is implied in Korea; for example, if a Korean tells you about the car-jam he
was in or the terrible trafc she encountered on her way to work, he or she could not use the plural
sufx when talking about the cars, because multiple cars are already implied with the idea of trafc
or a car-jam.
Though Koreans might tout that their grammar is very similar to English, from our perspective
and understanding, it is not. Their rules are much more exible and less adhered to than in English;
verb conjugations do not exist; the use of articles is rather limited, and their sentence patterns are
somewhat different.
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Classroom Techniques
unless you graduate from a respected middle school. Likewise, entrance into a reputable college is
only achieved after graduating with the highest marks from a prestigious high school. Robert H. Kim
(1978) explains the Korean system of education and the incredible amount of pressure placed upon
children to perform:
It is a very expensive game of competition, particularly to Korean parents who send their
children for supplementary instruction for several hours a day after school, lest they might
fail in their examinations. This system of entrance examination has not only prevented
children from normal development of body, but has dealt a severe blow to their social and
psychological growth as well. Such tremendous pressure is exerted upon children to successfully pass these examinations that many have run away from home for fear of failure, while
others have committed suicide after failing to pass them, due to feelings of extreme shame
and fear of facing their parents and friends. (p. 14)
As mentioned earlier, Xiaos (2006) research explains that many Northeast Asian students are not
always comfortable with the communicative approach that is very popular amongst English language
institutes across the United States because of how greatly it differs from the type of classrooms
and teaching approaches they are familiar with. Though teachers cannot promote a system of rote
memorization and testing achievements in their classrooms to make Northeast Asian students feel
most comfortable, our classrooms can benet from easing into communicative styled approaches
slowly and consciously, remembering that this style of teaching is an extreme opposite to the type of
classrooms that many of our students are likely coming from. Students and teachers alike can benet
from creating an open line of communication about which techniques are working and which are
not. Students can prot from communicating about which approaches they are most comfortable
with, while teachers can help students accept different teaching styles and techniques by explaining
the benets that exist in learning from varied approaches and methods.
As stated by Samovar and Porter (1995), Asians go to great lengths to preserve not only their
own face but everyone elses face. Coming from an individualistic society that encourages forwardness, personal condence, and a if you fail, try again mentality, we do good to remember that
Asian societies, traditionally, have not functioned on these same values. Though these perceptions
are often over embraced to the point of becoming stereotypes (Littlewood, 2001), we can use these
concepts to help us better understand many of our Asian students and to discover meaningful ways in
which to deliver information, inuence teaching approaches, and cover classroom material.
Hofstede (2006), in Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context, creates for us a
comprehensible graph with which we can see extremes contrasted between individualistic societies
and collectivist societies.
Ten Differences between Collectivist and Individualist Societies
Individualism
Collectivism
Iconsciousness
Weconsciousness
Right of privacy
Stress on belonging
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Collectivism
Hofstede (2006) writes that Individualism prevails in developed and Western countries, while
collectivism prevails in less developed and Eastern countries; Japan takes a middle position on this
dimension. Necessary to remember, though, is that graphs as these are created to show extremes in
contrast and evaluate societies as a whole; hence, individuals need to be assessed separately and may
fall in the middle of the two extremes, or might even be individualistic in some areas and collectivistic
in others. As should be noted, research has surfaced challenging traditional views that all Asians are
collectively orientated (Cheng, 2000; Littlewood, 2001; Xiao, 2005).
Being conscience of the extreme differences that unarguably exist between individualistic and
collectivistic societies, teachers will be more informed and have a better cultural understanding with
which to approach their students. For example, since saving face is extremely important as an Asian
principle, teachers could use this understanding to be aware of giving adequate amounts of time for
students to prepare and nish necessary work. If a teacher walks into an intermediate classroom with
predominately Asian students and announces that each student needs to get in front of the entire
class and give an impromptu speech about whatever he or she had done the day before, an Asian student might feel overly anxious and stressed about the possibility of looking foolish in front of his or
her teacher and classmates. This is a lose-face type of situation that could have been easily avoided if
the hypothetical teacher would have set-up the activity in a different way, giving all students adequate
time to prepare, ask questions, and review the needed materials. With basic research and preparation,
a teacher can avoid an instance such as this that can cause students to lose condence, motivation,
and ability.
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Classroom Techniques
Reading compiled texts such as Stuart and Terry Hirschbergs (2009) One world, many cultures,
can help educators learn more about cultural differences, culture shock, language struggles, and
basic human communication. Professional articles dealing with issues of culture, language, gender,
and teaching approaches can also be extremely useful, such as the articles referenced here by Xiao
(2006), Littlewood (2001) and Hofstede (2006). Professional journals are abundant and often can be
accessed via online university libraries, local libraries, or by means of Internet searches. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, Applied Linguistics, Research on Language and Social Interaction,
TESOL Quarterly, Heritage Journal, and Second Language Research are some well respected and
reputable resources which provide articles, research, and ndings to help support you as an educator.
The Authors
In 2006, Amanda Morris graduated with her Bachelors of Arts in TESOL from Liberty University
in Virginia. While in college, she interned at her universitys ELI teaching adult Korean ELLs. After
working for a year as a sixth grade English teacher in Northern Virginia, she moved back to Florida
with her husband. At this time, Amanda taught adult English language learners at ELS in Deland and
Daytona State College. In January of 2009, Amanda and her husband moved to South Korea as EFL
teachers for kindergarten and elementary school children. Amanda is currently working toward an
MA in TESOL from UCF and looking forward to graduating in December 2010 and making plans
to teach abroad again.
At the age of one, Joshua Morris moved to Bolivia, South America where his parents opened and
worked in a number of orphanages and schools. At the age of eighteen, he moved to Lynchburg,
Virginia and earned a degree in History from Liberty University. Upon completion of his B.A,
Joshua moved to Alaska where he became a sherman for two years, followed by extensive travel
throughout North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and South America. In the Amazon Basin of
Bolivia, he worked to educate young children on the importance of protecting the environment.
Joshua also worked with an effort to bring school materials to small schools along the basin. In 2009
he moved with his wife, Amanda, to Korea where he taught children ELLs. He is currently a graduate student at UCF and will complete an M.A in TESOL this upcoming December. Upon completion of his degree, he is looking forward to new opportunities and adventures teaching.
References
Ager, S. Omniglot. Retrieved April 18, 2009, http://www.omniglot.com/writing/korean.htm
Bryson, B. (2001). The mother tongue: And how it got that way. New York: Perennial.
Cheng, X. T. (2000a). Asian students! reticence revisited. System 28, 435446.
Cheng, X. T. (2000b). Culture of learning and ELT in China. Teaching English in China, 23(1), 4748.
Hirschberg, Stuart & Terry. (2009). One world, many cultures. Pearson Education, Inc.
Hofstede, G. (2006). Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context. In W. J. Lonner,
D. L. Dinnel, S. A. Hayes & D. N. Sattler, Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Unit 2:
Conceptual, Methodological and Ethical Issues in Psychology and Culture. Bellingham WA: Center for
Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington University.
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37
Kim, C., & Peace Corps, W. (1970). Lessons in the Korean language and culture for teachers of
English as a second language.
Kim, R., & Washington Ofce of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, O. (1978).
Understanding Korean People, Language and Culture. Bilingual Education Resource Series.
Korean Culture Insights. (2008). Republic of Korea.
Lee, J. & Lee, K. (2008). Beginners Korean. New York: Hippocrene Books, Inc.
Littlewood, W. (2001). Students! attitudes to classroom English learning: A cross-cultural study.
Language Teaching Research, 5(1), 328.
Pinker, S. (2007). The Language Instinct: How the mind creates language. New York: Harper
Perennial Modern Classics.
Samovar, L. A. & Porter, R. E. (1995). Communication between cultures (Second Ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
Truitt, S. (1995). Beliefs about language learning: A study of korean university students learning
english. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 2(1).
Winchester, S. (2005). Korea: A walk through the land of miracles. New York: Harper Perennial.
Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Xiao, Lixin. (2006). Bridging the gap between teaching styles and learning styles: A cross-cultural
perspective. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, v. 10, no. 3, 115.
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4
World Citizens: Engaging ESL
Students in Global Advocacy
Jose A. Carmona
Introduction
As todays global village grows narrower, we, as educators, are faced with the need to engage our
students on becoming advocates for environmental, social, and political issues around the world.
As global citizens, our students need to be aware and accept responsibility for the trepidations
facing them as well as the ones their children will encounter in the future.
What can we do as educators to help our English language learners (ELL) become involved
in worldwide issues? Can we accomplish this from our classrooms? What new technology must we
learn to use? Where do we start? These, and many other questions, will be answered in this chapter.
Contextual Background
In 2005, the British Council held a seminar entitled, Global Citizenship and Language Learning:
Education in a Multilingual World, attended by educators from all continents, thirty participants
in New York and hundreds via the Internet. This was a follow-up to their 2003 seminar entitled,
Citizenship and Language Teaching, a groundbreaking event that lead to the 2005 worldwide participation. These two seminars brought people together with the desire to explore how the classroom,
in addition to being a medium to language learning, could also be a vehicle to social awareness. The
concept of Global Citizenship was therefore developed here (Gimenez, T. & Sheehan, S. 2008).
The school language classroom provides a non-threatening context in which to discuss topics of
concern . . . students are doubly motivated by the benet of approaching issues that are part of their
lives and of crucial importance for humankind, and of improving their language skills, states David
Green, former Director-General of the British Council, in the foreword to Citizenship and language
learning: international perspectives, the book that emerged after the 2003 seminar (Osler & Starkey 2005).
39
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Classroom Techniques
Getting Involved
It is essential for the instructor to participate or want to participate in advocacy. Even if it is only one
issue she or he participates in, it demonstrates that she or he cares about what is being taught. This
may be, for example, membership in an organization, showing students proof of having signed petitions or written letters for a cause, etc.
Before beginning, the instructor needs to examine her or his knowledge of the different advocacy
areas or themes students will select to study and the commitment and enthusiasm for the project; not
only is this needed to show mastery of one or more of the themes explored, but it also demonstrates
to the students the validity of the lessons and the assignments. Even though knowledge of all the
major areas: environmental, social and political, is sometimes impossible due to lack of time, becoming familiar with a few will demonstrate to the students the instructors commitment. The instructor
can easily become familiar with a few topics just by doing very simple research on the Internet. For
example, she or he can learn about the cause and effects of cutting down the rainforest, the plight of
the native people in the rainforest and the political activism they are partaking. However, it is best to
start with what is already familiar to the instructor.
The movie Crude: the Real Price of Oil (2009), the story about the controversial lawsuit by
Ecuadorean rainforest native people against Chevron Oil Company, is appropriate to illustrate how
knowledge about one particular event can incorporate environmental, social and political issues.
This heartbreaking movie shows how a vast area of the rainforest was left with oil-polluted lakes, the
effects of the pollution as evidenced in the peoples illnesses and the political aspects of a lawsuit the
people in the area have led against Chevron. It is quite touching when animals, vegetation and even
the local people are born with defects or even dying due to the effects of the pollution left behind.
In essence, the movie well illustrates global politics, the environmental movement, celebrity activism, human rights advocacy, multinational corporate power and rapidly-disappearing indigenous
cultures. This is a good starter lesson to show students how a project is designed, and how these
major areas or themes are sometimes intertwined.
Second, an instructors credibility and enthusiasm for some of the issues may be demonstrated
by participating in one or more organizations or selected issues among different organizations.
(See Appendix I for a list of organizations) Showing the class various pictures of having participated
in an event, having the class read samples of letters written by the instructor on behalf of an issue, and
exhibiting one or more websites where the instructor has participated in advocacy are all worthwhile
illustrations of commitment to these issues. To show the extent of commitment and in addition to advocating for wolves, local and international environmental issues and other issues, the author grew his hair
and sent it to Locks of Love to help make wigs and/or provide more research for children with cancer.
A third way to show students the dedication an instructor has for some of these areas is by developing a class Blog. A Blog can provide avenues for learning that were unprecedented just a few years
back. The next section will discuss Blogs further.
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Creating a Prole
Even though most students today are familiar with developing their own proles for such well known
group sites as Facebook, Twitter, and Nung, many of our English language learners have only crafted
them in their rst language. Depending on their English language uency, it will be more difcult
for them to actually develop a prole in English if they have not done this before. The instructors
familiarity with the technology to develop proles is essential for these students.
Creating a Blog
Blogs are a great idea for students to share their thoughts as well as their own work. Blogs can be
easily assembled today through various Web resources.
Students do not have to develop their own Blogs, but if the instructor has done her or his own or
can quickly learn how to create one it can be a valuable learning tool. It can be a great way to share
opinions, discuss research ideas, include pieces of writing or entire essays, etc.
Joining an Organization
Joining a social, environmental or political organization may be costly to the students; however,
to become an advocate for the issues they represent, anyone can join free online subgroups. These
subgroups such as for the Sierra Club, for example, do not charge for membership, and students can
actually get to participate by writing letters, signing petitions, calling parties involved, etc.
Signing a Petition
Petitions are an easy way for our students to get involved in global advocacy. Once a student has
joined an organization or its Internet subgroup, there are many opportunities for her or him to begin
signing petitions. The Website, Care2Connect.com provides numerous ways for students to sign
petitions. Joining this site is free and there are plenty of opportunities for advocacy there.
Warning! There are petitions that may be actually going back to some of our students country
of origin; therefore, the students may not want to sign them with their real names in case this may
affect family members back home. In that case, the best thing to do is not to sign them or as some of
them allow, sign them anonymously. That is why it is important to have students read the petitions
carefully, and when in doubt, it is best for them not to sign them at all.
Clicking to Save
This is another easy way for students to get involved right from their own classrooms or computer
laboratory. Many organizations sponsor clicking to save issues where the public can earn funds for
them by simply visiting their sites and clicking on this issue every day. Care2Connect, for example,
has about ten issues that someone can visit daily and click on to save. Some of these issues vary from
helping women with cancer to helping the rainforest to helping jaguars in Mexico.
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Classroom Techniques
Writing Letters
Writing letters, volunteering, developing projects by means of project-based learning standards are
some of the other means students can partake in global advocacy. Writing a letter takes good writing skills and careful thought about the point or points being made. The great thing about writing
them through an organization is that they provide the key points; the students can then develop these
points into a full length letter. This process not only helps the students learn to write better, but it
also gives them the opportunity to learn how to edit.
Volunteering
Volunteering for projects within many organizations does not mean that students need to neither
travel out-of-state nor out of the country. There are many opportunities for them to volunteer by
making phone calls to key people, such as directors of environmental protection agencies, local
political gures and other key personnel. There are also opportunities for them to attend and even
speak at local hearings on issues related to environmental, social and political issues. Even though
these might seem like local problems, the issues may play a major role nationwide or even in the
world. Helping sea turtles nd their way at night to nest in Florida may affect how others may react
to save sea turtles nesting in Hawaii or even in other parts of the world.
Projects
Project-based learning is an instructional model for classroom activity that shifts emphasis away
from practices of isolated, short term, teacher-centered lessons in favor of learning activities that
are more long-term, interdisciplinary, and centered on the student. These projects are complex,
centered on challenging questions or problems which involve students in investigative activities,
problem-solving, design, and decision making. This model of instruction allows the opportunity for
students to work autonomously over signicant amounts of time and often culminates in realistic
presentations or products (Gage & Berliner chapter 2).
The denition of project-based learning sounds like a complicated and time-consuming process.
The truth is that an instructor can make it as long as a semester or as short as a week. However, the
experience students acquire as they perfect their project surpasses the sometimes dry learning experience of the classroom (See Appendices II and III for lesson plans based on completed projects).
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Classroom Techniques
Research in global advocacy and the concept of global citizenship are new initiatives as a result
of the global village we live in today. Further research is needed in the following areas to nd
innovative channels that work in our classrooms. How effective is teaching global advocacy in our
classrooms? Is it better conducive to learning English than a traditional classroom? What projects
are more effective than others? How does learning by these means occur across different cultures in
our classrooms? Do Asian, European or Central and South American students nd these methods
valuable, for example?
The Author
Jose A. Carmona is the president and co-founder of Global Educational Institute, Inc. in Daytona
Beach, FL. For 25 years, he has taught English as a second language and Spanish classes, chaired
departments of languages, adult ESOL, and intensive ESL programs (IEP), and has been an educational consultant. Mr. Carmona has a Master of Arts in Spanish and bilingual education and a
Master of Education, both from Columbia University/Teachers College in New York; his Bachelor
degree in psychology, Latin American literature and education was completed at Drew University in
New Jersey.
He has been active with the TESOL Organization in various ways including: state co-chair
to help organize the TESOL 2006 Convention, chair of the Higher Education Interest Section
and newsletter editor of the Adult Education Interest Section. At the state level, he was president
of Sunshine State TESOL and twice president of the Northeast Florida TESOL Association. In
addition, he has published a series of three reading/writing ESL textbooks, a beginner Spanish textbook, a book of his own poetry, Adolescent Blues, and was editor of a professional book published
by the TESOL Organization in 2008 titled, Perspectives on Community College ESL vol. 3: Faculty,
Administration and the Working Environment.
References
Care2Connect, http://www.care2connect.com
Crude: The Real Price of Oil (2009). Joe Berlinger, dir.
Gage, & Berliner (2000) Educational Psychology. N Y: Houghton Mifin Company. Chapter 2.
Gimenez, T. & Sheehan, S. (Eds). (2008) Global citizenship in the English language classroom. England:
British Council.
Osler, A. & Starkey, H. (2005) Citizenship and language learning: International perspectives. Trentham
Books, Stoke on Trent.
Palmer, C. (2008). Preface. In T. Gimenez & S. Sheehan (Eds.) Global citizenship in the English language classroom. England: British Council.
Sierra Club, http://www.sierraclub.org
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Appendix I
Selected Resources
American Farmland Trust
ASPCA
AVAAZ
Care2Connect
Center for Biological Diversity
Change.org
Credo Action
Defenders of Wildlife
Earth 911
Environmental Defense Fund
Facing the Future
Feeding America
Friends of the Earth
Global Issues
Greenpeace
Humane Society of the US
Oceana
ONE The Campaign to Make Poverty History
National Resources Defense Council
National Wildlife Federation
North Shore Animal league
Pacic Environment
Save the Children
Sierra Club
TESOLERS for Social Responsibility IS
The Wilderness Society
UNICEF
Chapter_04.indd 45
www.farmland.org
www.aspca.org
www.avaaz.org
www.care2connect.org
www.biologicaldiversity.org
www.change.org
www.credoaction.org
www.defenders.org
www.earth911.org
www.edf.org
www.facingthefuture.org
www.feedingamerica.org
www.foe.org
www.globalissues.org
www.greenpeace.org/usa/
www.hsus.org
www.oceana.org
www.one.org
www.nrdc.org
www.nwf.org
www.nsalamerica.org
www.pacicenvironment.org
www.savethechildren.org
www.sierraclub.org
www.tesol.org
www.wilderness.org
www.unicef.org
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Classroom Techniques
Appendix II
Sample Lesson Plan I
Equipped for the Future Project Based Lesson Plan
Project Title: Visiting a Recycling Facility
Classroom Activities/Procedures:
Vocabulary:
garbage
trash
a.
b.
c.
d.
litter
landlls
cardboard
recycling
bins
dump
aluminum
steel cans
leachate
phonebooks
methane gas
junk mail
environment
solid waste
hazardous waste
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aerosol cans
ammonia cleaners
bug sprays
motor oil/gasoline
paint
Preparing/Executing the Visit to the Local Solid
Waste/Recycling Facility
Divide the job from arranging the visit to writing the
thank you letters among students as suggested below.
1. Have two students visit the school Physical Plant or
Custodial Ofce to ask about the existing recycling
program.
2. Have two students make an appointment for a group
visit and get directions to the local recycling facility.
3. Have two students investigate how to arrange for a
van from the school to transport the class.
4. Have six to eight students research and bring
information to the class about recycling.
Resources:
Student/Instructor
Articles
Local Recycling
Facility
Local/Regional
Environmental
Protection Agencies
Physical Plant/
Custodial Ofce
School and/or local
library
See Reference List
Materials Needed:
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Classroom Techniques
Appendix III
Sample Lesson Plan II
Equipped for the Future Project Based Lesson Plan
Project Title: Recycling: A Resource Booklet
Classroom Activities/Procedures:
Vocabulary:
garbage
trash
pollution
litter
environment
recycling
bins
dump
landll
solid waste
aluminum
plastic bottles
plastic bags
tin
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49
Resources:
Physical Plant/
Custodial Ofce
Book listed in
procedure
Materials Needed:
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Introduction
It has long been acknowledged that assessment is an integral part of the teaching-learning process
( James, McInnis and Devlin 2002). In fact, Cowan (1998) calls assessment the engine that drives
learning. One of the effective ways of enhancing learning within higher education is through the
improvement of assessment procedures.
Research shows that the typical teacher can spend as much as a third of their professional time
involved in assessment or assessment-related activities (Cheng 2001, Herman and Dorr-Bremme
1982, Stiggins and Conklin 1992). Almost all do so without the benet of having learned the principles of sound assessment (Stiggins 2007).
Now more than ever our educational systems are under pressure to be accountable for student
performance and to produce measurable results. Without a higher level of teacher assessment literacy, we will be unable to help students attain higher levels of academic achievement. In this chapter,
we address some issues and challenges related to assessment literacy.
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Classroom Techniques
assessment is generally seen as something done to them by their teachers. Many students see tests
as threats to their competence and as something to be got through. The more able students enjoy
the experience but most students, no matter what their level, feel anxious and worried about assessments as there is great pressure in todays educational world to succeed. When tests or assessments
are high-stakes, students often suffer from high levels of test anxiety.
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Research on teaching in mainstream classrooms has revealed that the day-to-day assessment of
student learning is unquestionably one of the teachers most demanding, complex and important
tasks (Calderhead 1996 as cited in Cheng 2001:54, Shulman 1986). Teachers view student evaluation
as a central teaching function in their classrooms. This is evidenced by the time spent on assessmentrelated activities.
In the ESL education literature within North America, Bachman (2000) reported that a survey
of the TESOL organization membership conducted in the 1990s found about half of the respondents had completed a course in language testing and Stoynoff (2009) determined that about half of
the graduate programs in the Directory of Teacher Preparation Programs in TESOL (Christopher 2005)
required graduates to complete coursework in language assessment. These results are similar to a
recent study completed by Brown and Bailey (2008) in which 60% of the respondents were from
outside the US. Based on these data it appears half of all ESOL teachers may not have completed
coursework in language assessment (Stoynoff and Coombe forthcoming).
While there is rich literature and a plethora of research studies on ESL/EFL teachers assessment practices (e.g. Cheng, Rogers and Wang 2008) there continues to be a gap in the area of
assessment literacy and what constitutes teachers knowledge. In fact, as far as teacher preparation
in assessment is concerned in EFL contexts, teachers in Hong Kong report that they received little
or no training in assessment (Falvey and Cheng 1995). Shohamy (1998) and Ferman (1998) found
that EFL teachers in Israel felt they lacked the knowledge and training required to practice assessment procedures. More recently, in a study done with tertiary-level English-language teachers in
the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, Troudi, Coombe and Al-Hamly (2009) found that teachers
often felt marginalized in the area of assessment because of their perceived lack of knowledge about
the subject.
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Classroom Techniques
Assessment literate educators come to any assessment knowing what they are assessing, why
they are doing so, how best to assess the achievement of interest, how to generate sound samples of
performance, what can go wrong, and how to prevent these problems before they occur (Stiggins
1995:240). Language teachers and administrators need the necessary tools for analyzing and reecting upon test and assessment data in order to make informed decisions about instructional practice
and program design.
By developing assessment literacy, language educators will not only be able to identify appropriate assessments for specic purposes, such as student placement, but will also be able to analyze
empirical data to improve their instruction.
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55
According to the Seven Standards for Teacher Development in Assessment developed by the American
Federation of Teachers, the National Council on Measurement in Education and the National
Education Association (1990), teachers should be skilled in:
1. choosing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions
2. developing appropriate assessment methods
3. administering, scoring and interpreting the results of both externally-produced and teacherproduced assessment methods
4. using assessment results when making decisions about individual students, planning teaching, developing curriculum and involving students
5. developing valid grading procedures which use student assessment
6. communicating assessment results to students, parents, and other stakeholders
7. recognizing unethical, illegal and inappropriate assessment methods and uses of assessment
information.
In a useful online publication from SERVE at the University of North Carolina, they recommend that assessment-literate teachers know:
how to dene clear learning goals, which are the basis of developing or choosing ways to
assess student learning
how to make use of a variety of assessment methods to gather evidence of student learning
how to analyze achievement data (both qualitative and quantitative) and make good inferences from the data gathered
how to provide appropriate feedback to students
how to make appropriate instructional modications to help students improve
how to involve students in assessment process (e.g., self and peer assessment) and effectively
communicate results
how to engineer an effective classroom assessment environment that boosts student motivation to learn.
(SERVE Center, University of North Carolina, 2004)
Sadler (1998) shares these characteristics of an assessment literate educator:
superior knowledge about content and substance of what is to be learned
knowledge about learners and learning and a desire to help students develop, improve and
do better
skills in selecting and creating assessment tasks
knowledge of criteria and standards appropriate to assessment tasks
evaluative skills and expertise in the analysis and use of assessment information
expertise in giving appropriate and targeted feedback.
In the TESOL/NCATE standards for ESOL teacher education, in the assessment domain,
teachers are expected to understand issues of assessment for ESL and language prociency assessment for ESL (including how to develop assessments and use them to inform instruction).
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Classroom Techniques
In short, those who are assessment literate understand what assessment methods to use in order
to gather dependable information about student achievement, communicate assessment results
effectively, and understand how to use assessment to maximize student motivation and learning.
Conclusion
Teachers will be expected to be far more assessment literate in the future than they are today or have
been in the past (Stiggins 2007).
Assessment literate educators come to any assessment knowing what they are assessing, why
they are doing so, how best to assess the achievement of interest, how to generate sound samples of
performance, what can go wrong, and how to prevent these problems before they occur (Stiggins
1995:240).
It is best stated by Bracey (2000), there might come a time when tests and test scores recede from
prominence, but that time is not now. In view of the importance of assessment in todays educational
institutions around the world, assessment literacy is a necessity for all language educators.
Chapter previously appeared in CAMBRIDGE ESOL: RESEARCH NOTES: ISSUE 38/NOVEMBER
2009 UCLES. Permission requested and granted.
The Authors
Dr. Christine Coombe has a Ph.D in Foreign/Second Language Education from The Ohio State
University. She is currently on the English faculty of Dubai Mens College and works as an Assessment
Leader for the Higher Colleges of Technology. She is the former Testing and Measurements
Supervisor at UAE University and Assessment Coordinator of Zayed University. Christine is co-editor
of the Assessment Practices volume in the TESOL Case Studies series; co-author of A Practical Guide
to Assessing English Language Learners (2007, University of Michigan Press); co-editor of Evaluating
Teacher Effectiveness in EF/SL Contexts (2007, University of Michigan Press); co-editor of Language
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57
Teacher Research in the Middle East (2007, TESOL Publications) and Leadership in English Language
Teaching and Learning (2008, University of Michigan Press). Christines forthcoming books are on
task-based learning and reigniting, retooling and retiring in English language teaching.
Christine has lived and worked in the Arabian Gulf for the past 15 years. In this capacity, she
has served as President of TESOL Arabia and as the founder and co-chair of the TESOL Arabia
Testing, Assessment and Evaluation Special Interest Group who organize the Current Trends in
English Language Testing (CTELT) Conference. Dr. Coombe has participated in large-scale assessment and assessment development projects in Russia, Ukraine, Saudi Arabia, China, Central Asia
and the U.A.E.
During her tenure in the Middle East, she has won many awards including: two-time recipient
of the International Language Testing Association (ILTA) grant for the promotion of professionalism
in the area of language testing; the 2002 Spaan Fellowship for Research in Second/Foreign Language
Assessment; the 200203 TOEFL Outstanding Young Scholar Award; the TOEFL Board Grant for
200304, 200506 and 200708 for her work in delivering training in assessment to teachers in the
Arabian Gulf and in developing countries. Most recently she served on the TESOL Board of Directors
as Director Serving as Convention Chair for Tampa 2006 and was the recipient of the Chancellors
Teacher of the Year for 200304. She is currently a candidate for TESOL President (20092011).
Mashael Al-Hamly is an Associate professor of Applied Linguistics at the Department of English
Language and Literature, Kuwait University. She is currently Cultural Attach working at the
Consulate of the State of Kuwait in the United Arab Emirates. Mashael is co-editor of Evaluating
Teacher Effectiveness in EF/SL Contexts (2007, University of Michigan Press). She is particularly interested in computer-assisted language learning, English language testing, and translation studies. She
may be reached at mashael2@hotmail.com
Salah Troudi is a Senior Teaching Fellow at the Graduate School of Education, University of Exeter
in the UK. He lectures in research methodology, curriculum issues and critical applied linguistics.
He is the director of the Doctorate of Education in TESOL offered in Dubai. His research interests
are in the areas of English as a language of instruction and critical applied linguistics.
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Classroom Techniques
Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge, in Berliner, DC and Calfee, R. C. (Eds)
Handbook of educational psychology, New York, NY: MacMillan Library Reference,70925.
Cheng, L. (2001). An investigation of ESL/EFL teachers classroom assessment practices, Language
Testing Update 29, 5383.
Cheng, L, Rogers, T. and Wang, X. (2008). Assessment purposes and procedures in ESL/EFL classroom, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 33: 932.
Christopher, V. (2005). Directory of teacher education programs in TESOL in the United States and
Canada, Alexandria, VA.: TESOL.
Cowan, J. (1998). On becoming an innovative university teacher, Buckingham: RHE and Open University
Press.
Davies, A, Brown, A, Elder, C, Hill, K, Lumley, T, and McNamara, T. (1999). Dictionary of language
testing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Falvey, P. and Cheng, L. (1995). A comparative study of teachers beliefs about assessment principles
and practices, Language Testing Update 18, 389.
Ferman, I. (1998). The impact of a new English foreign language oral matriculation test on the educational
system, unpublished MA thesis, Tel Aviv University.
Galluzzo, G. R. (2005). Performance assessment and renewing teacher education, Clearing House
78/4, 14245.
Herman, J. and Dorr-Bremme, D. (1982). Assessing students: Teachers routine practices and reasoning, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association,
New York, NY.
Jacobs, L. C. and Chase, C. I. (1992). Developing and using tests effectively: A guide for faculty,
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
James, R, McInnis, C, and Devlin, M. (2002). Assessing learning at Australian Universities, Center for
the Study of Higher Education, the University of Melbourne, Australia, available online http://
www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/assessinglearning/
McLaughlin, P. and Simpson, N. (2004). Peer assessment in rst year university: How the students
feel, Studies in Educational Evaluation 30/2, 13549.
Mertler, C. (2003). Preservice versus inservice teachers assessment literacy: Does classroom experience make
a difference? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research
Association, Columbus, OH, October.
Mousavi, S. A. (2002). Encyclopedic dictionary of language testing (3rd Ed.), Taipei: Tung Hua Book
Company.
Popham, W. J. (2004). All about accountability: Why assessment illiteracy is professional suicide,
Educational Leadership 62/1, 823.
Sadler, D. R. (1998). Formative assessment: Revisiting the territory, Assessment in Education 5, 7784.
SERVE Center (2004). Classroom assessment: Assessment literacy, University of North Carolina,
available online http://www.serve.org/Assessment/Classroom/Literacy.php
Shohamy, E (1998). Inside the black box of classroom language tests, Studia Anglica Posnaniensia
XXXIII, 34352.
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Shulman, L. S. (1986). Paradigms and research programs in the study of teaching: A contemporary
perspective, in Wittrock, M. C. (Ed.) Handbook of research on teaching (3rd Ed.), New York, NY:
MacMillan.
Stiggins, R. J. (1995). Assessment Literacy for the 21st Century, Phi Delta Kappan 77/3.
Stiggins, R. J. (2002). Assessment crisis: The absence of assessment for learning. Phi Delta Kappan
83/10, 75865.
Stiggins, R. J. (2007). Conquering the formative assessment frontier, in McMillan, J. (Ed.) Formative
Classroom Assessment, New York, NY: Colombia University Teachers College Press, 828.
Stiggins, R. J. and Conklin, N. (1992). In teachers hands: Investigating the practice of classroom assessment, Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Stoynoff, S. (2009). A survey of developments in ESOL testing, in Coombe, C., Davidson, P. and
Lloyd, D. (Eds) Fundamentals of language assessment: A practical guide for teachers, Dubai: TESOL
Arabia Publications.
Stoynoff, S. and Coombe, C. (forthcoming) Professional Development in Language Assessment,
unpublished manuscript.
TESOL/NCATE Program Standards (2003). available online http://clas.uncc.edu/linguistics/
Internal%20documents/NCATEP12Standards.pdf Alexandra, VA: TESOL.
Troudi, S., Coombe, C. and Al-Hamly, M. (2009). EFL teachers views of English language assessment
in higher education in the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, TESOL Quarterly 43/3, 54655.
Volante, L. and Fazio, X. (2007). Exploring teacher candidates assessment literacy: Implications
for teacher education reform and professional development, Canadian Journal of Education 30/3,
74970.
Wise, A. E. (Ed.) (1996). Quality teaching for the 21st Century (special issue), Phi Delta Kappan 78,
190224.
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on Measurement in Education, Chicago, IL.
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p
a
h te
Introduction
Why do we need lesson plans? Lesson planning is a special skill that is learned in much the same way
as other skills. It is planning, organizing and designing ahead the content a teacher will be presenting. It is preparing to perform successfully in the classroom. By doing so, it means a teacher has taken
a giant step toward owning the content she/he teaches and the methods used.
This is a process that is not easy to do. Teacher education students think that once they have
read the book they are done with their class. However, it takes thinking and practice to polish this
skill, and it will not happen overnight. It is also the only self assessment of knowing how to teach
that content. A well designed lesson plan will take teachers throughout the whole journey. It will tell
them where to stop, where to review, what assignments, etc.
Therefore, planning ahead is important in order to have a well organized and designed lesson
plan which includes English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) methodologies and strategies.
This chapter will provide basic techniques that help the development of a lesson throughout the
entire school year.
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For some it just seems off. They believe that being open and led by those student needs is
what drives the process.
Lesson plans are only a generic plan, they do not need too much detail because changes will
take place quickly as needed. Detail is needed more into the overall instructional design of a
course and in the ways to facilitate the students learning.
Some think that a lesson plan is like a coach planning table. It is just needed to rene the
learning process, but the practice and essential skills do not need a formal lesson plan.
Some see instructional design and lesson plans as two separate entities. When in reality lesson
plans are part of the instructional design.
Keeping goals for the class is in the head, which allows dialogue between teacher and students
(teachable moments), which later on can be assessed through a written quiz, homework, etc.
A lesson plan is only needed when there is a substitute in the class.
These are just few of the reasons why educators must nd ways to develop, evaluate, and disseminate effective reading strategies as well as effective English instruction for ELL students. A way to
help instructors to disseminate their instruction effectively is the right use of an effective lesson plan.
Flexibility
The way a lesson plan will be designed depends of the teacher and/or the institution. There are several parts we can add to it depending on our need and the students need. Goals and objectives need
to be part of it. The objectives will represent the expectations of the different stakeholders within
the class/course being taught (standards). Goals can be set in a short or long term. Short term goals
may change in a daily basis.
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A warm-up may be followed by a review of previous lessons. At the end, there is a conclusion
or closure that sums up the whole days work. It is recommended that during this closure students
are asked to discuss verbally (in groups or as a class) what knowledge the rest of the classmates have
acquired on that day.
Teachers need to construct teachable activities allowing plenty of time to end up with the knowledge that they seek. If not, then the goals for that day will not be met (short term goals). Furthermore,
new, unexpected topics that need to be explored may appear. The lesson plan is, therefore, just a
guide, recipe, that can be changed upon need. Teachers will be able to show their creativity if they
have more exibility built into their lessons.
Then, a lesson plan becomes a self-assessment instrument of our teaching. It is a criterion that
shows us what we want to achieve as teachers and what our students will achieve from our teaching.
A good lesson plan is the one document that could be understood by anyone or everyone who
wants to substitute for a class. Another precise meaning is that rather than planning units (lessons)
to the exact detail, a lesson plans focus is more on the overall learning of each student. Therefore,
being open and led by those student needs is what drives the process. Lesson plans are an assessment to our teaching because lesson plans are only a generic plan that can be changed quickly as
needed. For some people the more detail they are the easier it is to go through the overall instructional process.
What should be included in a good lesson plan? It denitively will vary depending on the
individual, but most lesson plans will include the following: class grade/level, length, standards
(school setting), objectives, procedures, activities, higher level thinking questions, diversity
accommodations.
Some suggestions to keep in mind are to think about anticipated problems (from the students
point of view) and the possible solutions, students target language, board layout, etc.
Task 1
Answer the following questions:
How well does the lesson increase comprehensibility?
How well does the lesson increase interaction?
How well does the lesson increase higher order thinking skills?
How well does the lesson address ESOL students cultural needs?
Does the lesson include one additional strategy/activity of the teachers choice?
Does the lesson include an alternative assessment?
What else do you think that should be good to refer to in a lesson plan?
What is an EILP?
An EILP is an ESOL Infuse Lesson Plan. It is a way to integrate ESOL students throughout an
entire class. It is a way of getting away from the accommodation at the end of the lesson plan. This
accommodation at the end gives the sense of exclusion or segregation instead of inclusion.
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This new instructional design and macro-planning is necessary, especially when teachers are
dealing with an ongoing program with a history of levels and several groups such as teaching ESOL
students. By all means it does not mean it can not be applicable to other students (e.g. special education students). The EILP allows the teacher to include everyone while she/he is teaching the lesson.
It leaves room for individual instructional and learning styles.
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Questions
Objectives
65
Lesson Continuity
Adaptation
Activities
Assessment
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Characteristics
An ESL student at this level speaks very little or no English
(L2) as they tend to associate statement/expressions with
meanings as they make associations based on actions,
visuals, text, and tone of voice.
May demonstrate literacy skills in native language. May be
on grade level in rst language (L1). They read English by
using cues.
Beginning Level writing characteristics on writing rubric
(one way of assessing them).
May be able to respond to yes/no questions in English
May be able to respond to simple questions in English with
one/two words in English.
Intermediate
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Characteristics
Intermediate level on writing rubric ESL students use the
listening process to improve comprehension and oral skills
in English producing written text to address a variety of
audiences and purposes.
Advanced
Note: The author divided the three levels of language acquisition in beginning, Intermediate, and Advance based on the placing
arrangements made in different ESL classes. Most characteristics are present within each level. However, someone may be
between both levels showing few characteristics of one and more of the other level. Some places such as school districts use
beginning/intermediate, intermediate/advance, etc.
Task 3
Try to answer the following questions:
How can I address all of the prescribed learning outcomes in the curriculum when I can
not rush, or even teach in a normal speed with the ESL learner?
How can I get the ESL student(s) to grasp the subject matter, understand instructions,
and participate in classroom activities?
What aspect of language do I try to teach? grammar? . . . phonics?
How much should I attempt to differentiate instruction?
Should I let students use their rst language as part of classroom learning?
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In order for a lesson plan to be effective teachers need to nd the right activities/methods
to disseminate the objective in mind or behind the curriculum. Activities need to address
Comprehension guiding the ESL students from prior knowledge to new knowledge or concrete
to abstract (e.g. teach text backwards (Understanding by Design concept), directed ReadingThinking Activities, pre, during, and post-reading activities, activate background knowledge,
contextualize concepts (hands-on activities). Activities also need to be interactive. Some of
these activities may include, but not limited to: Think-Pair-Share, Jigsaw, Peer Tutoring, Pair
Assignments, Cooperative Projects, and so on. In addition, these activities need to Increase Higher
Order Thinking Skills. These kinds of activities required the students to go beyond recalling
the facts to analyzing, synthesing, and evaluating their responses. Activities such as: Follow-up
(probing) questions (i.e., How do you know that? Why?);
See the following lesson plan samples: (One of the best books as a guiding tool is by Grant
Wiggins and Jay McTighe: Understanding by Design.)
According to the denition of a lesson plan and explaining what an EILP is, we can go one step
further. An experience teacher/educator may seem meaningless the use of a lesson plan, and this will
be absolutely ne. They know already what they are using a picture or saying what she is saying, and
may not need to write it down. But it is not until we gain that experience, otherwise it may have to
be planned in a written form. If a lesson plan is too rigid, then the time needed will not be used and
the students will end up without the knowledge that they seek. The goals for that day will not be
met. Furthermore, new, unexpected topics that need to be explored may appear. The lesson plan is,
therefore, just a guide, recipe, that can be changed upon need.
Once you understand the use of an EILP, it is good to keep in mind the following tips:
A clear understanding of the levels of language acquisition
Have a formal observation to determine the student level of language acquisition
It is required to use critical thinking to match questions in the lesson plan with the correct
level of language acquisition. Teacher needs to be familiar with the level of language acquisition and with the activities that match them.
It also required that the teacher has a clear understanding of the methods and strategies of
languages acquisition.
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Task 4
Using the information provided in the following lesson plan, design a lesson plan for
a particular topic or reading selection. (Use the lesson in Appendix I as an outline and
complete the sections that are incomplete.) Use the levels of language acquisition to
design your lesson to meet all students needs.
Conclusion
A lesson plan then becomes a necessary instructional design and macro-planning, especially when
you are dealing with several groups. Lesson plans are a way of making sense of all the many details
over a period of time, to guide the implementation of the class or program with each group, without
lesson plans, we couldnt accomplished all the common goals of the program over time.
There are many possible ways in which teachers can adjust their instructional practice to help
ESL students meet these challenges, without jeopardizing the learning of other students, but the use
of the lesson plans has facilitated this process.
For ESL students, even teachers who do not think of themselves as teachers of language have
an important role to play in facilitating linguistic development (teaching in any subject area consequently needs to involve some focus on language). Teachers need to use varied forms of presentation
and encourage students to represent their knowledge and understanding in a variety of ways in order
to respond effectively to diversity within the student population.
The Author
Dr. Cristina Patricia Fuentes Valentino is Assistant Professor of Education and ESOL director
at Jacksonville University. She has previously worked in Tegucigalpa Honduras as a Vice-Principal
and has also worked in public schools in Illinois as a bilingual teacher and in Florida as principal, standards coach, vice-principal, and curriculum integration teacher. She holds degrees from
Augustana College, Longwood College, and University of North Florida. She is involved in developing the rst program for general intellectual ability/gifted children in Central America at the Dowal
Bilingual School, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. She has also consulted for a number of bilingual organizations in Northeast Florida in the areas of curriculum development, assessment, bilingual education,
Immersion programs, and ESOL. She is involved with the FLDOE as Folio Reviewer for higher
education initial programs in the area of ESOL.
She has written a chapter on Honduras education for the new book: Curriculum Development:
Perspectives from around the World. She is an editor of The Latin American Journal of Education
(www.LAJoE.org), available online since summer 2010. It is the rst trilingual, peer reviewed, open
access, online education journal in Central and South America. LAJoE will also serve as a research
management and dissemination system, as well as a country index for educational, governmental and
professional organizations.
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References
Flori da Department of Education (FLDOE) Lesson Plan Evaluation Form. Public Domain.
OBannon, B. (2002). Planning for Curriculum. Retrieved January 2010 from http://itc.utk.edu/
~bobannon/lesson_plan.html
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students long-term academic achievement (OERI Report No. R306A60001-96). Santa Cruz:
University of California, Center for Research on Education, Diversity, & Excellence.
Townsend, D. (1976). Bilingual interaction analysis: The development and status. In A. Simoes,
Jr. (Ed.), The bilingual child (pp. 189226). Boston: Academic Press.
Wolfe, D. (1974). Language learning and teaching. In F. Pialorsi (Ed.), Teaching the bilingual
(pp. 8484). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.)
Recommended Reading
Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. Understanding by design.
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Appendix I
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN written by Amelia Abbott.
Used with the authors permission.
Grade Level: 2nd5th Grade
Lesson 2My Family
Goals:
1. The students will name the relationship between family members and understand the different responsibilities each member has.
2. Students will apply the above knowledge to construct the family tree.
3. The student will understand the uniqueness of each family unit and the effects culture and
tradition have on family dynamics.
4. Students will learn social skills through orchestrated social interactions with their peers.
Sunshine State Standards: Time, Continuity, and Change [History]
Standard 1:
The student understands historical chronology and the historical perspective. (SS.A.1.1)
Benchmarks:
2. understands that history tells the story of people and events of other times and places.
3. knows a family history through two or three generations (e.g., customs, beliefs, and traditions
of ancestors and their homelands).
Skills: Observing, describing, classifying, drawing, and interviewing
Materials: Family tree with apples hand-out, Questionnaire for parents and children to be lled
out at home. Stan & Jan Berenstains The Berenstain Bears New Baby (Random House Picture
back)The bears prepare for the arrival of a new baby in short sentences and with beautiful
illustrations
Stan & Jan Berenstains The Berenstain Bears The Bears Vacation (Random House
Picture back)
P. D. Eastman Are You My Mother? (Random House) Beginner book.
A Very Important Day
Levels of Language Acquisition
Beginning (B)
Intermediate (I)
Advanced (A)
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OK
Comments
German
Unique
Spanish
Unico
French
Uni
Individual
Individuum
Individuo
Individu
Mother
Mutter
Madre
Mere
Father
Veter
Padre
Pere
Parents
Eletrn
Padres
Parents
Sister
Schwester
Hermana
Soer
Brother
Bruder
Hermano
Frere
Siblings
Hermanos
Freres
Grandmother
Grossmutter
Abuela
Grand-mere
Grandfather
Grossvater
Abuelo
Drand-pere
Granddaughter
Enkelin
Nieta
Petit-lle
Grandson
Enkel
Nieto
Petit-ls
Aunt
Tante
Tia
Tante
Uncle
Onkel
Tio
Oncle
Cousin
Vetter
Primo
Cousin
Teacher
Lehrer
Maestra
Instituteur
Family
Familie
Familia
Famille
Classroom
Klassenzimmer
Salon de Clases
Salle de class
School
Schule
Escuela
Ecole
Community
Gemeinde
Comunidad
Quartier
Interview
Interview
Entrevista
Interview
Family Tree
Tree
Chapter_06.indd 75
Arbol Genealogico
Baum
Arbol
Arbre
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Classroom Techniques
QuestionnaireMy Family
Your child will be constructing a family tree and we want to investigate our heritage. Please help
your child complete the following blanks. Please include the rst name and date and place of birth,
if known, for each entry.
Student: _______________________________________
Mother: ________________________________________
Father: ________________________________________
Mothers Parents:
Mother: ________________________________________
Father: ________________________________________
Fathers Parents:
Mother: ________________________________________
Father: ________________________________________
Mothers Grandparents:
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Fathers Grandparents:
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
My Family Tree
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Classroom Techniques
Appendix II
SAMPLE 3 LESSON PLAN (Based On ESOL Method)
This second lesson plan was written by Diana Burns. It is a model that if presented in full detail, the
lesson may require one to two weeks. Used with the authors permission.
Lesson One
Topic: Three Types of Rocks
(Instructional StrategyGroup Investigation)
(ESOL Instructional StrategyCALLA)
Grade Level: 4th Grade
Goals: Students will be able to differentiate the three types of rock, igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary. (Analysis)
Sunshine State Standards:
Science
Strand D: Processes That Shape the Earth
The student:
SC.D.1.2.1.4.1understands the stages of the rock cycle
SC.H.1.2.5.4.1knows that a model of something is different from the real thing, but can be
used to learn something about the real thing.
Skills: observing, listening, describing, comparing, analyzing, working cooperatively in groups,
drawing conclusions, summarizing, explaining.
Materials:
*Science Florida Edition, Michael J. Bell, Michael A. DiSpezio, Harcourt Publishers, (2007).
*The Rock Cycle reader, Michael J. Bell, Michael A. DiSpezio, Harcourt Publishers, (2007).
*What are Rocks and Minerals reader, Michael J. Bell, Michael A. DiSpezio, Harcourt
Publishers, (2007).
*Earthquake reader, Michael J. Bell, Michael A. DiSpezio, Harcourt Publishers, (2007).
*Rock collection with key
*Visual displays
*Class set of expert sheets for each type of rock
*Classroom computer
Procedures and Questioning Strategy
Have you ever picked up or thrown a rock?
How many of you have ever collected rocks or enjoyed nding rocks?
Do you know anyone that collects rocks?
How many kinds of rocks are there?
(Prior Knowledge)
Redirect the question to other students.
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Hook: Show several different types of rocks (rocks should be numbered). Pass the rocks around
the room.
Brainstorm a list of characteristics (texture, color, shape, size) and record them on the board or
overhead display.
How were these rocks made? Discuss their answers and explain that is what they will be learning
about.
Explain: Scientists classify rocks into three groups, igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
Phase 1 and 2: Students may be grouped into pairs or in threes. Explain that each group or pair
will be researching one type of rock, igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
Model: Show students how to use each reference provided to look for information. Explain that
students should help each other discover and record information about their type of rock. Model for
students how to use the Expert Sheet to help them organize their information. Show an example of
a completed Expert Sheet from another lesson if able. The better readers will read aloud to their
group as they locate information. The reader helps the rest of the group locate the text in order to
read along.
Practice: Students begin their research. Using the resources provided. Students use their Expert
Sheets to help them collect and organize their information.
1. Science Florida Edition, Michael J. Bell, Michael A. DiSpezio, Harcourt Publishers, (2007).
2. The Rock Cycle reader, Michael J. Bell, Michael A. DiSpezio, Harcourt Publishers, (2007).
3. What are Rocks and Minerals reader, Michael J. Bell, Michael A. DiSpezio, Harcourt
Publishers, (2007).
4. Earthquake reader, Michael J. Bell, Michael A. DiSpezio, Harcourt Publishers, (2007).
5. http://www.rocksforkids.com/This site is for kids of all ages who love rocks. Here you will
nd out stuff about rocks & minerals and where to go to nd out more.
Practice/Phase 3: Students meet with other groups and share their information about their type
of rock. Monitor these meetings and ensure that each group member is presenting their material to
the other two team members.
Students make a display of their Expert Sheets and illustrations.
Whole group discussion
Which types of rocks were the rst to be formed in the Earths history?
View and discuss the animated web pages for each type of rock found at the website below:
http://www..edu/fellows/payton/rocks/create/index.html
What are the characteristics of sedimentary rock?
How is metamorphic rock different from igneous rock?
Explore on the Rock Hounds website some examples of each and how some of those rocks are
used today.
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Classroom Techniques
ESOL Strategies
Beginning: Use prompts, Point to a rock; pick up the smooth rock, or pick up the rough rock.
Display illustrations of the three ways the different types of rocks are formed. Point to the picture
that shows how igneous rocks are formed. Continue with the other two types.
Intermediate: Ask: Which type of rock is formed when lava cools? Which type of rock us formed from
layers of earth and sediment? Which type of rock is formed from pressure and heat?
Advanced: Explain how metamorphic rock is formed and what makes it different from the other two
types of rock.
Closure
What have we learned about rocks?
Redirect the question until all the important areas in the lesson have been brought out.
What are the major differences in the types of rocks?
How does the texture and composition of different kinds of rocks compare?
Assessment of Understanding
Phase 4: Expert sheets rubric
Students will complete a 3 Circle Venn diagram listing at least three differences for each type
of rock and three similarities of all three. Using the information in their Venn diagram students will
write a comparison of the three types of rocks. They will include all similarities and differences cataloged on their graphic organizer.
See rubrics for scoring.
Connections with Students Everyday Lives
1. Where can you nd rocks?
2. How are rocks used?
http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/Esheet.cfm?DocID=81
Use the rock slide show link. There are several types of rock with detailed pictures and a short
description describing the rock and what it is used for.
3. What are some places where you can see examples of things that have been made out of
rocks?
Extension of the Lesson
Students create, write, and present a Readers Theater based on the three types of rocks. Each type of
rock would be a character. The students must explain the process of how that type of rock is formed
through the characters dialog. Students should be creative and use personication to make their
character interesting.
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Date__________________
Expert Sheet
Igneous Rocks
How are they formed?
Draw and label an illustration that shows how igneous rocks are formed.
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Date__________________
Expert Sheet
Metamorphic Rocks
How are they formed?
Draw and label an illustration that shows how metamorphic rocks are formed.
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Date__________________
Expert Sheet
Sedimentary Rocks
How are they formed?
Draw and label an illustration that shows how sedimentary rocks are formed.
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Assessment Rubrics
Expert Worksheet rubric
Criteria
Written items
completed
Information is
Information is
recorded for only recorded for at
1 item
least 2 of the
written items.
Information
accurate
Information
recorded is not
accurate.
Some of the
information is
accurate and
understandable.
Most of the
information is
accurate and
understandable.
All the
information
recorded is
accurate and
understandable.
Illustration
Shows the
important
parts of the
rock formation.
Pertinent parts
are not labeled.
Complete
and shows
the type rock
formation, all
pertinent items
are labeled
correctly.
Color is used
effectively
to highlight
important parts.
Totals
Score
Overall
Total
Totals
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1
Less than
7accurate items
are recorded in
at least 2 of the
four areas.
2
79 accurate
items are
recorded in at
least 2 of the
four areas.
3
911 accurate
items are
recorded in at
least 3 of the
four areas.
Score
3 accurate
entries are
recorded under
each area for
a total of 12
written entries.
Overall
Total
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Totals
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Information
recorded is
not accurate.
Some of the
information is
accurate and
understandable.
Most of the
information is
accurate and
understandable.
Score
Overall Total
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PART
CURRENT
RESEARCH
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Introduction
In the rst semester of 2006, the Icesi University began a concerted effort to incorporate e-learning
into the classroom of all professors. Professors were instructed in the use of Moodle, a learning platform. Some technical support was offered in setting up on-line components of different courses, but
most of the work was done by individual professors who wanted to increase their productivity and to
take advantage of the new technology.
The author decided to use the Moodle platform to teach the writing of essays in English. A very
limited Action Research investigation in e-learning was designed to see 1) if the students liked using
Moodle, and 2) if their writing improved.
Contextual Background
This instructor taught English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in the Icesi University, a small, private,
non-prot university offering eight pre-graduate programs. During the rst semester of 2006, the
student body consisted of 2010 students in the daytime programs and 437 students in the evening
programs. The English Department was the largest department in the University and dealt with
approximately 1000 students per semester (Paz, 2006). The required English program lasts for eight
semesters, and most of the students achieve a high-intermediate level of English.
E-learning was introduced to the Icesi University in Cali, Colombia in 1999 after a professor attended a presentation of WebCT in Canada. Over the years, different professors adopted
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the methodology for their classes, but most professors seemed hesitant to use e-learning in their
classrooms. By 2006, only 71 teachers out of a total of 420 (16.9%) actively used Moodle in their
classrooms (Gomez, 2006). In the English department, only 3 out of 14 (21%) teachers used Moodle
to support their classes with Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) units.
In general, little emphasis was been placed on writing skills in the EFL program throughout the
previous seven semesters. Writing was a component of the course requirements, but the emphasis
was on oral production. (Communication in Spanish was taught for only the rst two semesters in
the University.) However, in the program syllabus of level eight, the students are asked to go beyond
the paragraph level and write an essay.
Methodology
The sample consisted of two groups totaling 43 students in their last level of English at the Icesi
University in Cali, Colombia. They were from different semesters and university programs.
To implement the Action Research project, the investigator designed and hung a CALL unit
on Moodle. The CALL unit contained many of the instructions and guidelines normally handled
face-to-face in the classroom. While these instructions were given to both groups orally, they were
made available only for the experimental group to consult on Moodle as needed. In addition to the
general instructions, Internet links to well-known university web sites in the United States which
support university students writing were provided. This information was given only to the experimental group. The control group received only classroom instruction with written guidelines and
the dates of when their drafts were due.
To evaluate the study, the researcher used two different instruments. One was the essay written
by each student in the sample and the other was a questionnaire on personal reactions to the experience of using Moodle in the English classroom completed by the experimental group only.
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The essay was analyzed using the Cambridge Placement Essay Rating Guide. This guide is
designed as part of the procedure for placing students in their distinct levels which corresponded to
the New Interchange and Passage textbook series. It is designed to be used in conjunction with other
instruments for placing students in levels, but it was the opinion of this investigator that it could be
used equally well alone to evaluate the essays. The Placement Guide evaluates the students using
holistic methods rather than discrete points.
The essays were read initially by the researcher, that is the classroom instructor of the students,
and another teacher who had graded essays before for the placement of students. When it seemed
that the initial time estimated for completion of the project might be a problem for the second
instructor, the researcher asked a second colleague to help with the classication of the essays. Thus,
each essay was read three times. Because of wide discrepancies in the scoring of some of the essays,
it was decided to use an average score for the investigation.
Results
The essay scores were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The mean of the Control Group and
the Experimental Group were 8.75 and 8.3 respectively which means there was no signicant difference in the essay scores of the control group and the experimental group. The standard deviation also showed no signicant difference as the standard deviations of the Control Group and
the Experimental Group were 1.06 and 1.48 respectively. These two calculations indicated that the
hypothesis: using CALL would improve the writingwas not proven.
Discussion
Though the hypothesis was not proven, indications were that the students enjoyed the experience
of using Moodle to back up the classroom lectures. In some areas, interesting differences between
the male and female students appeared. However, in most cases, this may simply be a difference in
personalities.
The experimental group consisted of twenty-two students. On the day the questionnaire was
handed out, only nineteen studentseleven male and eight femalewere present.
Question 1 asked for a student identication number to be used for grading purposes and as
such was not relevant to the study. Questions 24 were used to identify characteristics of the group.
The students were primarily in their 8, 9, or 10th semester suggesting they were nearing graduation and highly motivated to pass all courses. In the male group, six were studying economics and
international business, two were in the daytime business administration program, one in the evening
business administration program, and two were in engineering. In the female group, four were in
the evening business program, three in economics and international business, and one in the daytime
business administration program.
Beginning with Question 5, students were asked to comment on their experience with the Web
platform Moodle and how they felt about using it.
Question 5 concerned how students felt about writing directly on the computer. The male
response was overwhelmingly in favor of writing directly on the computer. The female students
response was less clear cut even though four totally agreed with the statement.
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Males
The program is very good for my learning English class (sic).
I dont had ID for accessed to Moodle, only the class time in ID other subjects (sic).
I think Moodle is a really good tool, in order to help us with different subjects but I think
Moodle needs to be worked for English class, more easy to use it.
I have used this program, because the program dont start me (sic).
E-learning is essential in any course.
Females
Using more Moodle to English class (sic).
I think that Moodle is very useful, the problem its that we still having big technological problems and that takes more time to download the information and when the students work, they
dont have too much time (sic).
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researchers. Action research makes it easy for us to evaluate our own practice and does not involve
the elaborate details of complex investigations.
Another possibility would be to investigate individual students in the control and experimental
groups before and after instruction. This would clarify the doubts as to whether individuals did or
did not improve their individual writing skills.
Still another suggestion for investigators would be a longitudinal study showing how writing
skills develop over time. This could be over one semester (or even several semesters) of tertiary
or even secondary level work. The experimental and control groups could answer such questions
as does writing improve (or are the language and writing skills fossilized) and how it improves
(what techniques lead to the most improvement).
A nal suggestion (though certainly not the only research option) would be to investigate the
writings of younger students or language learners. This could be done by evaluating shorter pieces
of text (such as e-mails, paragraphs, dialogs, etc.) written by the students. These texts could perhaps
pinpoint the difculties of developing learners.
Conclusion
This study indicates that students can do as well with traditional essay teaching as with on-line supported CALL lessons. This is not a popular view in many circles where the belief that the newest, the
latest, the most modern approach is the best and most appropriate teaching methodology. However,
the inescapable conclusion is that traditional methods do workand oftensurprisingly well!
Nevertheless, it in todays knowledge society, it is important to recognize the need of our students to dominate technology in all its forms. This was indicated by the students who responded
positively to the experience. The male students were very much in favor of the e-learning experience
as shown by Questions 5, 7, 10, 11, and 12.
To quote Parrott (1996).
The aim of action research is not to arrive at universal truths but only to learn more about
ourselves (at the moment), our teaching (at the moment), our learners (at the moment), and
their learning (at the moment). (In Madrid and Hockly, n.d.)
The quotation by Parrott is mentioned here to remind us that this study was conducted for the
benet of the investigator and her students. The study was limited to the writing of an essay and the
students reactions to it. While other researchers may replicate the study, the purpose of the investigation was not to propose general truths, but rather a truth in a particular context.
The Author
Linda Rister Price, M Ed, M EFL studied Information Science as an Undergraduate and earned
a Masters in Education (Curriculum and Evaluation) as well as a Masters in English as a Foreign
Language. She was an English as a Foreign Language teacher for more than 35 years in Cali,
Colombia where she taught all levels of English to students ranging from second grade to university
levels. You may contact her at laprice41@yahoo.com.
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References
Gomez, A. (2006). Personal communication. Cali: Icesi University. Servicios y Recursos de
Informacin. April 18.
Gonzalez, H. (1999). De la clase magistral . . . al aprendizaje activo. Cali: Icesi University. Cartilla
Docente.
Madrid, D. and Hockly, N. (n.d.) Observation and research in the classroom context. Spain:
Fundacin Universitaria Iberoamericano, p. 47.
Paz, J. (2006). Personal communication. Cali: Icesi University. Departamento de Admisiones. Sept. 4.
Wallace, (1998). Action research for language teachers. Cambridge, CUP. p. 255.
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Introduction
Student populations in United States community colleges are increasingly diverse, with large
numbers of immigrants and individuals with student visas (F-1) attending classes alongside native
English-speaking students. At Central Piedmont Community College (CPCC) in Charlotte, NC,
the population of foreign-born students increased by 61 percent, from 3,899 to 6,321, between
1998 and 2006. As community colleges are increasingly striving to become more learning-centered,
much attention is focused on how well faculty members are meeting the learning needs of students ( Warren, 2003). While all students possess specic learning style preferences, study skills and
habits, and personality types that affect the ways in which they best approach learning situations,
students born outside the United States bring varied and complex experiences from their home
countries into frequently unfamiliar learning situations.
The experiences that immigrant and F-1 students bring into the classroom may manifest as
problems or as enriching factors, or both. As community college educators seek to be more learnercentered in their practices, keeping the experiences and related needs and desires of internationallyborn learners in mind is an important factor to consider when planning instructional activities.
Because signicant numbers of internationally-born community college students come directly from
the K-12 schools, consideration of their experiences in those school settings is an important element
of understanding the learning needs and preferences of these students as they matriculate into the
community college system. In order to be more student-entered, it is important for educators to
have some knowledge of the educational experiences that foreign-born students bring with them
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Current Research
to the classroom. This study will provide some of those perspectives by exploring the educational
experiences of ESL students at Central Piedmont Community College.
Contextual Background
Challenges Facing Immigrants
The problems that immigrant students face in American schools are complex and interrelated.
Portes and Hao (2004) analyzed data from the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study to
investigate contextual and individual-level effects on academic performance and school dropout. They found evidence for variables generally supported in the literature related to academic
achievement, such as positive associations of self-esteem with GPAs and high school graduation
and a strong effect of growing up with both biological parents as well as the inuence of early
ambition on educational outcomes. They also found, however, that school-class-composition SES
interacted with family SES serving to compound the advantages of children from privileged backgrounds. Longer lengths of U.S. residence for Mexican students were found to be related to
lower academic performance, regardless of school context. Mexican-origin students also display
a greater propensity to drop out in high-SES schools. The students nd it difcult to confront
the competitive school environments, which seem to make their own academic handicaps more
visible and subjects them to greater discrimination by others. These ndings are consistent with
barriers identied in work with Latino immigrants, though the barriers are also experienced by
other groups of immigrants. In fact, six factors were identied by Bohon, Macpherson, and Atiles
(2005) as educational barriers for Latinos: (1) lack of understanding of the school system in the
United States, (2) low parental involvement, (3) lack of residential stability, (4) lack of school support addressing students needs, (5) few incentives for continuing education, and (6) barred access
to higher education.
An alarming byproduct of these conditions is the low representation of Mexican-American
students in the math/science pipeline or their access to the math and science curricula of secondary
schools (Crosnoe, Lopez-Gonzalez, & Muller, 2004). Students who do not persist in mathematics and science course offerings or have low achievement are less likely to enter post-secondary
educational opportunities and the resulting higher status and higher paying elds of employment.
Mathematics and science has long been viewed as a pipeline to matriculation into higher education
institutions. Crosnoe et. al. (2004) found that Mexican-American students had lower math and science enrollments than other peers and lower achievement when enrolled in such classes. The science
curriculum seldom considers the importance of language development (Pugalee, 2007; Lee, 2005;
Wellington & Osborne, 2001), and immigrant students experiences may be discontinuous with
Western science traditions with those experiences that could serve as intellectual resources being
marginalized from school science. Setati (2005) found that in order for second language students to
be successful, it was important for the home language to be regarded as legitimate and to be used
in a range of mathematical discourses and assessment. These studies highlight important issues in
considering how to adapt instruction so that it provides a positive environment recognizing the experiences and cultures of students. Adaptations of curriculum and assessment are essential to provide
contexts for extending students understanding of course content while also providing more accurate
measures of their academic abilities.
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in a Listening/Speaking IV class at CPCC participated in the rst interview. The Academic English
as a Second Language program at CPCC is divided into four skill-based areas: grammar, listening/
speaking, reading, and composition. The students interviewed were enrolled in the fourth of ve
levels of listening/speaking, meaning that they had either completed the previous level (Listening/
Speaking III) or placed into the course via placement testing. Students at this level are generally able
to produce speech in English that is adequate to answer complex questions relating to subjects with
which they are familiar. The interview was conducted during regular class time, with the approval
of the instructor. Because the purpose of the course is to help students improve their listening and
speaking skills, the instructor said that he felt the interview process would offer a good opportunity
for students to practice their speaking skills.
A second group interview was conducted at Central Piedmont Community College later in
the summer. The participants were 26 adult students enrolled in the Academic English as a Second
Language Program at CPCC. The class chosen to participate in this group interview was a Listening
and Speaking III course (EFL 063). Students who enroll in this course have either completed
Listening and Speaking II (EFL 062) or have been placed in level III (EFL 063) via an in-house
placement exam. The interviewers explained to the participants the purpose of the interview, their
reason for using a tape recorder, and their reason for taking notes. The interviewers explained the
protocol, and asked the students to raise their hands whenever they wanted to answers the questions.
Students were also asked to provide the following information before giving their answer: 1. Highest
level of formal education completed in home country, and 2. Highest level of formal education
completed in the United States. Some of the participants individually answered the questions of the
interviewer. Other participants either answered chorally or agreed with the responses given by the
other students. The students who individually answered the questions included female students from
Romania, Russia, Vietnam, Columbia, Ecuador, and Venezuela; and male students from Afghanistan,
Venezuela, Vietnam, Congo, and Colombia.
At the start of the interview session, the purpose of the interview was explained to the participants,
why it was being recorded, and why notes were going to be taken during the interview. It was also
explained that though their answers to the questions would be recorded, their individual identities
would remain anonymous and that the aggregated results of the session would be used in faculty
training sessions at CPCC that would be designed to enhance faculty members understanding of
their international students prior educational experiences and, by extension, their expectations
regarding the CPCC educational environment and practices. Students were asked to raise their
hands whenever they wanted to give answers to the questions. They were asked to state the name of
their home country, the highest level of formal education completed in their home country, and the
highest level of formal education completed in the United States before starting their answers to the
questions. In some instances, after noting patterns in student answers, the entire group was asked to
respond in unison by raising hands for agreement, to get a comprehensive response.
The primary interview question was: What are the main differences between the way your teachers taught in your home country and the way your teachers teach here in the United States? Students
were asked for clarication when necessary and were also asked follow-up questions based on their
responses. The interview session lasted for 30 minutes.
Data Analysis
The data from the surveys and interviews was analyzed qualitatively using comparative methods.
The written surveys were collected and analyzed prior to the phase two interviews. This allowed
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the researchers to use the interviews as a tool for adding descriptive richness to the initial data. The
taped records of the interview sessions were transcribed within 24 hours of the group interview.
Written notes taken by a co-researcher were used to enhance interpretation of the transcript of the
interviews.
The researchers coded the responses by categorizing the themes that emerged through analysis
of the answers given by the students. Responses were qualitatively analyzed and coded to identify
common themes and categories among the responses based on the homogeneity and heterogeneity
of the data (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2006). In order to support reliability, the authors used triangulation and debrieng. The authors engaged in briengs to discuss the students responses to both the
surveys and the group interviews during both phases of the study. The debriengs provided a check
on the emerging themes from the data analysis and allowed the researchers to discuss their individual
categorizations and resolve any differences in categories or themes.
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Students from a variety of nations and continents reported that teachers in their home countries
are more demanding, stricter, and assign more homework than their counterparts in the U.S. Another
student from Colombia added, The teachers in my country are more strict than here in the United
States. The teachers from my country leave more homeworks than the teachers in the U.S. A third
student from Colombia agreed that . . . the teachers from Colombia demand more in academic level
but lack to the necessary work tools for the students [classroom materials] while the education of
USA is good.
Responses also provided some powerful ideas about what constitutes a good teacher. In the
opinion of a student from Colombia, teachers should be interesting in teach well, not just for
the salary. Help to improve our English, because many teachers dont correct the students. In the
words of a student from Bolivia, with creativity reaching the necessities of each student encourage them to do better each day. Students also said that a good teacher should be able to change
according to the circumstances. A student from Peru added, . . . in my opinion, a good teacher
should teach in an active way; that is that the teacher should make a few jokes as he gives the class or
do something else that makes the class interesting and the students happy and more willing to keep
studying. Of course, the teacher should always follow or go along with the study program. Students
thought that teachers in the United States care about their students problems, as indicated by this
student from Peru, The education system in the United States is very interesting because, especially in the classes Ive been taking (ESL), the teachers give you opportunities to learn more and
understand your problems regarding to your studies. In addition, they encourage you and enhance
your learning.
Finally, students indicated that they perceive a good teacher to be someone who teaches clearly,
is natural, gives tools to the students for them to learn, is interested in teaching, is helpful, does not
waste time, analyzes and prepares for class, is demanding, uses technology, is understanding and
available to students, encourages students to learn, assigns homework, is creative, helps students
understand, is exible, and is entertaining. According to a student from Kosovo, a good teacher
should, Be natural, explain, gives a lot of examples, and [not] being frustrated when a student is
confused and want some answers.
Learning Environments
Students expressed varied ideas about their perceptions of classroom environments in the U.S.
According to several respondents, teachers in the United States have a sense of humor. Teachers
here . . . humor, reported a student from Vietnam while a student from Bolivia reported, In U.S.A
there is better programs and methods in the schools they give the opportunity to improve to your own
pace. In Bolivia, we dont even have qualify teachers and the programs are very poor. Respondents
added that teachers in the U.S. engage students in class discussions and group work. Teachers in the
U.S. let students express their opinions. A student from India captured this idea, Here is good. We
can do group work here so, well know about others opinion about topic. A student from Japan said
that a big difference in teaching styles between teachers in his country and in the United States is
that American style is do argument and discuss a lot. My home country is not common do argument
in class.
Several respondents said that there is a different educational environment, and that education is
more affordable at home. A student from Mali commented that the education system are different
but I like because it cheap. Several students agreed with comments such as, The price are better
and, It is cheaper. The students made these comments regarding better pricing of higher education
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in their home countries, even though as of Spring Term 2008, Community college tuition in North
Carolina is the lowest in the United States, totaling $672 per semester for 16 or more credit hours.
Students indicated that they are often assigned more readings in the home countries or, as
expressed by a student from Kosovo, I had to read a lot. Teachers teach well and encourage their
students to perform. According to a student from Colombia, The education system in my country
encourage the students to do their best. Some believed that there is a better teaching methodology
in their home countries. A student from Peru said, I think I like the active way the teachers teach;
that is, they make the classes vivid and interesting by making the students laugh and having fun with
the classes while they learn. As in every school, the teachers in my country also follow the study program as well. A student from Venezuela said, They were always using different technics. Some of
them were: Presentations. Work with group. Debate. Sometimes students prepare the introduction
of the classes. Homework were teachers check them instead of the students.
Some students indicated that teachers in their home countries are creative and capable, the class
material is more demanding, classes are harder, and students and teachers share the same standards of
living. According to a student from Angola, Easy way to communicate and comprehension between
both part (teachers and students) because we have almost the same standard of life. A student from
Colombia reported, The education system in my country encourage the students to do their best.
The education system is harder than here. Asked about the things that this student from Venezuela
likes about the education system in his/her country, the student replied, A high level. The methodologic. The teachers capacity. Cheaper than the education in the United States. The teachers
demand. A student from Colombia added, We learn about alternative and creative forms to do
or learn more. Another student from Colombia said, The education is good. The teachers are
interesting in teach well. The teachers are exacting. The price are better. The level is better. The
method.
Students identied many things they like about the higher education environment in the United
States. Among these were the system of study allowing them to move faster from one level to the
next, classes being easy, more opportunities for students to pursue the education they want, the ability to choose their own schedule instead of having a prescribed one, exibility of the educational
system in general, and that resources, teachers, and information are available to all students, not
just a select few. A student from Mali indicated a preference for, Computers and fast education you
dont have wait for the year to move to the next level. A student from Kosovo liked the education
system in the United States because of its system of studying. Tests that we do almost every chapter,
because you can study that chapter without being frustrated. In my country they did not have those
test in between only the nal tests at the end. It is easier to study chapter than the whole textbook.
A student from Costa Rica wrote, Teachers (in the United States) are more careful about discrimination issues, tone and words use, because legal consequences. Therefore, the treat is even better.
A student from the Dominican Republic likes the education system in the U.S. because We can do
our own schedule.
Educational Resources
A third theme centered on educational resources though the number of responses was not as large as
for the other two themes. Students responded that in the community colleges in the United States,
books, and computer programs are readily available, students have easy access to computers, there
are more labs available to the students, technology is more advanced, facilities such as libraries and
classrooms are newer and more accessible, and scholarships are available to students. A student from
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Angola noted that positive things in the U.S. community college include, Good facilities, quality
of education, competency of teachers, easy way to get information (libraries, bookstore, computer
webpage, learning center). Also the availability of teachers was offered as a resource. A student
from Ecuador added, The teacher is thinking how to have better classes. Gave us support not only
in classes, books and home work also by internet and email.
Good teaching was also identied with using resources. A student from Colombia gave her opinion about good teachers, They must have a excellent preparation. Each teacher must teach the subject that they know very well. They must prepare each class. They must demand with the students.
They must use all the CPCC [Central Piedmont Community College] tools much as language lab,
computers, video tapes and CD programs.
Teaching Approaches
The students were universal in their expression of the perception that teachers in their home countries lecture more than teachers in the United States. The teachers in Korea stand in front [of the
class] and talk. Students write notes. Not like here. Here is more chance for student to say some
things, commented a male student. The same student characterized the teaching approach he has
experienced at CPCC to be a lot of activities as compared to the approach he experienced in
Korea.
A female student indicated that the difference in teaching style in Colombia is to listen to me
the teachers want the students to listen to them, so the students dont talk as much. This student
had completed a masters degree in journalism in Colombia. She said that even in her masters level
classes, the teaching approach was the same. The teachers would talk and the students would listen.
Some [teachers] were different, but most [classroom instruction] was just talking.
A female student from the Democratic Republic of Congo who earned a bachelors degree in
sociology at home and a masters degree in education in Italy indicated that while teacher-centered,
lecture is the norm in secondary school and higher education in her home country, which is not the
case in primary school there. In primary school, the teachers use lectures, examples, and in natural
science you have to see animals and how they live or if you study trees, you have to go see the trees
and the teacher is explaining to you these things. She said that primary school is very participatory in
the Democratic Republic of Congo, but that things change when students continue on to secondary
school. When you get to the secondary school, the education is higher. You have to use books, and
the teacher explains, and sometimes you have to close the books and repeat. So education is to learn
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and help achieve and memorize and to write. The idea expressed by this student suggests that, in her
home country, experiential learning is seen as something that is good for children but not advanced
enough for older, more sophisticated students who are capable of learning in a highly structured,
teacher-centered environment.
When the same student went to Italy to work on her masters degree, she found the preferred teaching approaches of her instructors to be very different from that she experienced in the
Democratic Republic of Congo. When I was in Italy, the difference was so big, she said. Its more
like here in the United States. Before I went to Italy, I was in a university in my country, and it was a
big difference. In Italy, the teachers talk some, but then they give homework and lab work . . . I think
it is the same here in USA . . . [where] they leave you to study on your own. At home the teacher
directed more.
Most of the participants expressed concern that they did not know what to expect when they
enrolled in a U.S. institution of higher learning. A student from Afghanistan said, The way they
study in their country is different in here. They dont have the habit in class to talk; they are strict
to the teacher and the students and even student not able to talk. When they are coming here they
dont have the habit. Okay, lets try something; it is different. My idea a class introduction for foreign
students, two weeks, maybe one week, about this is the way in the United States. How they can be to
pick a teacher and how they can do the class.
Participants seemed to like the student-centered approach used by their teachers in the United
States. A student from Russia said, What I like here the teachers are very welcome to me and they
pay attention for each student that they can explain a lot to you and every time they have time for
me. A student from Vietnam talked about the teacher-centered approach that the teachers use in
his home country: In my country, teachers just talk, students just listen. A student from Venezuela
added, I like school here because teachers pay attention. A student from Ecuador also said that the
teachers in his home country are more teacher-centered: the teacher talking more . . . The best
example of the perception of the differences in teaching style came from a student from Colombia
who said, The children ask for help and when they say you dont understand good the subject then
you repeat. You do this, do this again. But in my country they dont get but one. Students indicated
that they way teachers teach in the United States is more conducive to learning and that teachers in
the United States pay attention to their students needs. A student from Vietnam added, Thats a
problem. In my country, teachers just talk, students just listen; no need to research. I just talk, talk,
talk and they are afraid to answer, listen, and they think thats right. Everything its different here,
much research.
Only two students expressed a preference for the more teacher-focused, lecture-oriented style
of teaching they said exists in their home countries. One female student from Vietnam said that the
lecture-oriented style of teaching she experienced in her home country was easier to follow than the
more group work oriented approach that she has experienced in the United States. If a teacher give
the lecture, I would get the main idea from the lecture. Then can give us some practice more from
lecture. She noted that she likes lectures that emphasize the main points. Also, give me a handout,
so I can study later.
While the majority but not all of the students interviewed said they prefer the less teachercentered approach that they have found in classrooms in the United States over the more teachercentered lecture approach favored in their home countries, the group members were unanimous in
saying that the teacher-centered approach was the dominant approach to teaching in their home
countries. Teachers in the United States who are working with international students may want to be
aware of the kind of classroom instruction to which their students are accustomed.
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As might be expected from a group of students indicating a preference for less teacher-centered
classroom instruction, the interviewees who addressed the dynamics of teacher/student relationships
in the classroom expressed a preference for teachers who they perceive as warm, open, friendly, and
caring. The teachers [in the United States] are like real people, said one student from Congo, not
so much like authoritarians who do not care. A student from Peru made a similar comment, indicating that while she felt her college instructors in Peru were well-qualied and were good teachers,
here [in the United States] the teachers are more open with the students. You feel they care more.
A Korean student commented, In the United State[s], there is more conversation with each other
teacher and student.
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A Korean student noted that educational curricula in his home country are not highly focused
on real world issues, saying, In Korea, student wants to get a high score. Thats all he wants to do.
In America, the student wants to get real [applications], and the teacher wants that.
The overriding message for instructors seems to be that these students, from a variety of countries, generally prefer to play active roles in their own educations, including a preference for class
participation. They dislike the approach of instructors who are authoritarian in the classroom. They
do not like a teaching format that is primarily based on lecture. They want instructors to be warm
and personable and to approach them as individuals, not as a classroom full of students who are all
the same. They want curricula to focus on real world skills and issues that will help them in life, and
they do not want to waste time on outdated, irrelevant material.
A student from Afghanistan said that a difference that he noticed here in the United States was
that each subject is a different class with a teacher. When studying grammar its with a specialty
teacher. In his home country . . . its in the same class and study the same things in one class, grammar, subjects, punctuation, everything in one class but here everything is separated into individual . . .
As I said before the classes are just especially for speaking so the teacher which is the topic high quality teacher, is always trying to give us what she can. If only the topic calls for speaking then you get
speaking. Students from Vietnam and Venezuela said that in their respective countries, you learn
with everything else and that here I can take one class, two classes, so I dont have too much stress,
too much pressure. A student from the Colombia said that here the classes are every day. Students
in general seemed to think that it was possible to learn more by having separate classes for each skill.
The participants in this group interview were able to express their opinions and perceptions
about the main differences between the way teachers taught in their home countries and the way
teachers teach in the United States. They answered the questions and expanded to include what
they liked about their Academic English as a Second Language classes at CPCC. The major themes
that emerged from the interview were the teaching styles of the instructors, the students perceptions of their teachers personalities related to the way the teachers teach. The participants insisted
on comparing the way ESL classes are structured at CPCC to the ways they are structured in their
home countries. They said that they liked the way the courses are offered at CPCC because they
felt that each teacher was an expert in one subject. This can also be considered a teaching approach
since teachers only have to focus on teaching one subject at a time. In general, Academic English as a
Second Language students at CPCC reported that their academic ESL teachers in the United States
encourage student interaction in the classroom, and that their instructors take into account students
learning styles when teaching.
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When these students start attending college in the United States, they start noticing the differences
and similarities in the ways they receive instruction. Some students complain that their teachers here
do not teach because they use teaching techniques and teaching approaches that do not involve lecturing, but that include small group work and are student-centered.
Cooperative and collaborative learning are effective strategies that are often used in the ESL
classroom. Collaborative learning allows students to work in small groups. Students working in
small groups feel less intimidated to participate so they engage in discussions with their peers and
are encouraged to share their experiences. Cooperative learning stimulates students interests in
one anothers learning. Students take responsibility for their classmates learning (Reyes & Fletcher,
2003). Student-centered instruction includes student collaboration in the learning process, and providing support for students.
Students born abroad come to the community college learning environment with educational
experiences that vary more widely than those of United States-born students. As the literature review
for this study indicates, even internationally-born students who have completed some of their K-12
education in the United States have signicantly different educational backgrounds than native-born
students. Those students who come to the community college having completed their secondary
educations (or beyond) in countries other than the United States can often point out a myriad of
differences between the way courses are taught in their home countries and the way they are taught
in the United States. The researchers conducting this study found it signicant that one component
of the students educational experience in community college that they found most helpful was their
instructors use of active learning strategies. Also signicant was the frequent observation that teachers in the students academic ESL courses appear to care more for the students as individuals than
do instructors in their home countries. Still, it is noteworthy that a small minority of the students
had negative reactions to the same qualities, indicating that the more personal, less strictly structured
approach favored by their community college instructors was perceived as less serious or harder
for them to follow than the more traditional lecture and note-taking formula used in their home
countries.
Based on the results of the survey and group interview processes used in this study, the researchers recommend that community college and other post-secondary faculty members working with
internationally-born students become more aware of the characteristics of prior educational experiences of these students, which can vary signicantly from those of native-born college students.
Additionally, based on the researchers personal experiences (as both instructors and learners) in
post-secondary academic disciplines other than academic ESL, it is important to note that collegelevel ESL instructors tend to be more learner-centered as a group than instructors in many other
disciplines. As is the case with most native-born students in the United States, the vast majority of
these internationally-born students (many of whom report that they come from strict lecture and
note-taking educational environments in their home countries) express a clear preference for active
learning activities.
The results of this study informed the development of a training series for faculty teaching in the
CPCC Academic ESL program. Part time faculty members were paid to attend the training, which
was conducted by full time faculty from the program and which focused on adapting classroom
practices to better meet the needs of students. In addition to sharing and discussing the information
gleaned from this study, faculty members strategized and shared ideas regarding how to best address
the learning preferences of students. Faculty awareness and education are critical in addressing the
needs of foreign-born students.
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A suggestion for further research on this topic arises from the nding that the majority of
students had a preference for active learning environments. How would internationally-born students compare their post-secondary experiences outside of academic ESL to their previous educational experiences in their home countries? Based on the results of this study, one would guess this
would depend on the type of learning activities (active) and environments (personally supportive)
provided by their instructors. The students voices provided us with their perspectives, reservations,
and hopes that can inform our practice and promote a positive learning community that embraces
our international students.
The Authors
Dr. Clint McElroy is Dean for Retention Services at Central Piedmont Community College
(CPCC) in Charlotte, NC. He earned his doctorate in Curriculum and Instruction with a concentration in Urban Education from the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. He chairs CPCCs
Retention Committee, a cross-functional group which focuses on improving student retention, and
also its cross-functional Student Intake Steering Committee, which focuses on improving student
intake processes. From 2003 to 2008, he served as Activity Director for a federal Title III Improving
Institutions grant project focusing on improving retention of students entering the College who
placed into two or more developmental courses. The success of the CPCC Title III activity in positively inuencing student retention has resulted in teams from several colleges from across the
United States visiting CPCC to learn about the implementation of the project and how it might be
duplicated on their own campuses. The organization of the CPCC Title III activity was highly crossfunctional, requiring substantial interaction among the Colleges Instructional, Student Services, and
Information Technology Services units.
Dr. David Pugalee is Professor of Education at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte where
he serves as Director of the Center for Mathematics, Science, & Technology Education. He earned
his Ph.D. in mathematics education from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He
taught at the elementary, middle, and secondary levels before moving into higher education. His list
of publications includes research articles in Educational Studies in Mathematics and School Science
and Mathematics. His works include several books and book chapters published by the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics. In addition, he has published two books on communication
and mathematics: Writing to Develop Mathematical Understanding, and Developing Mathematical and
Scientic Literacy. His research focuses on the relationship between language and mathematics teaching and learning.
Dr. Edith Valladares is Dean for the Levine Campus at Central Piedmont Community College
(CPCC). This appointment includes management responsibility for the Foreign Languages, Academic ESL, Business, English, and Social/Behavioral Sciences areas. She holds a Ph.D. in Curriculum
and Instruction and a masters degree in English as a Second Language from the University of North
Carolina at Charlotte. She began her teaching career as a Spanish Associate for the CharlotteMecklenburg Schools. She was a Spanish Lecturer at UNC Charlotte for eight years and has been
a full time faculty member at CPCC since 1997, being selected as the recipient of the Ed OHerron
Fellows Award for Teaching Excellence in the year 2000. Through her work at CPCC, Edith has
been able to positively impact a broad range of community service providers by developing and
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instituting a variety of language and cultural training opportunities. These include: area hospitals,
law enforcement agencies, the Federal Reserve Bank, Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, and city
employees. She frequently contributes as a writer or editor on nationally and internationally
published textbooks.
References
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Crosnoe, R., Lopez-Gonzalez, L., & Muller, C. (2004). Immigration from Mexico into the Math/
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a
h te
Introduction
According to the Pew Hispanic Center, English language learners (ELL) are the most rapidly
growing population in U.S. schools (Cosentino de Cohen, Detering, & Clewell, 2005; Fry, 2007).
Former secretary of Education Margaret Spellings stated As our nation grows ever more diverse,
we depend on our schools to ensure that future generations have the knowledge and skills to succeed (U.S. Department of Education, 2006, p. 1). However statistics suggest that, despite ongoing
legislation since the 1960s, public schools are not meeting the needs of ELL students (Allington,
2004; MacDonald, 2004). Is hope on the horizon? The Obama administration has requested innovative approaches to literacy learning and assessment of ELL students under Race to the Top (RTTP)
guidelines. This chapter describes an ethical summer term curriculum with culturally responsive
teaching practices, quality childrens literature, and appropriate assessments that focus on the unique
set of challenges faced by ELL students.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation, disseminated through Reading First schools, may
have resulted in a setback to previous progress that occurred under the Title VII Bilingual Education
Elementary provisions of the Secondary Education Act (ESEA). Much has been written about concerns
that this legislation maybe putting ELL students at risk (Allington, 2003, 2004; Corn, 2006; Gibbony,
2008; and Levitt, 2008). It seems the consequential one-size-ts-all curriculum has increased an institutional risk factor that contributes to the achievement gap. Current federal legislation may be creating
classroom environments that hold back the academic achievement of ELL students and discourage
participation in a federally legislated reading curriculum by students not deemed ready (Yoon, 2007).
119
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In 2005, NCLB data indicated that ELL students were farthest behind in state test scores. In
2005, at 4th and 8th grades respectively, 73% and 71% of students in the ELL category scored below
basic in reading (Fry, 2007). White, Black, and Hispanic students at grades 4 and 8 scored higher on
more recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) testing, only the WhiteBlack
gap at grade 4 was smaller than in earlier years (Lee, Grigg, & Donahue, 2007). Ongoing ndings
corroborate that there is an immediate and unrelenting discrepancy between ELL students and their
peers (Carlo et al., 2004).
A key goal of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation is that all students are procient in
reading and writing by 2013. However, a harmful side effect of this legislation has been increased
pressure on teachers to focus on teaching to standardized tests. Although RTTP legislation, implemented by Secretary of Education Arne Duncan, on the one hand, reinforces a focus on test scores
for accountability purposes and federal funding, on the other hand, has ordered public meetings that
allow experts in ELL pedagogy to contribute to a new vision of assessments that go beyond paperand-pencil testing. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the literature in regards to a national
curriculum that is responsive to teaching and testing needs of diverse student populations specically
for summer term education.
Most existing summer learning opportunities do not respond to the literacy needs of ELL students. Many schools believe remedial summer instruction of isolated skills is the answer for students
who score lowest on high stakes tests (Buchanan, 2007). Students from Florida to Philadelphia are
offered skills-oriented summer school programs in order to be promoted to the next grade after
failing high stakes tests the previous spring (Thomas, 2005). However, experts in the eld of multicultural education warn against instructional designs that are limited to teaching isolated skills.
Seminal and contemporary theorists recommend a more responsive curriculum that recognizes the
sociocultural contexts in which teaching and learning occur (Allington, 2008; Cambourne, 2001;
Gutierrez, 2006; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Vygotsky, 1986).
STAR (Summer Term Approach to Reading) was perfected over four years of research funded
by the Mary and Robert Pew foundation. STAR is comprised of a one-week intensive training for
pre- and practicing public school teachers and a three-week summer reading intervention for secondgrade through middle-school ELL students who struggle to read. Researchers studied intervention
effects on student achievement as well as ELL teachers self-efcacy of culturally relevant literature
and culturally responsive pedagogy. This university-school collaboration included three professors
with varying areas of expertise in pedagogy, two doctoral-degree candidates, graduate students from
a College of Education, and public school teachers. This dedicated team devoted themselves to making summer literacy learning fun for ELL students from an urban elementary school located in the
southeastern United States.
ELL students experienced success through this reading classroom environment that created a
third-space learning experience that was supported by rich instruction and a culturally responsive
curriculum (Mays, 2008). New English readers interest and motivation was embedded in the scaffolding formula that was used. The key principle underlying the intervention was that facilitators
made concerted attempts to learn about the culture, background, and interests of their students
(Ariza, 2006). Next, children were encouraged to choose books to read from a set of core literature texts, strategically selected by researchers that reected prior their home cultures and cultural
heroes. Noe & Johnson (1999) state that a key element in choosing literature is to offer a range of
books congruent with teacher knowledge about students abilities and interests. The selection of core
texts was a time consuming process that entailed a comprehensive and thorough search of quality
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childrens literature to come up with selections that were responsive to ELL cultural afliation and
to combat learned helplessness through bibliotherapy. Finally, inclusion of small group collaboration beneted ELL students by aiding in their transfer of knowledge from the primary to the target
language.
Bridging the ELL-White achievement gap is an increasingly urgent challenge for schools.
Providing appropriate summer term education requires a comprehensive focus on contributing factors that consider individual, family, and institutional dynamics. The purpose of this article is to
describe the effectiveness of a summer reading intervention program that was specically designed
for ELLs and culturally diverse learners.
Review of Literature
NAEP (2007) reports indicate that providing effective instruction specically for ELL students is
of immediate urgency with consequences of national concern. Despite this ground swell of support
for appropriate instruction for ELLs, there is a lack of credible studies that focus on this topic. The
achievement gap experienced by students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and
their English-speaking peers needs to be studied beyond language differences within a broader awareness that includes cognitive, cultural, sociological, and psychological factors (Gee, 2001; Gutierrez,
2006, Ladson-Billings, 2006). A theoretical philosophy behind which literature was deemed useful to
the current study includes Gees theory of dominant and non-dominant Discourses, Vygotskys sociolinguistic theory, Krashens pleasure principle, Rosenblatts reader response theory, and Bourdieus
theory of cultural capital. A review of literature substantiates the need for the current study and
provides empirical evidence of best literacy practices for ELL learners.
Discourse Discontinuity
ELL students are less likely to buy into literacy learning when their primary Discourse and culture are absent from the curriculum (Daniel, 2007; Mays, 2008, Heath, 1983; Gee, 2001). Primary
Discourses are much more complex than being dened solely as the language of the home; they are
identity kits shared by different groups (Gee, 2001). A Discourse, according to Gee (1990) is a
socially accepted association among the ways of using language, of thinking, and of acting that can be
used to identify oneself as a member of a socially meaningful group or social network.(p. 3). ELL
literacy achievement is blocked when the primary Discourse of the home or culture is not recognized in a pedagogical approach or even in conict with the discourse of the mainstream education
institutions. There is a gap in the literature in respect to summer interventions for ELL learners that
recognize the primary discourse of ELL students and encompass the sociocultural forces at work in
the classroom environment.
Summer Slide
The summer slide is when a student loses ground in reading ability solely due to being away from
school during the summer (Lundstrom, 1999). Researchers used the analogy of a faucet to illustrate
the effects of the summer slide on low-SES students. For these students being away from school
during the summer is like turning off a valve that regulates reading experiences. Seminal research
by Heyns reports different summertime reading experiences of student by SES and race/ethnicity
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(1978). She found that students who read over the summer did better on literacy tests and that
achievement gaps widen more dependant upon demographic categories.
Longitudinal summer slide research at John Hopkins University followed 800 Baltimore public
school students who entered rst grade in 1982 until their ninth year in school. Data revealed that
the rst nine years of childrens schooling reects school-year learning while achievement after
ninth grade reects different summer learning over the elementary years (Alexander, Entwisle, &
Olson, 2007). In addition, the summer slide was found to widen the achievement gap and have even
more damaging long-term effects. The cumulative achievement gap is an average of two years by
middle school and three years by high school (Alexander, Entwistle, & Olson, 2007; Allington &
McGill-Franzen 2003; Borman & Dowling, 2006).
A 2000 Gallop Poll supports the necessity of summer reading exposure for students. Termed
the Harry Potter Divide a poll of parents found that that low-SES students read less during the
summer than their middle- and high-SES counterparts. The research suggests that summer term
instruction needs to take into consideration inequitable summer reading opportunities that put
students at risk for reading failure.
Literature Circles
All literature circles share three common elements: diversity, self-choice and student initiative
(Daniels, 2001). Well planned literature circles encourage new English readers to become excited
about literature, while developing a community of learners where everyones contribution is important and valued (Long & Gove, 2004). Literature Circles have been proven to strengthen literacy skills
in ELL students and increased condence in their communication skills (Daniels, 2001). Carrison &
Ernst-Slavit found that ELL students were obliged to use authentic language for their collaborative
groups, which was then transferred to real life settings (2005). Literature circles assist ELL students
by offering them a non-threatening forum to discuss what they have read, and by encouraging them
to respond to literature more critically by encouraging students to use their personal experiences and
prior knowledge (Kong & Fitch, 2003).
Research validates the ELL-White achievement gap in reading and the need for a summer literacy intervention for ELL students. Increasing literacy experiences through a culturally appropriate
approach requires serious reection on what the student brings to the meaning of the text. The current intervention went beyond being culturally responsive in that it also activated ELL students prior
knowledge, acknowledged diverse linguistic and cultural strengths, and facilitated meaningful literacy
experiences utilizing multicultural literature selections. In sum, authentic purposes for reading and textto-self connections need to be considered when combating unequal summer reading experiences.
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Research Questions
As a result of participation in the summer reading program:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Methodology
Participants
Students
Seventy-two (72) elementary school students participated in the STAR summer reading program.
Table 1 summarizes student descriptive statistics for grade, ethnicity, ESE classication, and gender.
Approximately one-fourth of the sample was comprised of third-grade students (26%), second and
fourth-graders represented 16%, and fth-grade students made up the nal 14% of students. Male
students 39%0 and female students (33%) represented fairly even fractions of the total sample. The
majority of the students were classied as Hispanic. Hispanic students represented more than half
the sample (58%), while African-American students made up slightly more than ten percent of the
population (13%), and there was only one student classied as white. All students of Hispanic and
African American descent were classied at some level of English language learning. Many of the new
English readers in this study included students of Guatemalan descent whose parents were employed
as migrant workers.
The at-risk criterion was determined on the basis of student performance on the Florida
Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT). FCAT is a high-stakes, state mandated criterion-referenced
assessment. All students at the participating elementary school who scored either a 1 or 2 were
invited to enroll in the summer reading program. In this standardized achievement test a prociency
level of three is considered on grade level. Students for the STAR program were selected based on
the following criteria:
1. Parental approval (signed consent and assent forms).
2. Teacher Recommendation. Teachers selected participants from ESE (Exception Student
Education), ELLs (English Language Learners), and general education students.
3. FCAT Scores on the total reading portion of the test needed to be below grade level.
Tutors
Eleven tutors were hired to administer the reading intervention program. Tutors were either enrolled
in the Masters Reading Degree at the participating university or taught at the participating elementary school. All teachers, except one, possessed at least a baccalaureate degree in elementary education and at least 3 years of teaching experience in local public schools. One tutor held a masters
degree in education but did not possess any teaching experience in a school setting.
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Setting
The reading intervention was administered at the students own elementary school, in six classrooms.
The school is an urban school with a capacity of serving 529 students during the regular academic
year. The majority of students at this school are of Hispanic ethnicity, 77% compared to the state
average of 22%. Most families were of low-SES evinced by 90% of the students eligible for either
free or reduced lunch, compared to the state average of 51%.
Intervention
STAR was designed to include various levels of support and accountability for the elementary students, as well as the masters students and elementary school teachers who served as the tutors. STAR
was conducted during a summer session at the participating university. The targeted second-, third-,
fourth- and fth grade students attended STAR for a three-week session at the mid-point of the
graduate reading course. STAR tutors spent the rst week at the university in fast track class sessions
taught by the principal investigator. Course objectives covered administration of an informal reading inventory, strategies for teaching minority, low-SES, ELL, and ESE students, hands-on practice
in literature circles, creating literacy activities, and selecting and using culturally appropriate reading resources. The second three weeks were spent at the local elementary school site engaging in
literature circles and culturally appropriate pedagogy with their small groups of students. The 1:5
literature circle ratio was formed to allow the STAR tutors to assess and interact with the elementary
students in a more personal, individualized manner.
Assessment Instruments
The Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 (QRI)
The QRI examined changes in instructional reading level based on oral reading miscues and reading comprehension scores of the students (Leslie & Caudwell, 2007). Inter-rater reliability measures were found to be in the .98 range; alternate form reliability measures were in the .90 range.
Criterion-related validity was assessed using the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test. The instrument
was chosen for extraordinary components that assessed students prior knowledge of passages, and
think-aloud and retelling strategies.
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signicant. In addition, factor analyses showed that the surveys subscales reected discrete student
attitudes towards recreational and academic reading (McKenna & Kear, 1990).
Analysis
With alpha level set at .05, paired samples t-test was the method of statistical analysis performed.
This method was deemed most appropriate because the same students served as the samples for
obtaining the pre- and post-test scores.
Results
Statistically signicant differences in pre- and posttest scores were found for all measures at a probability
level of at least .05. Results indicated that ELL students experienced statistically signicant different
classroom performance pre- and post-intervention, in the following areas: instructional reading levels,
oral reading in context, and higher reading attitude scores with the exception of fth grade.
Does ELL students instructional reading level based on oral reading improve?
STAR improved the overall outcome of students instructional reading level, based on their oral
reading miscues by 1.16 grade levels. This increase in the students oral reading abilities is statistically signicant at p < .01. However, the reading uency of second graders was not statistically signicant, although it increased by an average of 17 WPM.
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Tutor Perceptions
Tutor perceptions of students attitudes towards reading and improvement in skills such as vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension, and reading uency all experienced statistically signicant
differences at a probability level of at least .05. These tutors perceptions about changes in students
achievement and attitudes provided triangulating data and conrmed students own ERAS reports.
Discussion
Our goal was to help students become excited about reading in hopes that they will become lifelong
readers. Specically, the goal was to help improve ELL students attitudes towards reading and to
develop oral reading, comprehension, and uency skills. Overall ndings in the present study were
all statistically signicant. These ndings replicated ndings of three previous studies conducted by
the same principal investigator and many of the same research investigators.
Students overall improvement in oral reading is even more signicant when you consider the
pressure on ELLs to read aloud. It is presumed that this sample of ELL students did not experience
anxiety-induced stress and failure due to reading aloud in a secondary language because of tutor
training. Tutors were taught that ELL students have a low affective lter and that teaching or testing should take place only after establishing a friendly and reassuring rapport. Krashen believes that
when an ELL feels supported, not stressed out, and emotionally safe, his/her affective lter is lowered, thus allowing the student more access and ease to language learning, reading included (1991).
Reecting on ndings of approximately one years increase in a students instructional level
based on comprehension questions is even more amazing in light of summer slide research that nds
students from non-dominant communities who do not receive summer reading instruction often
regress over the summer. Implicit questioning is especially difcult for ELLs since the answer is not
directed stated in the passage. In order to successfully gain meaning from the text he student has to
read between the lines. We believe that teacher training specically in literature circles and literacy
strategies that make use of teacher modeling and think-alouds has contributed to this area of success.
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collaboration and teacher-student relationships. Culture circles might be a way to remedy the uneven
power relationship between teacher and students (Friere, 1998). Rather than a teacher there would
be a coordinator. Rather than pupils there would be participants. Rather than lecture there would
be dialogue. The implications are for teacher training that recognizes the importance of respecting
a students culture and emphasizing the important including contributions of community cultures.
The signicant ndings of the present study are extremely important since the literature indicates that the summer slide has the most detrimental effects on the achievement of students from
low-SES and linguistically diverse communities. The current intervention is especially pertinent
since one harmful side effect of NCLB legislation has been increased pressure on teachers to focus
on teaching a national curriculum that is especially neglectful of teaching to the needs of diverse
populations. The emphasis needs to move away from the remediation frame for teaching ELL students where learning English as a second language is considered a liability to be removed, rather than
a resource to be tapped.
Legislation led by President Barack Obama, introduced the Summer Term Education Programs
for Upward Performance (STEP UP) to address the achievement gaps among schoolchildren (2007).
The bill was passed into law and authorizes funds to summer school programs based on children who
are eligible for federal free-lunch program. Step Up established grant programs to support summer
learning opportunities in a fun and academic environment to be offered by public schools. The ndings of the current study supports the need for a summer literacy intervention, specically designed
for ELL students during the elementary and middle school summer months, in hopes of scaffolding
higher literacy achievement and to encourage life-long love of reading. STAR has been proven to
be a viable and replicable program that needs to guide federal legislation for maintaining students
interest and enthusiasm for reading over the summer months and beyond.
The most important implication of this research came from collaborative discussions between
university professors, doctoral students, masters students, and elementary school administrators,
teachers, and students. The idea being that the benets of incorporating dialogue and cultural respect
into the literacy curriculum has benets beyond the classroom.
The Author
Dr. Philomena Marinaccio-Eckel holds a Doctorate in Special Education and Reading from the
University of Miami, Florida. Trained and certied in Reading K-12, ESL (English as a Second
Language), Early Childhood, and Special Education, she is currently an associate professor in the
Department of Teaching and Learning at Florida Atlantic University. Her pedagogy and androgogy
is underpinned by constructivist, sociolinguistic, and sociocultural theories that recognize the
importance of a students primary discourse to literacy learning.
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Appendix
Student Demographics (n = 72)
Sub-groups
Characteristics
Percentage of Total
16 (22.4%)
26 (36.2%)
16 (22.4%)
14 (18.9%)
Second grade
Third grade
Fourth grade
Fifth grade
Ethnic background
Hispanic
Black
Caucasian
58 (81%)
13 (17.2%)
1 (1.7%)
Special education
classications
Learning disability
Speech/language
Traumatic brain injury
18 (25%)
Gender
Male
Female
39 (53.5%)
33 (46.5%)
4.5
4.00
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.92
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Pre-Intervention Instructional Level
COMPREHENSION
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4
3.52
3.5
3
2.5
2.36
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Pre-Intervention Instructional Level
ORAL READING
FIGURE 2 Oral reading scores increased by 1.16 instructional levels. p < .01.
96
93.75
94
92
90
88
86
84
82
81.38
80
78
76
74
Pre-Intervention Words Per Minutes
FIGURE 3 Fluency increased from 81.38 words per minute to 93.75 words per minutes. p < .05.
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PreAcademic Reading
Attitude Score Average
PostAcademic Reading
Attitude Score Average
Mean
Difference
3rd
29.47
33.26
3.81*
4th
18.45
29.89
11.44**
5th
26.39
27.88
1.51
*p < .05
**p > .01
PostRecreational Reading
Attitude Score Average
Mean
Difference
3rd
32.18
28.07
4.11**
4th
18.36
31.22
12.86**
5th
29.44
29.15
0.29
Grade
*p < .05
**p < .01
Mean
Change
Attitude Towards
Reading
4.45*
Vocabulary
3.88**
Comprehension
4.00**
Fluency
3.62**
*p < .05
**p < .01
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p
a
h te
10
1
The world is full of people with a little knowledge doing a dangerous thing, teaching others.
Ian McGrath from Learning to Train
Introduction
Issue
This research started when the writer decided to take some time off to pursue doctoral study. After
nearly 15 years of teaching, he thought that a change of pace was in order and welcomed the opportunity to remove himself from the environment of which he had become so routinely accustomed.
Draw by lush tropical jungles, beautiful mountains and friendly people, he packed his bags and
moved to Thailandalso known as the land of smiles. Eventually, he settled in the city of Chiang
Mai, Thailands second largest city, and during his time there frequented the border to the north
with Myanmar, as this was a popular destination for visas. The bus ride through the beautiful Thai
countryside took over six hours round trip to complete, which usually afforded him ample time
to get to know his fellow passengers. Inevitably, there were always new TEFLers onboard, either
some who were in the middle of completing a TEFL certicate course or some who had recently
nished a course and were now working, but in any case, most were very eager to tell him their stories about teaching. What he expected most of them to say was that their courses had been intense
and challenging, but overall also quite rewarding. While this was often the case, equally as often,
many of their stories contained snippets of training practices that struck him as rather odd: One
young man spoke of a course he had just completed that had 20 trainees and only one trainer, and
133
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that their trainer had recently nished a TEFL certicate course; a young woman explained how
all of her time practice teaching for her course had been done in a single day, rather than disbursed
throughout the course, as is customary; and another recalled how after he nished his course he
had been told by the course manager to go out and buy a fake degree in order to secure a proper
work visa.
In the weeks that followed, the researcher spent time looking further into TEFL certicate
courses and many of the irregularities that he had heard about. What he found was a mix of courses
coexisting together, some that seemed quite solid and others that seemed highly questionable, and
he wondered why someone would choose to enroll in the latter, especially when the prices and locations involved were often similar. It then became transparent that some TEFL certicate trainees
were clearly at high risk of setting themselves up to be perfect consumer victims. They had money to
spend and were often in a hurry to enroll in courses that offered initial training, meaning that these
were courses that they were not supposed to know much, if anything, about. Therefore, he decided
to conduct some research into the issue. The main research questions were: 1) What do qualied
teacher trainers in Thailand perceive as challenges for potential trainees when picking a quality
TEFL certicate course? And 2) What do qualied teacher trainers in Thailand perceive as the biggest problem that impacts the local TEFL certicate Industry?
Contextual Background
People
The Kingdom of Thailand is a country with a population of over 65 million people and is located
in the heart of Southeast Asia, bordering the countries of Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar.
Covering an area of over 513,000 sq km, its size is roughly equivalent to that of France or twice the
size of the U.S. state of Wyoming. 75 percent of the population is Thai, with the remaining segment comprised mostly of minority groups of Chinese, Thai-Chinese, Khmer, Malay in the south
and various hill tribes in the north. Buddhism is overwhelmingly embraced as the religion of Thais
(95%). Other professed religions include Islam, Christianity and Hinduism.
History
The earliest Thai kingdom was founded in the 13th century, which included most of what is now
present day Laos and Cambodia. A series of wars lead to a loss of territory, with France absorbing
land in the east in 1893 and southern territory going to Britain in 1909. Until 1939, the country
was know as Siam and is the only country in Southeast Asia to have never been dominated or colonized by a foreign powera fact of which Thais are extremely proud. Subsequently, the country
was renamed Prathet Thai or Thailand, which means Land of the Free. The Kingdoms present
day ruler, King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX), is beloved by the Thai people and he stands as the
worlds longest-reining monarch.
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educational establishments that operate on a seasonal basis. Easy access via a number of low
cost airline carriers, a public relations blitz (Amazing Thailand) and the inexpensive cost of
travel to and within the country, have helped to establish it as an ideal location for combining
short-term study and travel. For the price of taking a TEFL certicate course in many Western
countries, would-be trainees can take a course and a vacation in a tropical setting. As such, TEFL
course providers often integrate travel excursions into their marketing packages, either on weekends or post-course. The tourism industry in Thailand pulls in, on an annual basis, more than
14 million international visitors and a revenue of roughly 550 million Baht (Tourism Authority
of Thailand, 2007).
Current Practice
Overview
TEFL/TESOL certicates are initial qualications that cover basic rudiments of teaching and learning. The courses are designed as introductions to English language teaching and are suitable for
those with little or no previous knowledge or experience. Every year thousands of individuals of all
ages and from diverse backgrounds are admitted to such courses, the only entrance requirements
usually being that the candidate possess good levels of spoken and written English and that they are
over the age of twenty.
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Theoretical Framework
My conception of critical approaches is informed both theoretically and historically. Therefore, it
seems tting to include them both in the same section. I begin by addressing the general principles
that underpin the present study, followed by some of the major works and contributions of the
authors who inspired it.
Critical pedagogy and critical approaches to TESOL are the frameworks that inform the present study. In contrast to the scientic and interpretative paradigms, the critical paradigm is primarily
concerned with human advocacy and its roots derive from Critical Theory, especially the contributions offered by Habermas (1972), as well as from postmodern scholarship. According to Noblit
(in Paul, 2005) it holds the belief that the social world rests within the context of power and that
researchers in this paradigm aim to disclose and transform the dynamics of power and ideology so as
to emancipate the less powerful stakeholders involved from the more powerful status-quo. Titchen
and Manley (2006) conrm this in their view of critical research and add:
We then help individuals, teams, workplaces, organizations and communities to use these
understandings to transform their cultures and practices through co-creating new knowledge in and from practice. In other words, as action researchers with our own agendas, for
example developing collaborative methodologies, we simultaneously help individuals and
teams to become practitioner-researchers investigating their own practice (p. 334).
Critical approaches are also concerned with the margins of society, and with the needs of disenfranchised groups and individuals, whose voices are often excluded by the dominant culture. Thus they
seek to give voice to those who may have been previously ignored though dialogue, text and learnercentered environments.
Critical Pedagogy
Although Girouxs Theory and Resistance in Education was the rst to coin the term critical pedagogy
in 1983 (Darder, Baltodano, & Torres, 2003, p. 2), it has, perhaps, come to be most widely associated with writing of Paulo Freire and the Pedagogy of the Oppressed. In his seminal work, the Brazilian
educator stressed the need for the liberation of the disenfranchised as part of its central premise:
They will not gain this liberation by chance but through the praxis of their quest for it, through
their recognition of the necessity to ght for it (Freire, 1970, p. 45).
Another key feature of its premise is that education can be either banking or transformative in
nature. In the former, students are viewed merely as empty vessels to ll with knowledge. Freire
describes the process as:
. . . an act of depositing, in which students are depositories and the teacher is the depositor.
Instead of communicating, the teacher issues communiques and makes deposits which the
students patiently receive, memorize, and repeat. This is the banking concept of education, in which the scope of action allowed to the students extends only as far as receiving,
lling, and storing deposits (p. 72).
In contrast, transformative education is seen as organic, in that it stems from the inside-out and uses
real-world issues drawn from lived experience; emphasis is placed on student-teacher interaction and
people working with each other. Freire refers to this dynamic approach as a humanist and liberating
praxis (p. 86). Further to this model, students engage in dialogue, critical thinking and reection
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in order to develop a critical consciousness or conscientizacao (p. 36), which helps to break down
cultures of silence that oppressed people often face. In turn, this is then drawn upon to further
examine, challenge and create change to dominant social and cultural institutions.
Literature
English Language Teaching in Thailand
For nearly a decade, the Kingdom of Thailand has been busy implementing educational reform policy
resulting from changes to its 1997 Constitution and New Education Act of 1999. The new policy
entitles all Thai citizens up to 12 years of free education, ten years of which is compulsory, and also
requires studying English beginning in Grade 1. Since reform has been nation-wide and impacted hundreds of schools and teachers, its not surprising, then, that this has received the bulk of attention with
regards to research. So far, previous studies have been concerned primarily with two domains: Teacher
education in light of reform in public schools (see Punthumasen, 2007; Thongthew, 1993; Thongthew,
1999; Wongsothorn, Hiranburana, & Chinnawongs, 2003), and teachers personal accounts of the
same (see Hayes, 2008; Hayes, 2009; de Segovia & Hardison, 2009). Therefore, the present study lls
a serious gap in the literature by addressing ELT training within the private sector of education.
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schools, universities, degree programs, TEFL certicate courses and a wide array of other offerings.
As business practices have intensied, so have the number of competitors, encouraging many to
adopt a greater entrepreneurial stance or lose their share of the marketplace.
Because much of the ELT private sector operates on the periphery of mainstream education, the
industry has, so far, remained harbored from academic scrutiny and literature addressing this issue
is extremely scarce. An exception is Appropriating English: Innovation in the Global Business of English
Language Teaching (Sing, Kell and Pandian, 2002), in which the authors argue for a new paradigm
that gives voice to those who have been marginalized. They state that the diversication of ELT
providers has resulted in a complex mix that spans both the private and public sectors, and that the
great diversity in the global ELT industry can create confusion (p. 45).
Relevant to the present study, is their exemplication of Trans-national ELT providers, which
they have termed National Flagship Providers (government funded institutions that offer language
and cultural programs, including the British Council and its Australian counterpart, IDP Australia);
Hybrid Enterprises (a combination of public and private organizations, including, Internet rms,
the private arms of universities and international franchised language schools) and; small Shopfront
Colleges. The researcher would also like to point out another group of trans-national stake holders
absent from their classication, ELT Recruiters, which, although are technically not course providers,
often play an equally important role in the promotion of all of the above mentioned. In recent years,
recruiters have also gained prominence, as the emergence of a number of train in Thailand/teach in
Korea programs have increased in popularity.
Summing up the existing situation a bit further, Sing et al go on to add:
The work of English language teachers has been profoundly altered by the combined
inuence of the globalized market in education and training . . . the differentiated ELT market
has created a range of contradictory challenges for English language teachers. These have
heightened concerns about prociency, quality assurance, and the unrelenting pressure
for exibility in responding to client demands. ELT teachers are in a period of expanding
employment opportunities but are experiencing casualiation and de-professionalization
(p. 185).
Research Method
Ontological and Epistemological Considerations
The critical paradigm is underpinned to a large extent by critical realism, a broad term associated
with a number of philosophers, and especially the work of Roy Bhaskhar. It is considered to be a
fairly recent ontology, having emerged in the 1970s, and it provides critical researchers with an alternative position to purely positivistic and hermeneutic stances. Although it critiques both positivism
and interpretivism, it also manages to straddle both domains by adopting an anti-foundationalist
ontology, asserting that the world exists independently of the knower, while at the same time, it also
accepts the belief that our knowledge of the world is conceptually and socially mediated.
Participants
A total of 14 trainers were invited to participate in the study and four declined, stating conicting
vacation schedules as their main reasons for non-involvement. The eventual sample consisted of
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10 trainers, six who resided in Bangkok and four who lived in the northern city of Chiang Mai. Of
the 10 participants, nine were native speakers of English (6 British, 2 Australian, 1 South African);
one trainer was Romanian and spoke English as their second language.
Participants were selected through Ajarn.com, a popular educational website in Thailand that
advertizes TEFL certicate courses, with a requirement that they were qualied and experienced. For
the purposes of this study, qualied was dened as having an MA in TESOL or Cambridge/Trinity
Diploma or equivalent (a higher TEFL qualication), plus 3 years of teaching experience for lead
trainers; Cambridge, Trinity or SIT Certicate or equivalent, plus 3 years of teaching experience for
co-trainers.
Data Analysis
Responses from the interviews were transcribed verbatim and read many times as a way of entering
into the trainers perceptions. Elbow (1986) refers to this as a process of self-insertion and asserts
that it is a useful way of coming to know the participants experiences. Over time, a sense of themes
emerging from that data were then labeled and categorized. The nal step was to compare these
across all of participants, noting the similarities and differences as to how the various aspects were
perceived.
Results
RQ1. What do qualified teacher trainers in Thailand perceive as challenges for potential
trainees when picking a quality TEFL certificate course?
In interviews, trainers responded with a variety of concerns that were both business and education
related, and emphasized a general lack of awareness on behalf of potential TEFL certicate trainees.
The responses that they shared were categorized and grouped into themes.
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Guaranteed Employment
A second theme that emerged from the data was the promise of employment by course providers,
which trainers believed was used, in part, to persuade potential trainees to choose one course over
another. Also known as a guaranteed job, this practice has become commonplace in Vietnam, China
and Thailand, and almost always involves working in rural public schools setup in conjunction with
recruiters. One trainer voiced his opinion on the topic this way:
Providers are offering guaranteed jobs of around 30,000 baht a month, but actually the
trainees could get 40,000 on their own just by visiting a few decent websites, so they are not
doing anyone a favor . . . they prey on the insecurities of being overseas . . . and then get
them to think that because they are getting a job there is no risk involved.
A lead trainer added:
Its creating a situation, I think, whereby a lot of people will take a shoddy course because of
these guarantees and end up without knowing how to teach . . . then they nd themselves
stuck with big classes, poor resources and a lack of support.
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Trainer Qualications
Understanding the backgrounds of those who were actually doing the training was also seen as a
challenge when picking a course. Although many providers claim to have trainers that are qualied
and experienced, there is a great deal of diversity within the eld, as one participant noted:
Depending on the center, if you have done their [certicate] course and they think you are
okay, they may ask you to be a trainer when you nish. So I think there is everything from
that to the need to have high qualications and experience and to be trained up by the
organizations running course by itself . . .
Another participant was much more skeptical about standards:
You could set up someone with no experience tomorrow, if you wanted toin the right
place . . . who can be a trainer often depends on where you are. Anybody can be a trainer in
Thailand if they promote themselves that way . . . there arent any regulations.
A third saw the situation as a source of confusion within the industry:
I dont know if there is any way of distinguishing a teacher from a trainee, actually. I dont
think the MoE, for example, pays any attention to the qualications of trainers or distinguishes them in anyway from any kind of teacher . . . years of experience could be meaningless, too, if they were working unqualied and just got their certicate . . . I dont think that
people looking for a course have any idea as to how it all works . . .
Overall, participants felt that there was a serious lack of transparency with regards to being qualied
and experienced and that potential trainees were often quick assume that all educators involved in
training courses met similar criteria. They pointed out that in many cases, course providers employ
under-qualied staff and that websites often fail to discern between recent and post-qualication
experience, making many trainers appear more experienced that they actually are.
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It was clear from the interviews, that trainers viewed feedback and individual attention as important
aspects. They believed that potential trainees were probably more likely to try to pickup on the
what of a course, such as the number of hours, and less likely to ask probing questions about the
how of a course, such as group interaction and feedback.
RQ2. What do qualified teacher trainers in Thailand perceive as the biggest problem that
impacts the local TEFL certificate Industry?
The overwhelming response to the above mentioned question was a call for increased quality assurance practices at a global level. In particular, participants underscored the need for a single governing
organization to oversee all certicate courses. One trainer put it this way:
I think there is no independent evaluation body, no sort of consumer advocate groups . . . this
is basically where you stand with these courses . . . it would be good to show up the cowboys
of what they were . . . its a big problem.
A second trainer added:
Id like to see some element of consistency and quality assurance, that there be some way
of rating and assessing what when people enter into . . . their courses, their schools . . . we
would have to be diplomatic about it . . . there has to be some element of assessment and
accreditation . . . we need something thats international . . .
Another suggested that existing organizations work together:
This is totally hypothetical, Im just dreaming now right. I would say have the Ministry of
Education, in conjunction with possibly, may be, Thai TESOL, TESOL Inc., and IATEFL
have agreed upon standards that were well publicized . . . and courses would have to state
how closely they approached those standards . . . then the potential trainee can go through
and see how the courses stack up and this is what is considered a baseline for a course . . . .
In addition, the vast majority of participants were adamant that regulation not involve resources
deriving from any of the big three course providers, as they felt this would be self-serving. One
participant commented on how he felt about agship course providers and industry reform:
I think their biggest concern is whether their course is recognized and accepted by schools
here and abroad . . . CELTA /UCLES with the support of the British government and British
Council are trying to monopolize the TEFL training industry. If there were a world standard
recognized by a body (ISO for example) such as the WTO, I feel this would level the playing eld for competitors . . . I would never agree to commercial operations, such as CELTA,
Trinity TESOL or SIT TESOL overseeing the industry . . . they have vested interests.
Others had similar feelings, but stressed the possibility of non-judgmental reform efforts, such as
this trainer did:
I think that what we are looking for is an independent body, not someone from ECC or
Cambridge or SIT. An independent body and who does not validate, who does not pass
judgment, who simply assesses each course on a number of criteria. Do you want to take this
course? This is what you get. This is the methodology behind it. This is the average trainer
qualication. This is how the teaching runs. These are the hours. . . . just stating what you
get . . . no judgment, just clear statements . . .
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Discussion
The study showed that information overload, guaranteed employed practices, trainer qualications,
quality assurance claims and course feedback, were all perceived by teacher trainers as challenges for
potential trainees when picking TEFL certicate courses. In virtually all areas, the trainers identied
a general lack of consumer awareness among potential candidates as a major contributing factor in
their decisions to choose one course over another. As was previously mentioned in the section on
current practice, these courses are intended for people with no previous knowledge or experience in
the eld of ELT. This means that in some cases, potential trainees may not even be familiar with the
difference between such basic terms as TOEFL and TEFL, yet in order to make informed decisions,
they need to have previously acquired a rm grounding in Internet marketing, local and international employment practices, TESOL methodology and an array of other areas that are beyond their
scope of immediate understanding. In other words, the TEFL certicate industry has succeeded in
creating a situation whereby one practically needs a certicate course in order to understand taking
a certicate course, and therein lies part of the problem. When consumers dont actually understand
what it is that they are purchasing and on the surface all courses give the appearance of being equal,
then it would not be surprising to nd that many opt to take the course that is cheaper, which unfortunately, may not always be the course of the best quality.
Another consideration relates to the extent to which potential trainees may have been helped
into making their decisions. The views in this study represented those of teacher trainers which were
based on their knowledge and interaction with course trainees. Although the trainers identied ve
areas of confusion, this still doesnt explain in full why these were so. The themes that emerged may
also be viewed through a different lens, or as outcomes of successful marketing techniques. As we
have seen, there are many areas of misunderstanding, and any one point of confusion may serve as
a window of opportunity for providers to convince others to take their courses. When I was in the
early stages of contacting participants for this study, in many cases the only point of contact listed on
websites was through live online chat or a toll free, call 24 hours a day for information telephone
number. After I identied myself and my reason for calling, many on the other end were quick to
identify themselves as information specialists or something similar. One gentleman, to my surprise,
was brutally honest, stating Im not a teacher or a trainer, Im a salesman and my job is to sell them
the course. In short, it would appear that some potential trainees rely on the advice of telemarketers
to assist them with their course decisions.
A third consideration relates to the perception of TEFL qualications. Taking the results a step
further and looking at the larger picture of overall employment within the eld of TEFL, some
potential trainees may have a very liberal interpretation of job requirements and may see a certicate
as more of a plus and less of a necessity, thus placing less emphasis on training standards. Such a
perception is often perpetuated by typical job advertisements throughout Asia. Rather than required
entry-level TEFL qualications, many employers place an emphasis on being a native speaker, being
young, having a degree in any eld and having good looks (requiring a photo for a basic job inquiry).
Surprisingly, entire government agencies that hire thousands of teachers each year often support
similar practices (see Japan Exchange and Teaching Program, 2009; English Program in Korea,
2009). The result, to some extent, may have a downward pull on the overall quality of courses,
whereby quality has become market driven (both no qualication or a qualication can lead to an
entry-level job). This then leaves potential trainees to pick courses from a pool of providers that are
now in greater economic competition and are struggling with their share of the marketplace.
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Implications
The results of the present study indicate that the TEFL certicate industry and potential consumers
could benet from increased transparency on a variety of issues, and that any such efforts would need
to proceed with a great deal of diplomacy. Although the issue of quality assurance is most certainly an
important one, I believe that coming to a consensus over the establishment of a single independent
body to govern ALL courses, including agship providers, and how this would be funded, would
most likely result in failure. No doubt, such a stance would be viewed by many as a highly political
one, and as agship course providers and their counterparts often have an existing upper hand in
quality assurance practices, there would be little reason for them to participate and level the playing
eld to be all inclusive.
Alternatively, I suggest that the TEFL industry follow a path similar to the one used in U.S. food
labeling practices, which aims to provide transparency of contents. Borrowing, in part, from one of
the participants in the study, the idea would be to approach both TESOL Inc. and IATEFL and
have them come to a consensus on what course providers must include when they advertise. They do
not pass judgment or enforce standards; they simply list very specic criteria for advertising. At that
point, course providers voluntarily take a pledge to agree to the terms their terms for advertising,
and in doing so, may place an Ive taken the IATEFL/TESOL Inc. Pledge logo on their website,
along with a link back to the IATEFL/TESOL Inc. site that explains the policy. Part of the terms of
acceptance would require all participating providers to include a webpage called course at a glance,
and that a tab or link to that page must be placed on the providers home page. The course at a glance
page would provide essential course and trainer information in an easy to read table format, which
must not be altered in way, and would be the same for all course providers that participate in the
program. Participating course providers could then present a challenge to all other course providers asking them to do the same and take the pledge. Participation in the program would be free and
voluntary to all, with agreed dates for regular updating and a clearly dened refund policy if trainees
do not receive what is stated.
The Author
Jonathan Aubrey is a lecturer in the Department of English Language and Literature at the
University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, where he teaches and coordinates EAP courses. He has
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worked and lived in a number of countries, including the United States, South Korea, South Africa
and Thailand. His research interests focus on teacher education, occupational stress, and teacher
effectiveness.
References
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de Segovia, L. P., & Hardison, D. M. (2009). Implementing education reform: EFL teachers
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Singh, M., Kell, P., & Pandian, A. (2002). Appropriating English: Innovation in the Global Business of
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Thongthew, S. (1993). Teacher training and the expansion of basic education in Thailand. Journal of
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Appendix I
Interview Schedule
1. Can you tell me a little bit about your background as a trainer? How did you come to work
in Thailand?
2. Can you comment on the number of TEFL certicate courses in Thailand?
3. Do you feel that the majority of potential trainees know how to pick a quality course?
*4. What do you see as challenges for potential trainees when selecting a quality course?
Which of the following, if any, do you feel present a challenge:
location
price
online v. face-to face instruction
marketing/advertising
third party afliations (institutional member of IATEFL, etc.)
trainer qualications
job placement services
external validation
an abundance of ELT terminology
5. Are you aware of any questionable training practices used on other certicate courses in
Thailand?
6. Have you ever met anyone who you felt was victimized by taking a poorly taught TEFL
certicate course? If so, please explain.
7. How can potential trainees become better informed about certicate courses?
*8. What do you see as the three biggest problems facing the TEFL certicate industry in
Thailand?
How could those problems be resolved or the situations improved?
9. What role does the MoE play in the endorsement of TEFL certicate courses?
10. What are your thoughts on the industry establishing a single governing body to externally
validate all TEFL certicate courses?
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III
PART
LEADERSHIP
AND SUCCESS
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a
h te
11
To Realize the Dream
Natalie Hess and Amalia Garzon
Introduction
What are the measures and the meanings of success? How, when, and why does success happen?
Are those who see themselves as successful happier and healthier human beings? Who are the gatekeepers to the realm of success? Can we who teach ESL in community college settings contribute to
such success, and if so how can this be done?
The above are questions that have long preoccupied the writers of this chapter. Both are immigrants to the United States, who have learned English as a Second Language, have taught ESL/EFL
and Spanish in a variety of settings, and have seen remarkable success stories emerge in such settings.
They have found the success stories inspirational and motivational both for their own work and for
the success of their colleagues and their students. For this reason they have decided to study such
success stories, so that they, as instructors, could help more of their students reach what Abraham
Maslow has termed self-actualization.(1968).
The writers, who both teach the methodology and culture components in a teacher-preparatory
2+2 program, have for the past ten years been steeped in the community college/university setting.
It is from the vantage point of this setting that the following study takes its impetus and drive.
Theoretical Framework
As it looks back on a century of achievement, the American community college system can, in spite
of all the criticism leveled at it, take much pride in its highly benecial contribution to educational
opportunity for many who, without the presence of a community college in their locality, never
could aspire to reaching the American dream through educational attainment. With its policy of
open enrollment, affordability, developmental support, and commitment to life-long learning,
the community college continues to open doors of opportunity to personal fulllment and selfactualization. Vaugham among others, has noted that, Community colleges have extended educational
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affection for mankind. They enjoyed the road toward their chosen goals, perhaps even more
than the achievement of those goals. They were able to resist enculturation. They could be
childlike and maturely-wise at the same time. (pp. 135145)
As we listened to the life stories of these women, we were acutely aware of how many of
Maslows qualities we noted in their narratives, and we invite readers to become our partners in
observation.
Contextual Background
Esperanza GilAttorney at Law
Esperanza Gil meets us in her Spartan conference room. Its only decoration is a large poster featuring the tranquil coast line of untouched sand and soothing waves. The word INTEGRITY in capital
letters looms above the seascape followed by the admonition, Measure yourself to the height of your
standards together with the announcement that Integrity does not blow in the wind or change with
the tide. It is the inner voice of your true image. We found the poster appropriate as a preview of
the woman we are about to meet.
Esperanza enters, smiling a restrained and demure apology. She is sorry that she has made us
wait. We, in turn are grateful that she is willing to give us her time. Lawyers are busy people, and we
know how much they charge an hour. She is giving us her time gratis. She approves of the project.
Yes! she agrees Hispanic women do need inspiration to continue their studies and make something of themselves. And she knows that it is not always easy. In our culture you are allowed to be
a professional, but only if you can accomplish this by also being a good wife, a good mother, a good
daughter, a good housekeeper, and a good cook.
Esperanza, who spoke only Spanish when she started school, graduated from Community
College in 1989 with an Associates Degree. It took her about ten years to do so. As a working mother,
she managed to bring up two daughters, who are now successful professionals. She did it while holding down two jobs and continuing her education. Was it worth it? Of course! She speaks with a
gentle assurance. The more education you have, the more clearly and intelligently you make your
life choices. The more education you get, the more skilled you become in overcoming the obstacles
on the road to success. I have always loved learning. I am not really a creative person, but school has
opened up the lock-box of my creativity. I love the discussion that ows among like-minded people.
I love being around people who are more intelligent than I am. My professors inspired me. The good
ones were never condescending. The math professors opened the gates of logic, and the literature
professors took me into a world where I could see myself, my own life, and the challenges that faced
me more clearly.
Did she know from a young age that she wanted to become a lawyer? Certainly not! she smiles.
I married at 15, and my children were born soon afterwards. The divorce came 20 years later in 1993,
and in 1994, I enrolled in law school.
Persistence and integrity shine through her story. I wanted to become someone in life. I wanted
the possibility to grow, to evolve, and to contribute. One day, stopped making excuses for myself
about the someday when I would do it, and I just started doing it. I am a person who gets bored
easily without challenges. At the time I returned to school, I was lucky to have a job in health
information and work under a very understanding boss, who encouraged me by offering promotions.
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The promotions demanded further education. That is how I rst landed at Community College. My
rst goal was a credential from The American Health and Information Management Association.
I earned the degree and discovered how much I loved to study. Then there was no stopping me.
Were there times when she wanted to give up? Certainly! But there were women who had done
so much for me. Generations of women. I simply could not quit.
Who were these women? Among them were her mother, who lost her own parents early, her
grandmother, who brought up the orphaned grandchildren, a boss, who encouraged her to gain
promotions, a math teacher, who made things click, and there were also doors to possibilitiesthe
tutoring services offered by Community College, and the teachers who made her feel that she was
indeed somebody. The professors whose intelligence shone and who helped her to light her own
lamp stand out clearly in her mind.
Would she do it again? Absolutely! Education holds a mirror up to life. You spend time with
people that you want to emulate. Suddenly she looks a bit wistful. That sometimes means that you
have to give up on the company of other peoplepeople who used to be a major component of your
life. That can hurt, but it does have to be done. And you realize that you really didnt want some
of the things that used to eat up your precious time. You no longer want empty socializing and the
gossip. Your mind and your schedule are both just too full for such things.
Every stumbling block seems to have become a stepping stone, and difculties had a way of
growing into challenges. When one door closed, she looked for and found another that would open.
When math and science courses at Community College became difcult, she found the tutoring
center and was appreciative of the help it offered, and as everything became clear, so did her goals
and her condence. When state universities became unwelcoming, she found a program in Health
Management at a private college in another state where she earned her Bachelors Degree; when she
found the large universities in her own state to be unfriendly, she moved on to a small private law
school in a large city at another state.
She now works in Rural City because Rural City was and is her true home. She is at ease here.
She feels that she is contributing to the community. People know her and she knows people. It
makes life easier and friendlier. I can talk to anyone. I can call anyone to ask for advice or to offer
advice. I am listened to and I am respected. I can call the mayor if need be.
There is grit, ambition, good sense, and a restrained happiness about her.
What can higher education do to help young women today? we ask.
Try to remove obstacles, she answers. Help them to set goals. Help them to see their future
selves as successful people. Turn on their imaginations. Make them feel like somebody.
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with open arms. Again, there were those wonderful folks in Student Services. There was money
available for her studies. She simply had to know the system. She learned how it worked. She learned
how to apply. But nances were just one aspect of university life. Nidia felt lost. The State University
world was just too large for her, and now there was no family to lean on. Luckily, a friend from Rural
City became a roommate and a guide through the collegiate universe.
Gradually, Nidia began to feel at home on the large campus. She was thrilled by her Spanish
Literature courses, and now, in addition, there was the language teaching methodology of English
as a second language (ESL). Out in the schools doing her practicum, Nidia realized that she had
found her place. The classroom just felt so right! she says. All at once, everything seemed to t
together. Nidia made a decision. She would be a teacher. She would teach ESL and Spanish.
While in college, another life goal materialized for Nidia. Her religious faith had always been a
signicant aspect of her life, and it was the church that brought her intended and beloved husband.
She met him at a church retreat, and they married in 1977 and have three adult offspring. All three
are college educated. One studied for the priesthood and serves as a Benedictine monk in Italy.
Nidias husband has always been supportive of her education and later of her career.
In 1984, Nidia nished her college Bachelor of Science degree and knew exactly what she wanted
to do. She returned to her native Rural City, where she taught both Spanish and ESL in elementary
and middle school grades. Most of her students were English language learners with whom she could
totally identify. For a time, she also served as assistant principal in one of the elementary schools.
A big professional break-through came when State University joined Community College in a
2+2 program, and suddenly there were graduate courses available and a complete Masters Program
in Bilingual Multicultural Education with an emphasis in ESL available right there in Rural City.
Nidia met a creative and innovative professor who introduced her to classes in Linguistics and
English Grammar, as well as to much new and interesting methodology. Nidia completed her
Masters Degree. She became active in professional organizations, and for the rst time, felt a huge
sense of collegial belonging. The Masters Degree also opened a number of new opportunities. She
was invited to teach Spanish literature classes at Community College, and ESL methodology classes
at State University.
Nidia feels that there is no gulf between her personal and her professional lives. I couldnt have
done what I have done if I hadnt had my family. My kids often came with me to school. My children
served me as assistant teachers. When I taught literature, my kids read all the authors. My husband
has helped me set up bulletin boards. My daughter helped me to keep grade books, and organize my
le-folders. All in all, my career has been a family event.
In addition to family, Nidia has gained much support and joy of life from her religious faith. She
has lived her entire life under her umbrella of faith. Her faith has told her that things happen for a
reason, that there is a plan, and that she, as an individual, has a place in that plan. With determination you can do it, she says. You can do it even if you are not the worlds most talented person.
Remember that your community needs you. Service is for all of us. It is about all of us, not just about
you. But you too are part of the plan. It is wise for us to remember that. The smile she ashes is one
of fulllment.
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community for her commitment to education, friendly and helpful outreach to fellow professionals
as well as to students, and for her contribution to the intellectual life of the community.
She arrived in the United States at age 14. Her familymother, father, and their ve daughters
came from a farming community in Mexico where her parents earned their living as cotton pickers.
The work was seasonal, which meant that there were long periods of time when there was no
employment to be had and no money to buy food. Wichis father went out each morning to look for
work, and he often returned with sadness and frustration written on his features and still no chance
for gainful employment. His wife had learned to be very creative in providing nourishment for her
family. She and her daughters would search the neighboring elds for edible weeds, and somehow
Mrs. Elias managed to nd something to eat for her family every single day. Wichi recalls that she
did not go hungry, but she realizes now that when there was not enough to go around, it was her
mother who went without.
When she was seven years old, the family moved to Border City in Mexico to search for better
opportunities. Wichi clearly remembers her third grade, and these are not good memories. The
teacher of that particular class unabashedly favored students from the more afuent families, and he
constantly made demands for things to be brought from homepapers, pencils, booksthings that
cost money. Elementary education is supposedly free in Mexico but the so called extras are not, and
there were no extra pesos in the Elias household for such things.
This third grade teacher insisted one day that each child buy a personal dictionary for class use.
The price of a dictionary was seven pesos. Wichi came home crying. How on earth was she going to
get a dictionary? She knew for a fact that all the money in the family treasury at that point in time
was one single peso.
On her way home from school, the little girl noticed a fruit vendor, and she came home with
a plan. Her mother listened and liked the plan. Mrs. Elias was willing to contribute the one family
peso. With that one peso, Wichi bought popcorn and ten paper bags. She popped the corn and lled
the bags. Then she proceeded to a busy street corner to sell her wares. Later that afternoon, the
little girl returned home with ten pesos in her pocket. She not only got her dictionary, but the eightyear-old managed to support her entire family for a period of a whole year with the on-going,
ingenious popcorn scheme. It is a story that her proud father likes to tell to this day to any receptive
audience, and the story has become part of the Elias family tradition. Nevertheless, Wichi had to
repeat the third grade. That teacher never did like me, she says with a rueful smile.
Her entrepreneurial skills continued, as Mr. Elias, perhaps following the inspiration of his
daughter, began to sell fruit from a cart. On Sundays, when there was no school, Wichi joined
him, and she loved her task as a salesperson, particularly on the days when the cart was taken to the
soccer stadium, where the calls for refreshing fruit were frequent and constant. Mrs. Elias eventually
joined in the production phase of the business with delicious homemade tamales. But only Wichi was
willing to be part of the public aspect of the enterprise as an enthusiastic and able salesperson. My
mother and sisters were too embarrassed, she explains.
The family had applied for a Green Card with its promise of entry to the Promised Land on the
other side. But it took years for ofcialdom to grant the privilege. When the long-awaited GreenCard nally arrived, the family made the great move to the land of opportunities. Wichi was 14 years
old when she became a junior at Rural City High School. For two painful years she suffered there.
She had been a star-student in her Mexican high school as well as an outstanding athlete, who
excelled as a runner and was good at volley ball. Suddenly, she felt like an outcast. Because she and
her sister could not speak English, they were placed in Special Education with severely handicapped
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children. They had no friends. Their clothes, their behavior, their attitudeseverything that had
been rightwas suddenly totally wrong. Just at the age when being part of things is so very important, the Elias sisters felt like the proverbial squares trying to t themselves into round holes. They
were miserable. Wichi begged her father to let her quit school, but Mr. Elias insisted on an education
for his daughters.
The Elias sisters did their best to stay out of school as long and as often as they possibly could.
There is no school today! they would announce whenever they thought they could get away with
it, making up any excuse they thought that their father might be willing to swallow. If their excuse
seemed acceptable, they would be permitted to join their parents working in the elds. Picking the
crops of the day was pure joy compared to the leaden boredom of school. I always wanted to be
the best out there, Wichi relates. I set goals for myself and picked more than anyone elseI even
picked more than my dad!
Work in the eld is never easy, she continues but, there is much camaraderie. You hear singing and laughing. You hear jokes. Yes, you do get exhausted and worn out, but there is a certain
rhythm and sense of community about the work, which I certainly have not seen in either the sales
work or the ofce work that I tried later on.
After two years of misery, Wichi nally graduated from high school. Her father was pleased and
considered her education completed. She now knew how to read and writeskills that he himself
had never acquiredand she was able to translate from English when that was necessary. Wichis
educational history might just have ended right then and there, but suddenly a crucial person, in the
form of an instructional aide, appeared. She explained to Wichi that there was a community college
in the area, and that there was nancial aid available, and that all that was necessary were certain
forms that had to be lled out. The instructional aide helped in the lling out of those forms.
Wichi was 16 years old when she decided to continue her education. However, there was a
problem. As a minor, she needed parental consent, and she knew that her dad would never agree to
sign her up for more education. Wichi laughs when she tells that it never even occurred to either her
or her mother that it would have been perfectly all right to ask Mrs. Elias, as a parent, to sign those
papers. Patriarchal rule was simply the accepted way of the world. As it was, Mrs. Elias was the one
who came up with a solution. Just tell him that he is signing graduation papers, she advised, which
is exactly what was done.
Mrs. Elias had long cherished the dream that her daughters would gain a higher education.
Working as a maid in a large US city, she had once observed college students on parade, and admired
the freedom, poise, and well being of those young people. This is what I want for my children, the
young woman had thought.
The battle with Father Elias was, however, far from won once those papers had been signed. The
family spent the summer months working in the elds of another state. When August rolled around,
Wichi had to get back to Rural City to start the program she had registered for. Someone had to
drive her to the bus station, and Mr. Elias rmly refused. As the arguments grew more furious, it
was Mother Elias who again saved the day. Shaming her husband into submission, she declared that
unless he was willing to drive Wichi to her destination, she would be forced to ask a neighbor for
help. That did the trick!
Wichi earned a scholarship and gained entry into a work-study program. She bloomed at
Community College. It was full of people just like her, young, ambitious, dedicated youngsters,
who were curious, open-minded, willing to work hard, and amazed at the wonders they discovered
in books and in provocative classroom discussions. It was the rst time that she had lived away from
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home, and the dormitory life among good friends suited her perfectly. Although her start at the
college had been somewhat bumpy, she was soon a star student and a teaching assistant in the reading
laboratory. These were the best years of my life! she says.
Wichi laughs as she recalls her early blunders. I had some academic language skills. I could read
a text book, all right, but I had absolutely no social-language skills. I had never interacted socially
with English speakers. I didnt know the names of foods. I didnt know the names of simple utensils
or items of clothing. My rst day in the College cafeteria, for example, I had to tell the workers
behind the food counter what I wanted as they were ladling up food onto the plates. I stood in line
behind one of those enormous football players. I listened carefully to what he said, and then I just
repeated exactly the same thing. You can imagine the huge quantities of food that appeared on my
plate. Fortunately there was a set price for lunch because I certainly could not eat all the food that
had magically landed on my plate.
She took her tray to a table, and was soon approached by a friendly young lady. You are new
here, right? said Rosa, who was soon to become Wichis good friend and dorm roommate. And
you dont speak much English, either, Rosa continued. She was, of course, right on both counts.
Rosa had been at Community College for a year, and she soon became Wichis guide and social-skills
mentor.
In her ESL classes, Wichi excelled, and she gives those classes credit for restoring her sense
of self-condence. She hurried through the ESL curriculum with a mad desire to join the regular
classes. Her college advisor did not agree. He felt that she was rushing things too much and would
wind up with regrets. Frustrated, Wichi went over his head and obtained permission to move on.
As punishment for her insubordination, she was assigned work in the reading laboratory under the
supervision of two faculty members who did not speak Spanish, while all the remaining scholarship
students were placed in part-time work with Spanish speakers. It was the best thing that ever happened to me, she says. The two faculty women soon became close friends, and, for the rst time,
Wichi was engulfed in social talkall in English. There were ever so many new and interesting
words, she says. I had learned the word curtains, but I had no idea what my new friends were
talking about when they mentioned drapes. I knew about pots and pans, but I was lost when they
talked about skillets.
She took science classes, social studies classes, math, and psychology. She thrived. She did well.
Even her father began to show pride in her success. On weekends, when the family insisted that she
come home, she was picked up at her dorm by the bus on which her father, together with the whole
crew of farm workers, were returning home. Among his fellows, Mr. Elias could not help but beam
proudly at the daughter, who was going to college.
The two years ew. In 1975, Wichi graduated with an Associates Degree. What now? She was
anxious to continue her education, but now there was much opposition. Her father wanted her home.
Her boyfriend was opposed, and she didnt know how to apply for grants, so she began looking for a
job. There was none. For a while she worked in a hardware store, but she found such work unbearably tedious. Much to her own amazement, and to her co-workers amusement, the new graduate
found herself back in the elds where she was subject to much good natured ribbing. So . . . you
have hung your diploma on a hoe! folks would say, and she would give a sheepish grin in return. It
was all just friendly teasing, she says. But it hurt terribly just the same.
But in October of the same year, the miraculous happened. One of the faculty members who
had overseen her work in the learning laboratory called up to offer a permanent full-time job as an
instructional assistant in the laboratory. Wichi accepted with joy! The work was not just employment.
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While she worked at the college, she could also be taking courses, and that is exactly what she did.
She completed all her requirements for admission to a four year university, and she continued to
learn English. I knew that knowing English was the key! she says.
In 1977, Wichi married and went to live and work as an instructional aide at Grassland Elementary
School. Ten months after her marriage, her rst daughter was born. It was not an easy time for the
young mother. Often it seemed that all her hopes and dreams had been shattered. She automatically
contributed half of her teacher-aide salary to her parents. She was living in poverty, and the situation
grated on her nerves and on her self-concept. It wasnt so much the lack of material possession that
bothered her as the sense of humiliation. Somehow she would have to get out of it. She was not going
to raise her children in poverty.
She returned to work at the College, and she had a stroke of luck. State University opened
a branch campus in a 2+2 partnership with Community College. As she had always done, Wichi
grasped the opportunity. She started taking courses, and in 1987, she obtained her B.S. degree in
Elementary Education. The entire family celebrated with her. It was a family teaching certicate,
she explains.
A new Masters Degree Program in TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) was being
piloted by State University in Rural City, and Wichi was among the rst students who enrolled.
The program validated her cultural and linguistic background, and it afforded her not only interesting courses, but it also offered outstanding workshops on the main campus where Wichi met
students from all over the world. Her horizons widened, and she continued her education, obtaining
both principals and a superintendents certicate. She became involved in several community efforts
and activities. Before long she was a valued member of State University faculty in the Bilingual/
Multicultural Masters program. She set her sights on a Ph.D., with the hope of some day becoming
a curriculum director for a school district.
Wichis plans changed when the job of Curriculum Director in the school district where
she had worked as an aide was offered to her before she had had a chance to start in the Ph.D.
program. The salary was tempting, and although State University was loath to lose her services
as a faculty member, the executive director could not compete with the salary offered by the
district. Wichi needed the money, and it was the kind of work she had always wanted. She became
the Curriculum Director in the same school district where she had once worked as a teachers
aide. Her talents were soon recognized, and other districts came searching for her skills. She
has, however, chosen to remain at the district, where she now serves as assistant superintendent.
She is noted for her outreach to the community, where she has, among her many contributions,
worked to organize Arizona TESOL conferences, and where she was chosen to be president of
that organization.
She credits her mothers love and optimism as the central catalysts in her march to success, but
she also gives credit to all her enablers on the road to attainment.
Wichi loves her work, and her enthusiasm for it shines. She nds pleasure in the intersection
between education and administration. She enjoys being helpful to principals, and parents. She sees
her role as an enabler and as an opener of windows for opportunity. She is both a realist and an
optimist. She knows what she can do, and she sets about doing it through a series of goals and clear
objectives. We have more and more children in our district every year, she says. It is our job to
help each one of those children to become the best he or she can be.
There is nothing in this world that you cannot conquer, Mrs. Elias used to tell her daughters,
and Wichi appears to have listened well.
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taking English classes where she met students of many nationalities. Her horizon expanded, and
then baby Ruby was born. Thats when the young couple decided that life in California was far too
expensive, and they moved on to Arizona.
In 1990, Victoria enrolled in ESL classes at Community College. It was a true blessing for her.
The teachers were wonderful. She asked and asked, and they were delighted to answer. They had
never met a student so alive and so interested. One of the teachers spoke about her work in Egypt,
and Victoria realized that other people too travel far for the sake of opportunity. She nished her
studies at Community College, but she still did not feel condent enough in English to carry on an
adult conversation. She found work as a teachers aide in a bilingual program, and slowly, with much
more coursework, became an expert in Early Childhood Education.
She had two little girls now, and since Estaban could support the family, she stayed at home
and dedicated herself to bringing up her daughters, and making their home a comfortable and safe
place. But as the girls grew, she became restless, and in 2002 she returned to Community College.
Things were not easy in her rst English class, and the star-student experienced the frustration of her
rst D, but she persisted. Her rst presentations were traumatic, but again she persisted, and those
As rematerialized. She graduated from Community College with a 3.7 GPA, and she thought of herself as the luckiest woman in the world. She moved on to State University, where she earned both
a Bachelors and a Masters Degree. She ourishes as a teacher, and in 2005, her school voted her its
teacher of the year. Her colleagues constantly seek her out as a curriculum expert and advice giver.
Her laugh is infectious. Her beautiful smile brings to surface the beauty queen that she still is.
Mostly, she is a supremely condent woman who shines through her achievements and her continued purpose. I am the only one in my family with a college degree, she points out. Then her smile
deepens. I have made it in my life! I am the pride of my family and nally, and then her eyes grow
thoughtful, my work is worthy, she says.
Curriculum Implications
Looking back at the lives of these women, we can certainly discern many of Maslows criteria for the
self-actualized. Each of the women is and remains an unfailing optimist. They have found not only
pleasure in their achievements but also much joy in the journey toward achievement.
I love the discussion that ows among like-minded people says Esperanza Gil I discovered
that I loved to study. I love my life, says Soa Cosme. The classroom felt just so right! says
Nidia Alvarez about her work, and Wichi Elias speaks of her mothers love and optimism. A sense of
realistic optimism permeates all their stories and is epitomized by Esperanzas I am a person who
gets bored easily without challenges.
There is a distinct sense in the importance of knowing ones goals. Soa nds education frustrating without a clear goal, and exhilarating once the goal has been found. Victorias goal of wanting to
be a ne lady emerges early and owers throughout her educational ambitions.
The ability to resist enculturation could not be clearer, and stands out in remarks such as
Esperanzas, In our culture you are allowed to be a professional, but only if you can accomplish this
by also being a good wife, a good mother, a good daughter, a good housekeeper, and a good cook.
Or in Soas statement My husband is half-Mexican, so I am very much part of that intense
family culture. The family often spends time at our house, and there are many occasions for family
parties, and guess what? I get those catered. I used to feel guilty about those things. A woman should
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be able to do everything from scratch. Be everything. Be superwoman. And believe me, I have taken
plenty of ribbing about my household help and my catered food. But hey, everyone still loves to come
to our house, and I have learned to laugh it all off. If I make $150.00 an hour, I can afford to hire folks
who make $20.00 an hour. Or in Wichis stories about struggles with her father.
All the women spoke with great earnestness and candor. There was about them a certain seriousness mingled with childlike joy and buoyancy. They had made it, and they knew it. In their own eyes
they were, as Victoria says, Worthy. They relish the respect give them, but this is, in a sense, less
important than how they feel about themselves.
In all the stories there are the enablers without whom the story could not have been toldthe
guidance counselor, the science teacher, the aide who knew the ropes, the more experienced student,
the nancial aid adviser, the supportive boss, the supportive husband, and perhaps most important
the open-door societythe society which allows one university, when another has rejected you; the
society that provides an open-door education.
And so we, as educators, are faced with the perpetual question, What should we do? What can
we do? What must we do in our classrooms, and in our professional lives to foster such ambition?
How can we provide more and more opportunity so that as many of our students as possible will also
move from us onward and be able to live a life in which they can glow? We want many more of them
to say, I made it! or better yet, like Soa, I have it all! I wake up every morning thanking God
for my beautiful life!
In our own classes, we have been mindful of the success stories, and we have worked diligently at
asking students to formulate goals for themselves. We have asked them to see themselves ve years
or ten years from the present moment and to write about that seen-in-the-future person. We have
analyzed our goals from the standpoint of possibilities, and talked about potential steps toward those
goals. We have created visualizations of the idealized self, and although we have tempered some of
those visions, we have encouraged one another to reach for the stars. With our students, we have
made charts that spell out the aspects of our lives that please us and noted the ones we wanted to
change, and written about the possibilities, and the difculties, as well as the challenges in making
changes and in making decisions.
The community college is an institution that has realized that, although intelligence and energy
seem to be equally distributed throughout humanity, opportunity and funds are not. In our language
classes, we have gone out of our way to give a helping hand to opportunity. We have done so by to
studying what is available, and we have insisted that our students make it their study. Where is there
nancial aid? Where is there help for academic success? Where are the people who can help with
lling out forms? Where can help be found for overcoming frustration or depression? Sometimes it
is right next door, but we just did not know. Lets learn together. Lets learn how to ask questions and
ask them at the right time and from the right people.
We have, together with our students, looked at and reacted to the impact in our lives of both
positive and negative forces. When we recall how the a life-threatening accident brought Soa in
contact with a lawyer, who in spite of his obvious chauvinism, brought a totally new perspective
into her life, we are convinced that as teachers we simply must expose our students to many of lifes
possibilities. Why not bring in speakers from all professions to display their skills and their professional lives? Why not ask students to research the professional world through interviews with local
practitioners and through poster- projects that display professional roads and realities? Why not
allow our students to taste the multitude of possibilities offered in our multi-cultural, multi-lingual,
global world?
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The Authors
Dr. Natalie Hess, Ph.D., serves as professor of Bilingual/Multicultural Education and English as a
Second Language at the Yuma Campus of Northern Arizona University. Dr. Hess has taught ESL
and served as a teacher educator in six countries. She has authored and co-authored several textbooks and teacher resource books, as well as many scholarly articles on linguistic and educational
issues. Dr. Hess is the recipient of AZ- TESOL Educator- of- the-Year Award. She was also recently
elected Presidents Distinguished Teaching Fellow at the University of Northern Arizona.
Dr. Amalia Garzon is an Assistant Professor of Spanish at Northern Arizona University-Yuma
Branch. She is a native from Guayaquil, Ecuador, but she has lived in the United States since 1983. She
enjoys living with her family in Yuma, a border town near Mexico and loves teaching borderlanders.
References
Brint, S. & Karabel, J. (1989). The diverted dream: community colleges and the promise of educational
opportunity in America. New York: Oxford Univesity Press.
Cohen, A. M. (1971). A constant variable: New perspectives on the community college. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass., Publishers.
Gleazer, E. J. (1980). The community college: Values, vision & vitality. Washington, D.C.: American
Association of Community and Junior Colleges.
Maslow, A. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Van Nostrand Company.
OBanion, T. (1997). A learning college for the 21st century. Phoenix, Arizona: American Council of
Education and Oryx Press.
Stafford, S. (2006). Community college: Is it right for you? Wiley: Hoboken, New Jersey.
Vaughan, G. B. (2000). The community college story. Washington, D.C.: Community College Press.
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a
h te
12
One steamy Florida afternoon, Jeane, a young Haitian woman and her 8 year old daughter
Monique, make their way to a portable, classroom trailer on the outer edges of the public school
grounds, walking deliberately to their destination. Jean pushes the solid trailer door that opens
into a cozy classroom. Thankfully, the air conditioner is working and children, parents, and
teachers are busily typing on computers, writing stories, and reading books. Jean and Monique
are greeted by Ms. Danielle, who smiles and welcomes them. They take a seat by one of the large
tables in the center. Monique runs to get her literacy folder. She is eager to continue working
on her story about her school eldtrip to the zoo. Later that day she would share it with the
other students at the literacy center. As Monique begins to write, Jean thumbs through her own
folder which contains her latest response journal entry. Jean meets with six other parents who are
improving their English skills while their children are receiving intensive English language and
literacy instruction from trained mentors in the program. Jean is grateful for the opportunity
to develop her English literacy skills and she is proud of Monique. She believes that with hard
work and a little luck, Monique will never have to know what it feels like to run from a one low
paying job to the next.
167
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Introduction
Monique is indeed on her way to becoming a successful English language learner. Fortunately, like
other children in this literacy center, Monique has the unique opportunity to break the chains of
low literacy and embrace language and literacy in a supportive learning environment. This was not
the case just 6 months previously. when Jean was struggling to nd help for her daughter, whose
academic performance in the classroom was suffering. Jean was terried that her daughter might face
the same negative English language learning experiences that she faced upon arriving in the United
States 10 years before.
Jean immigrated to New York with her parents, who were political refugees from Haiti. Although
she had completed several years of schooling in Haiti and had a rudimentary understanding of
English, it was not sufcient for her to maintain the academically demanding coursework of the
GED program and she was forced to withdraw from the program. Through a series of low paying,
entry level jobs, Jean was able to acquire some English language prociency by working with several
native English speakers, who forced her to communicate with them in English. Several years later,
with the birth of her daughter, Jean vowed that her child would not have to face the same struggles
that she faced adjusting to the United States.
Unfortunately, Jeans dreams went unrealized. During the rst grading period, Moniques 4th
grade report card indicated that she had signicant deciencies in reading and writing. Thus began
Jeans frantic search for a solution to prevent her child from facing the same obstacles that stood in
her path years earlier.
Literacy in Florida
Jeans experiences are not unique; in fact, in the state of Florida there are approximately 1,700,000
adults functioning below an eighth grade reading level. These individuals are challenged by
common everyday tasks like gleaning information from newspaper articles, identifying and entering information on job application forms, and calculating total costs of purchases from a receipt
(Lapp & Braunius, 2001). The high number of illiterate adults reects the drop out rate in Florida,
which is one of the highest in the United States. Estimates suggest that one third of the students
currently enrolled in Florida schools will drop out before obtaining a high school diploma. South
Floridas Miami Dade county reported an astounding drop out rate of 47.8%, nearly one out of
every two students in the school system (2001).
These Florida gures are exacerbated by the fact that approximately 13% of the states population are foreign born and possess limited English prociency. English for speakers of other languages
(ESOL) is becoming an increasingly critical issue for family literacy in particular, and for the nation
in general. Specic concerns relate to the following statistics:
Approximately 19.8 million immigrants enter the United States each year and 1.7 million of
those who are age 25 and older have less than a 5th grade education.
Up to 80% of the adults who are illiterate in English are also illiterate in their rst language.
(Camarota, 2005).
Illiteracy is an intergenerational problem and evidence suggests that it begins in the home.
Adults with high reading levels and abilities will most likely pass on their enthusiasm for literacy to
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their children. Children, whose parents read to them, even in preschool, are much better prepared
to start school, and they perform signicantly better in school when compared to children who have
not been exposed to reading at home.
Consequently, children of parents with low literacy skills will likely inherit their parents low
motivation to read and as a result, experience low literacy levels. Frequently, these parents tend
to have experienced poor school achievement and high drop out rates. Parents who have graduated from high school are more likely to have children who graduate from high school (Wolfe &
Haveman, 2003) In fact, children whose parents have not completed high school, are ve times more
likely to repeat their parents mistakes and drop out of school than children whose parents have
completed school (Fitzgerald, 1989).
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Social Exclusion
Many families of English learners in Florida feel that legislative policies that focus on improving
test scores are simply punitive measures designed to exacerbate their sense of alienation, isolation, and rejection in their new surroundings (Buttaro, 2004). Frequently, immigrant children and
parents nd themselves adrift in an unfamiliar environment completely unprepared to survive in the
fast paced lifestyles they encounter in the United States. With limited job experiences, education
and language skills, many immigrant families feel socially excluded from their new surroundings.
Because of these setbacks, newcomers soon discover that they have restricted access to communicative competence, civil, political and social rights, and opportunities to improve their circumstances (Beyond child, 2003). Social exclusion of children is often associated with social exclusion
of their parents. Parents own lack of literacy and language skills may contribute to the exclusion
of their children, and to their inability to assist their children with school work. Schools can also
exacerbate social exclusion by failing to adequately educate children, depriving them of needed
academic resources, and excluding them from interventions (Beyond child, 2003). Social exclusion
is particularly difcult for children because if encountered at a very young, this phenomenon frequently prevents them from receiving crucial services such as access to health care and educational
accommodations (2003).
The negative impact of social exclusion must be resolved. Educational practioners have long
claimed that the key to improving childrens opportunities for academic success is to enhance and
support their literacy development. A key component of a childs literacy development is to have
actively engaged parents, who support their childrens literacy growth (Fitzgerald, 1989)
Children and parents need to be exposed to literacy activities that can be specically connected
with real-life social issues and concerns in their community. Immigrant families need to have opportunities to make the necessary connection between literacy learning, personal empowerment, and
social change which can only occur if they nd themselves supported in a secure language learning
environment.
Setting
Multicultural/Multilingual Family Literacy Project
A yearlong Multicultural/Multilingual Family Literacy project was established at an urban elementary school in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. The project was funded through the Barbara Bush Family
Literacy/Annenberg Challenge Grant. Children, families and their mentors (professional educators
enrolled in graduate courses at a local university) gathered together every Tuesday afternoon for
three academic semesters. Together, these individuals formed partnerships whose specic goal was
to create a family literacy and learning center where parents and children gathered together and
developed an appreciation and understanding of language and literacy skills and strategies.
The overarching objective of the Multicultural/Multilingual Family Literacy Center was to
create an opportunity for ELLs to work with a professional teacher educator who exposed children to a variety of meaningful literacy activities through intensive, individualized instruction that
addressed students specic academic needs and provided them with a thorough diagnosis of their
academic strengths and weaknesses.
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A second objective of the project was to make certain that families also beneted from
attending the Multicultural/Multilingual Family Literacy Center. The project embraced the
families unique histories and experiences and infused them into the program development in an
effort to create authentic literacy activities (Moll and Greenberg, 1990). Families were encouraged to share personally relevant stories about their native countries, families, culture and customs
both orally and through writing. Frequently, they used their native languages interchangeably
with English in an effort to set the stage for multicultural exchanges within the partnerships
and through a supportive learning environment; they had the opportunity to gain insight and
understanding from each other.
Participants
Throughout the span of the yearlong project, 30 families from Caribbean, Latin and South American
countries met together with a teacher-mentor in weekly, two hour mentoring sessions. The sessions were divided into several congurations including mentor-child, mentor-parent and mentorchild-parent. The average age of the child participants ranged from 8 to 10 years of age.
Mentor-child sessions lasted for approximately 4045 minutes. During this time, the mentor
and child would complete a series of informal assessments and a host of reading and writing tasks
with embedded skills-based remediation activities. Mentors used the Burns and Roe (2002) Informal
Reading Inventory in order to get baseline data on their students isolated word list skills as well as
their oral, silent, and listening comprehension levels. Once they determined the students approximate levels, mentors began to address appropriate remediation activities for their students.
While children were meeting with their mentors, parents were engaged in independent literacy activities including Internet searches, independent reading and writing activities, or they could
choose to attend a GED program adjacent to the center.
Once this portion of the mentoring session was completed, the child and parent would switch
roles and the child would be engaged in independent literacy activities while the parent and
mentor would engage in literacy related discussions such as book shares, dialogue journaling, or
school-related discussions. This portion of the session would last for approximately 2025 minutes
followed by the nal portion of the mentoring session where all participants would engage in
mentor-child-parent discussion. It was during this portion of the mentoring session that parents
learned how to support and scaffold their childs language and literacy development, while gathering suggestions and input from the mentor. The following discussion highlights one very successful
partnership that included Jean, Monique, and Ms. Danielle.
A Literacy Partnership
During the rst week of the family literacy center, Jean, the young mother from Haiti, her child,
Monique, the fourth grader who was born and raised in Florida, and their mentor, Ms. Danielle, a
6th grade teacher and graduate student at the local university, decided to work together as a family
literacy partnership.
As the mentoring sessions unfolded, Ms. Danielle developed a rapport with the family as she as
she began to learn about Jean and her daughters struggles to survive in the United States. Through
interviews with the parent, Ms. Danielle discovered that Jean was actively involved at the school
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and worked as a teachers aide. Since Jean was bilingual in Haitian-Creole and English, she was
frequently called upon by the school to help translate conversations between school administrators and Haitian parents. The mentor also learned about Jeans struggles to become literate as an
immigrant to the United States. Since Jeans formal English instruction had been unsuccessful,
Ms. Danielle tried to create a positive and supportive relationship among herself, Jean and her
daughter.
After a brief period of collecting baseline information on Moniques reading prociency generated from an informal reading inventory (Burns, Roe and Ross, 2002), Ms. Danielle determined that
Monique was approximately 2 levels below her current 4th grade level. Through conversations with
the child as well as classroom observations, it became clear to the mentor that the child was simply
being exposed to classroom instruction which focused on direct instruction of phonemic awareness, phonics, and FCAT test preparation activities. Moniques greatest weakness in reading centered
on comprehension strategies and she lacked signicant exposure to authentic childrens literature.
Moniques teacher rarely took time out of her busy schedule to read stories aloud to the children.
Instead, Moniques classroom teacher felt compelled to complete the direct instruction assignments
which littered the teachers daily lesson plans.
During the rst meeting with Monique and Jean, Ms. Danielle soon discovered that the child
had limited access to literature in the classroom as well as the home environment. As it turned
out, Moniques mother had no idea how to select appropriate reading material for her daughter.
According to Jean, If we have enough money, I will look for things to read at the grocery. I choose
magazines for the pictures and then Monique looks at them too. Immediately, the mentor began
to create literacy activities which would expose both parent and child to literature that was both
personally relevant and authentic. In subsequent sessions, the mentor noticed how excited both
Jean and Monique became when they spoke about Caribbean literature. During one of the parentchild-teacher sessions, Jean began to share an old Haitian folktale about two friends, Bouki and
Ti Malice. Jean explained that her uncle used to come to her parents house in the evenings. Upon
arrival, he would call out to the family, KRIK which indicated that he was ready to share a story
or folktale. Immediately, Jean and her siblings would rush out of the house yelling, KRAK thus
indicating their desire for their uncle to share the tale with the family. Jean rarely recalled her parents reading stories to themselves or their children. Instead, most stories were shared through oral
communication in family settings.
Ms. Danielle realized how important oral communication was to this family. She immediately
began to structure the mentoring sessions so that oral communication was emphasized, while at the
same time she engaged both Monique and Jean in a quest to locate Caribbean literature that they
could bring to the mentoring sessions.
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with her own illustrations and share her books by reading her books with other children in the
literacy center.
Opportunities to engage in this type of authentic literacy experience vastly contrasted with
Moniques classroom experiences. In the classroom Monique had limited exposure to authentic
literacy activities. Since the school that she attended was deemed a Reading First (2002) school,
Monique found that most of her classroom instruction focused on ongoing screening, diagnosis,
and classroom-based assessment. Her exposure to literacy related activities consisted of skills-related
phonic analysis and uency-building activities.
In the literacy center, Monique was exposed to a number of beautifully illustrated books
particularly geared towards Caribbean folklore. One of Moniques favorite books, which she asked
her mentor to read repeatedly, was Cendrillon: A Caribbean Cinderella (1998) by Robert S. San Souci.
Monique was thrilled to learn more about the islands and eagerly shared the story with her mother.
Monique kept a small journal with her at all times and recorded her thoughts and reactions to the
stories as well as new vocabulary words. Her interest in these stories gradually encouraged the child
to create her own texts which she shared with her mother and other classmates in the multicultural/
multilingual center.
Moniques mother was elated with her daughters enthusiasm for reading and writing. After
observing how Ms. Danielle completed some Internet searches on the computer, Jean began to carry
out her own Internet searches to locate additional texts for her daughter to read at home. During one
of her Internet searches, Jean asked Ms. Danielle how she might nd stories written by adults about
her homeland, Haiti. This simple request by Jean generated a signicant emotional response once
she discovered some novels written by Haitian authors.
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support her daughters steadily increasing interest and demand for literacy-related information.
According to Jean:
My daughter and I spent most of the day at the library just looking and reading the books. She kept
asking to get this one and that and then we had to carry them all home, then the next day we read the
books and she wrote me stories about them. My, has this girl become bookish!
Jean also became increasingly more bookish as she made greater connections to literature.
Through several novels, Jean began to understand the struggles of Haitians and the political crisis
which forced families like her own to make the critical decision to immigrate to the United States.
Suddenly, literature became personally relevant for Jean. Through books, she was able to better
understand the culture and politics of her native country, something that her parents did not feel
comfortable sharing with her, as she was growing up in the United States.
Jean immediately resolved that her daughter would continue to embrace a literate environment
in her home and proceeded to ll their apartment with library books and writing materials. Jean no
longer saw her child in an oppressive learning situation. In fact, Jean went on to become a literacy
center spokesperson within the school community and encouraged several other Haitian families to
participate in the multicultural/multilingual family literacy center.
Discussion
Jean and Moniques story is not unique in the American school system. All too frequently, families
from other cultures cannot seem to nd their lives represented and reected within the schools
curriculum. Too often, educators are forced to prepare their students to perform successfully on
standardized tests, while forgetting to acknowledge and embrace their students diverse linguistic
and cultural experiences.
Participation in this Multicultural/Multilingual Family Literacy Center enabled families to feel
empowerment and success because the strategies used embraced the families unique histories and
infused these experiences into individual program development. The literacy center program provided families with a context and framework that valued and appreciated their cultures and languages.
Parents and children made personal connections between literacy learning and real-life social and
community issues. By working alongside mentors, parents learned how to scaffold their childrens
literacy development while simultaneously learning how to develop and enhance their own literacy
learning. Families engaged with mentors and parents in a variety of lively and informative discussions
about school culture. Through these important discussions, families no longer felt socially excluded
from the school community. Instead, participants in the family literacy center began to feel that they
were an integral and contributing member of the school community. Many of the parents began
to attend parent-teacher conferences and several became actively involved in the Parent-Teacher
Association (PTA). Parents were convinced that their input was valued and that they were signicant
partners in their childrens literacy development (Benjamin & Lord 1996; Gadsden, 1996).
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the best way to garner support for family literacy programs is to focus on grass roots efforts at
recruiting family participation. As was evidenced in this project, it was important to nd a parent who
was connected and respected within the school community to advocate for the program.
Additional family literacy recruitment strategies include creating a literacy environment that
reects the cultural diversity and local norms of the community. Families need to be convinced that
literacy centers offer a curriculum that focuses on personally relevant information and materials
instead of prescriptive literacy packages which may not specically address the unique needs of multicultural and multilingual families. It is also essential that program developers truly understand the
challenges faced by the communities where the centers are located. Active support from community
and religious leaders is an important recommendation for families who might otherwise distrust
outside intervention (Dwyer, 1995).
Program developers must also consider how to attract families to family literacy centers. Because
parents have different reasons for seeking out the services of a family literacy program, program
developers need to offer prospective parents a family-center curriculum that provides participants
with specic instruction and guidance on how to help their children learn, as well as strategies for
dealing with childhood behavior issues. Some family members may wish to improve their English
prociency, while others may be interested in improving their vocational opportunities. Family
members who feel and experience success in learning are more likely to pass that enthusiasm on to
their children (Griswold & Ullman, 1997; Shanahan, Mulhern, & Rodriguez-Brown, 1995). Parents,
who see themselves as equal partners in their childs learning process become engaged and empowered parents (Strickland, 1996) and will provide that essential ingredient that guarantees a brighter
academic future for their children.
The Authors
Dr. Susanne I. Lapp is an Associate Professor in Reading, Language Arts and Childrens Literature
in the Department of Teaching and Learning at Florida Atlantic University. Her area of research
specialization focuses on family literacy and English language acquisition of children and adults.
Dr. Eileen N. Whelan Ariza is a professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at Florida
Atlantic University where she has taught since 1997. She has been involved in teaching English
learners and training teachers both overseas and in the United States for the last 30 years. A prolic writer, she has authored or coauthored 10 books and numerous articles that focus on language
learners and was the editor of TESOLs agship publication, Essential Teacher. Throughout her
career, Dr. Ariza has won several awards for excellence in teaching from FAU and Harvard University,
where she taught for 5 years, and was recently a Fulbright Award recipient to La Universidad de las
Americas in Puebla, Mexico. An avid traveler, Dr. Ariza currently enjoys teaching ESL on transatlantic cruises. She can be reached at eariza@fau.edu.
References
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Benjamin, L. A., & Lord, J. (Eds). (1996, January). Summary of the research design symposium
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p
a
h te
13
Building Leaders Through
Mentoring
Steve Allison and Phil Quirke
Introduction
This chapter is a very personal joint reection on the process of mentoring that has recently taken
place between the co-authors. The mentoring situation arose as the result of a training program
requirement with the Chair Academy for Leadership Training and Development (http://www
.mc.maricopa.edu/other/chair/index.html).
Starting with some basic thoughts about mentoring, the chapter looks at the circumstances
through which this particular mentoring relationship was set up, the expectations of each participant
at the beginning, reection on the progress at the middle & end points of the project, what was
gained from the experience and where the relationship can progress now that the formal structure
initiated has come to a point of completion.
The chapter closes by discussing the future direction of mentoring which may be implemented
in the college at various levels, including mentoring projects with students, new and existing faculty.
Final comments discuss the value of analyzing ones Johari windows as a way of determining ones
readiness for mentoring with illustrated examples from Steves own Johari windows analysis.
179
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when she appears to Odysseus or Telemachus. In modern English the tutors name has become an
eponym for a wise, trustworthy counsellor or teacher. Microsoft Encarta Premium Suite 2003.
In more recent times Mentor has become synonymous with such a counselor or teacher who engages
in what Harrison (p. 243) refers to as a dialogic learning format
Dialogic learning involves the interacting with others in ways that will produce a growing knowledge
and understanding of the culture of the organization, and how it typically achieves its goals.
Parsloe (p. 73) denes mentoring in the modern business context as
. . . Mentoring . . . is concerned with the longer-term acquisition and application of skills in a
developing career by a form of advising and counselling.
Mentoring could be further dened as a sustained relationship between experienced and less
experienced colleagues in the work place. It may even be viewed as a situation where both parties are
equally experienced in terms of seniority and service with the organisation, but one has particular
skills or knowledge that can be passed on to the other. Through continued involvement, coaching
and giving of advice the mentor offers support, guidance and assistance as the mentee faces new
challenges, goes through a difcult period, or works to correct earlier problems.
The relationship is applicable to situations where there are knowledge, skills and attitudes to be
learnt and handed on in order to improve a persons performance or expertise. Cohen (p. 1) captures
precisely the current generally agreed role of a mentor. Mentor entered our contemporary language
as a nonparental, competent, and trustworthy gure who consciously accepts personal responsibility
for the signicant developmental growth of another individual.
Developing the concept of the behavioural roles & responsibilities of the mentor, Cohen
continues (p. 5) by stating that the mentor has six distinct roles to perform; relationship emphasis,
information emphasis, facilitator focus, confrontative focus, mentor model and mentee vision.
It is within these contexts that the relationship between the authors was established in a formal
manner, as a way of complementing the existing relationship of the hierarchical structure within the
working environment.
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Mentee
Enthusiastic
Good listener
Maintains condentiality
Open minded
Flexible
Sensitive
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Mentee
Resourceful
Independent and productive
Dont infringe on mentor with trivia
Accept responsibility
Ethical
From a mentees personal point of view, the essential values and qualities I was looking for at
the time the relationship was initiated were; trust, openness, condentiality, expertise, empathy, a
willingness to listen, a volunteer of suggestions, clarity in direction, determination to see things
through, and someone who has the ability to lead by example. Having known my mentor for a
considerable amount of time before I requested his assistance, I knew full well that he had the qualities
I was looking for and it was a natural decision to seek his assistance.
From a mentors point of view, I could include all the expectations Steve has noted above as a
mentee, but I should also add that I was expecting to learn and develop myself through the experience
of mentoring a colleague and friend. I also had visions of spreading this kind of close working collegial
relationship through the institute should our experience prove to be a fruitful one.
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me (even though he seems to be the busiest person in the college) and he doesnt miss a session
unless I request it.
His advice and suggestions are often simple, but direct and practical. But best of all they are
effective. He is the one person I have tried (unsuccessfully so far) to model myself on as a successful leader. He is a manager, but people respect him far more as a true leader. One day, maybe,
I will be able to aspire to even just a small proportion of his ability.
From a mentors practical point of view, it is essential to nominate a time to meet with the
mentee regularly and preferably away from the routine location of the work place. We tried once a
week, but soon discovered that this was too frequent for any real reection to take place. By the end
of the year, we were meeting once every three to four weeks, and this seemed ideal. However, each
mentoring partnership should nd its own natural cycle over the rst month or so.
We also found it increasingly useful to focus on a restricted number of developmental goals for the
mentee. The number of goals clearly depends on the mentee, but we found we uctuated between four
at the start up to seven by the end of the year. More than that, I would suggest, would be impractical.
To settle on the goals, it is essential that the mentor listens to the mentee and actively guides him
(Edge 1992, Edge 2002) towards setting realistic and attainable goals. It is essential that the mentor
does not impose their thoughts on the mentee or bring external work-related goals to the table.
Finally, the mentor must be open to learning as much as the mentee. One of the joys of this
professional relationship was that I, as mentor, gained as much from the year, if not more, than Steve
as mentee.
As the mentoring relationship became more established, it transpired that I felt myself more able
to take on the huge increase in workloads which come as part and parcel of my job. We also discovered that the requirement to meet was more on a when youre ready (WYR) arrangement. This was
crucial. As a mentee there can be the pressure to feel that one has to have something to talk about in
relation to the points being focused on during any given period of time.
This is simply not always possible. There are occasions when you can go for weeks on end
without having to address one of your focus points. On the other hand, there are other weeks when
the focus points seemed to crop up repeatedly which meant that there would be a need to address
them without delay.
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From my own experience I can say that the most valuable attributes of a mentor are:
enthusiasm, condentiality, open-minded, exible, resourceful, encouraging, observant, a good
delegator, shares knowledge, ethical.
In the same respect, if the mentoring process is to work, the mentee should be: open to
ideas, exible, willing to listen, take the rough with the smooth, independent, and dont call on
the mentor all the time (take some initiative).
. . . Without a doubt, my mentors experience as a leader far outstrips my own experience,
and the structure of the Chair Academy leadership course has given us a more formalised way in
which we can work together and I can learn from his knowledge and experience.
Steves comments in the above paragraph are very important to anyone thinking of setting up
a mentoring relationship. If there is no structure then the relationship will ounder. The structure
can be set up from the outset as we have noted, but the partners must discuss: goals, meeting times,
meeting place, listening and speaking roles during the meetings and the expectations of both the
mentor and mentee about what they want from the otherthis includes many of the attributes that
Steve has noted above, but I would like to add that condentiality, openness, transparency, honesty
and trust are the ve pillars of every mentoring relationship.
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Our relationship was no doubt aided by my experience with and strong belief in the value of
journals and journaling (Quirke 2002), and I was able to actively encourage Steve to keep an on-going
journal of his reections throughout the year. This reection through writing is, in my opinion, an
incredibly powerful tool as it allows the mentee to verbalize the thoughts and ideas triggered by the
mentoring sessions. This verbalization and concrete reection allows the mentee to lead the sessions,
and the mentor to take up a listening role naturally and without strain.
One important aspect of the mentoring relationship was the conscious decision that we would
carry out our sessions away from the work place. In such a dynamic work place, it is difcult to be
able to nd a time and place where neither of us would have other commitments that would interfere
with our sessions. Basing ourselves at home, away from the work place also meant that we were able
to focus on objectives which were less work related.
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such activities, and after observing certain behaviors with the colleague I offered him the prospect of
us working together as mentor/mentee. The bond developed has been most remarkable considering
that we knew relatively little of each other when we started out. The most important consideration at the time of setting up the relationship was the way in which the suggestion was phrased.
Clearly it is not appropriate to suggest to a potential mentee that a problem has been identied
and needs immediate attentionand the only way to sort it out is by having someone looking over
your shoulder. This is so far off the mark when it comes to the elements of trust, mutual respect &
understanding, empathy, sincerity, open communications etc as to be almost insulting. Instead the
original suggestion was put forward in a tone of complete concern at wanting to assist the mentee in
his personal performance, having seen him grapple with a number of problem scenarios. As such, this
was accepted by the mentee and the relationship has since developed into one whereby the mentee
regularly initiates the direction of the conversation and the suggestion of new initiatives, believing
that the principle objective is a strive for a combination of condence, competence and excellence.
Attending to just a couple of concerns at a time, we have been able to slowly but surely work
through the attendant issues which had dogged his performance of late. Feedback and appraisal in
conversation has indicated that the mentee is extremely satised with the relationship and has gained
signicant professional benets as a result.
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is that by planning ahead and anticipating the gradual requirements of new faculty, it is probable that
the faculty member can have a relatively trouble-free rst year at the college.
One nal development is the wider mentoring & coaching relationships being anticipated with
the future Chair Academy courses in the city and region, and specically as it develops into a course
to be delivered to industry. By having a cohort of people who have been mentored over the last two
Academy classes, the same people will become mentors for future Academy classes. The new mentors
will be able to offer guidance and advice in relation to the course elements as well as the work place.
Having gone through the process myself, it is my rm belief that anyone can become a mentor.
It is better that they have been through the process as a mentee to start with so that they have a role
model to work from. We all have a unique approach to our work experiences, and as such we all have
the potential to bring out new experiences and practices from those we mentor. This is not reinventing the wheel. It is, instead, a way of encouraging further development and best practices amongst
colleagues, friends, students and other stakeholders within the wider community.
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It would also be useful to use the Window in conjunction with other tools. The literature recommends Maslows Hierarchy of Needs.
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I feel that it would be more relevant to use Tuckmans Forming, Storming, Norming,
Performing Team Development Model, as well as Situational Leadership and Emotional
Intelligence models.
4. Is it possible to have different profiles for different situations/people we are dealing with?
Yes, and this is exactly what the literature is saying. Not only should we be looking at the initial
setting up phases for new teams, but we should be encouraged to investigate the Johari model
as the team dynamics develop in order to understand how far the team has got and how much
further it they could go.
5. How does my Johari profile from last May compare with my current profile . . . and is it
any different with regard to the different people/groups I deal with?
Tab 7, page 9:
My understanding was that we should identify a point on each axis, draw a line across the window
and nish up with 4 areas within the main window that would indicate how much of each quadrant is characterised by our interaction with our teams.
Having done so, I found a 4 point score on each axis. This meant that my prole (as I looked
at it in percentage area terms), was:
Open16%
Blind24%
Hidden24%
Unknown36%
For illustration purposes, view the picture below:
However, having read the literature, I now understand that rather than moving the crosshairs,
it is actually possible to move each of the four arms of the crosshairs according to the prole
derived from each of the points of interaction taking place. All the time, the main aim is striving
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to open as far as possible the Open Area by using a combination of the opening techniques
(see model below):
Feedback solicitation
Self-Disclosure/Exposure
Shared Discovery
Self-Discovery
Others Observations
Known by
self
ask
Unknown
by self
1
Known by others
Open/free
area
Feedback
solicitation
tell
Hidden
Area
Unknown by others
3
Shared
discovery
Selfdiscovery
Self-disclosure/exposure
Blind
area
Others
observations
Unknown
area
* At this point I would like to add one comment. It is my belief that no matter how much one may
want to open the Window 100%, it is simply not possible.
Comments from the webpage, http://www.businessballs.com/johariwindowmodel.htm state:
The aim in any group should always be to develop the open area for every person, because
when we work in this with others we are at our most effective and productive, and the group is
at its most productive too.
Yes, for sure we can seek to maximise the open area, but I really think that there will always
be something which will stay in the unknown area as being unknown . . . by virtue of the fact that
we are always discovering new things about ourselves, it would be my assertion that we will never
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fully know everything about ourselves. In the same respect, I truly believe that there will be some
private matters that will remain in the private domain, no matter how much we may desire to put
them in the public domain.
On the other hand, if we focus purely in the professional setting within the team formation
and membership, it is entirely possible that the team and the individual know as much as they
need to know to be an effective team.
It all depends on what particular perspective we are looking at and whether we are viewing it
purely as a professionally operational team, or on a more personal level.
So, to answer point number 5, Is my prole any different from what it was in May 2003?. If
I now look at the Johari window and move each of the four arms of the crosshairs, I believe that
my Johari window with my team is now as follows:
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May 03
Generally April 04
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The Authors
Phil Quirke is General Education Head, Abu Dhabi Mens College and Academic Programme
Manager for the Centre of Excellence for Applied Research & Training (CERT), The Higher Colleges
of Technology (HCT). He has been teaching and teacher training for 18 years and is doing his doctorate on supporting teacher development via the web. He may be reached at pquirke@hct.ac.ae.
Steve Allison has been in EFL/ESL teaching since 1988 and is currently the supervisor at
Abu Dhabi Mens College (HCT), taking care of Higher Diploma English, the Work Readiness
Program and Cost Recovery courses. He has an M.Sc degree in TESP from Aston University in the
UK and is currently studying for a Doctorate in Business Administration with Glasgow University,
UK. He may be reached at sallison@hct.ac.ae.
REFERENCES
Books
Cohen, N. H. (1995). Mentoring Adult Learners. A guide for Educators and Trainers Krieger Publishing,
Malabar, FL
Edge, J. (1992). Cooperative Development: Professional self-development through cooperation with colleagues.
Harlow: Longman
Edge, J. (2002). Continuing Cooperative Development: A Discourse Framework for Individuals as Colleagues.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
Harrison, R. (2000, rst published 1997). Employee Development. CIPD, Cromwell Press, London.
PADI (1999). Open Water Diver Manual. PADI, Rancho Santa Maragrita, CA
Quirke, P. (2002). Maximizing student writing and minimizing teacher correction in Journal Writing,
Burton, J. & Carroll, M. (eds). Case Studies in TESOL Practice Series. Alexandria, VA. TESOL.
Parsloe, E. (1992). Coaching, Mentoring and Assessing; a practical guide to developing competence Kogan
Page, London.
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. . . while particular lighthouse schools and school systems are the exception, my sense is that
professional development as it is experienced by most teachers and principals is pretty much like
it has always beenunfocused, insufcient, and irrelevant to the day-to-day problems faced by
front line educators. Put another way, a great deal more is known today about good staff development than is regularly practiced in schools. Dennis Sparks, 2002.
Successful principals understand that schools that systematically identify, deeply appreciate, and spread the outstanding practices that already exist within them are also more effective
in tapping external sources of expertise. Likewise, they understand that schools whose cultures
are contrary to such appreciative and collaborative methods will derive few lasting benets from
most external resources because they lack the means through which more effective teaching
methods become part of a schools routine practice. Dennis Sparks, 2005 [the Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Introduction
Even though the above remarks made by Dennis Sparks were for K-12 administrators and educators,
they are very applicable to the higher education and community college settings. For most 4-year
higher educational institutions, the need for proactive and on-going professional development at all
levels is seen as a driving force for achieving excellence in teaching, learning and development within
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the system. To fulll their commitment, those institutions invest a signicant amount of support and
resources on professional development activities.
However, the importance of professional development has not always been regarded as one of
the top priorities at the community college settings especially in the eld of Adult English Language
Teaching and Learning. Although embraced as a valid belief by the institutions, the actual implementation of professional development activities has suffered from real commitment and limitations,
which render it ineffective at times (Diaz-Maggioli, 2004, 2005).
In this chapter, the author will explore issues, limitations as well as strategies to support and
access professional development at the community colleges from administrative and leadership perspectives. Both empirical data from a recent international survey study sponsored by TESOL (Sun,
et al, 2005) and best practice case studies will be used to address the issues. Finally, recommendations
of suggested action items for TESOL to consider and implement and a transformational professional
development model for the community college settings will also be provided.
Narrative
Lets face it; we have teachers who would never go to any workshops. I tried hard and even spent
money for a trainer to come, but I have not seen much of an improvement on their teaching.
We are community colleges, not research institutions. Teachers should be in the class to
teach. When they were hired, they were supposed to be able to teach all the students. If they
still need training, they are not capable of doing their job.
Such comments are not uncommon among some administrators at the community colleges. From
the surface level, the above complains seem to aim at lack of interest or need among college teachers for professional development when in fact such remarks reect a deep-rooted traditional view
of professional development and the assumption that teachers need to be xed. Any professional
development activities that institutions organized are used as a quick tool to x problems.
Thus, the focus and topics for professional development at those institutions are often decided
by administrators rather than by teachers. Such a top-down decision making approach subdued
the teachers voices and putting priority on administrative needs. Hence, these training workshops
become a burden to professionals instead of a wonderful opportunity for professional growth and
teaching/learning enhancement for students.
Lets take a look at the notion that teachers need to be xed. Traditionally, professional
development is often guided by the erroneous assumption that if students dont make gains, its
because their teachers dont know how to teach. (Diaz-Maggioli, 2004). Countless approaches to
teaching adult ESL have surfaced over the past two decades, all claiming to be the ultimate solution
for better language teaching. However, when we hear the amazing stories of community college
teachersthe stories of passion and devotion, strife and success, commitment and sacriceit
makes us wonder what kind of xing these teachers might need. Do teachers need to be xed or do
they need more assurance and commitment from the administration in supporting their continued
professional growth and teaching excellence?
What are the challenges and stumbling blocks that constrain teachers in accessing professional
development at the community colleges? What kind of support can community college leaders
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provide to ensure successful professional development on campus? In the next section, I will
outline some major issues, concerns and challenges based on a recent large scale survey study on
Adult Educators Working Condition sponsored by TESOL (Sun, et al, 2005) and studies done by
Diaz-Maggioli, 2004.
Professional DevelopmentIssues,
Concerns and Challenges
I strongly believe that professional development is paramount important for ESL teachers. As an
administrator for Adult Ed program, I always do my best to give my teachers release time when
they present at the conferences or attend workshops. To me, teachers deserve the opportunities
to grow and learn and share their best practice with other teachers. Their presentations will make
our program known to the others and its also great for the institution. The time they take off from
work and spent at PD activities likes conference will benet the students and program in a long run.
These teachers are often far more effective and innovative in the classroom with their students than
some teachers that I have who just come and ll in the class hours. Comments from a mid-level
administrator in the survey.
Why are some administrators so short sighted!? My director only cares about teachers lling in the class hours not so much on giving us time and fund to attend PD activities . . .
Comments from an ESOL Instructor
My working conditions are excellent and the support of administrators is totally present.
Positions such as mine are few and far between. Comments from an ESOL Instructor
It is encouraging to read the comment from that mid-level administrator from Sun, et als
2005 survey study, but it also makes us worry that there are not many mid-level administrators in
our community college system who have the same vision and commitment to faculty professional
development as reected in the same study conducted by Sun, et al.
Grounded on TESOL Standards for Adult ESOL programs, the survey (Sun, et al 2005)
provided an empirical basis on which to examine the status, professionalism, and the quality
of ESOL instruction in the eld. The purpose of the survey was threefold: (a) to examine the
working conditions of ESOL teachers who work within the adult basic education and literacy
system; (b) to identify areas where TESOL can take action and make plans for advocacy directed
toward achieving equitable working conditions for ESOL teachers in adult education; and (C) to
use the surveys ndings to make recommendations aimed at improving employment conditions
and achieving equity in the workplace for adult ESOL professionals. A total of 1, 141 participants
from the Adult Education eld responded to the survey. Among them, 57 indicated that they work
outside of North America and 1046 indicated as from North America. 442 (38.8%) were from
community colleges.
The respondents from community colleges made overwhelming comments about lack of
support from the institution especially from the unit administrations for faculty to engage in professional development activities. The following areas were identied as major concerns and challenges
affecting professional development at community colleges.
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take on-line classes or alternative class offerings since they dont know how to speak English well.
Before I sign my name, Id like to see that you have got enough students sign up for this proposed
course. What those administrators failed to recognize and acknowledge is that implementing
innovative ideas through research and curriculum development needs institutional support and cant
happen with a quick x approach or without a clear vision from the leadership.
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Lack of Motivation
Some participants indicated that after a few attempts and tries without a success, they gave up and
became much less motivated in any of the professional development activities. Others are just not
interested in getting involved as they see little incentive for them to do so. Many part-time teachers
indicated that job security precedes the professional development activities. Some others just come
and teach and go home. Serving on committees, working on projects or attending workshops are
more for new teachers.
The list here is not comprehensive, but an outline of a few major barriers and challenges at community colleges for professional development. Both administrators and faculty need to be aware of
the concerns and challenges in order to develop strategies to support, access and sustain professional
development activities on campus.
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As Diaz Maggioli (2005) states, Using an inquiry-based approach, facultys experience can be
legitimized through engaging them into spirals of inquiry, research, and development around topics
of concern within the learning community they belong to.
Varied and timely delivery methods is next in Diaz-Maggiolis framework. While training workshops, seminars and workshops are the preferred delivery methods, the actual methodologies used
during those courses make a deep impact on the teachers understanding of the ideas communicated
through the course. Making sure that courses actively involve participants in elaborating on the contents is a guaranteed step to their success.
An Andragogical Perspective
For this perspective, Diaz-Maggioli used Knowles, Holton and Swanson (1998)s terms as an andragogy perspective. According to Knowles, Holton and Swanson (1998), andragogy is dened as the
art of facilitating adult learning. Adults apply their rich experience to the learning process. If this
experience is highly valued and validated, then the results of the professional development learning
experience will be more productive and signicant.
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Recommendations
What the administration can do to sustain the effort in professional development at all levels? What
mid-level administrators can do to provide real support to implement the institutional commitment
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to faculty professional development? The following section will share the recommendations for
institutional administration and action items for TESOL from the survey study conducted by Sun,
et al (2005).
Stay Current and Organize Workshops that Meet the Needs of the
Teachers
An effective administrator needs to stay current in the eld and make professional development part
of his/her strategic plan. He/she also needs to work with faculty members to identify and offer workshops or development opportunities based on the needs of the faculty.
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link the high stake testing or program accountability to funding may make already limited funding
for professional development even more scares. They would like to see TESOL offer more grants
and design more affordable and accessible PD workshops to meet the needs of TESOL members
especially for adult Ed ESOL teachers as they are the largest interest section in the TESOL
organization. Also offer new teacher orientation with incentives.
Conclusion
Progresses have been made in providing professional development opportunities for community
college staff and faculty in the TESOL eld. However, there is still a long way to go to achieve equity
and better awareness for community college ESOL profession and students. Community college
leaders need to start with a visionary perspective and practice a transformational professional development model in providing leadership in support and access professional development.
The Author
Dr. Yilin Sun holds a Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics and Curriculum & Instruction and M.ED from
the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (O.I.S.E), University of Toronto, Canada. She has
over 20 years of experience in the eld of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages as a
classroom teacher, a MA-TESL teacher trainer, a researcher, teacher supervisor, and program leader
with a variety of higher educational institutions in China, Canada and U.S.A. She is a professor in
the TESOL/Basic and Transitional Studies Division at South Seattle Community College, and an
adjunct Professor with Seattle University and Heritage University in Seattle, WA, USA.
In addition to teaching and research, Dr. Sun keeps herself busy professionally. She serves on
the Board of Directors of the international association of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages (TESOL, Inc). She was Chair of the Afliate Leadership Council of TESOL in 2007
and past President of Washington Association for the Education of Speakers of Other Languages
(WAESOL). Dr Sun is the author of several book chapters and research papers in refereed professional
journals in the eld of Second Language education including TESOL Quarterly, TESOL Journal and
Reading Research Journal. She has also presented widely at national and international educational
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conferences. Her research interests include curriculum development, program assessment and
evaluation, second language reading, classroom-based action research, K-12 teacher education, adult
education, and non-native English speaking teachers (NNEST) in the ELT eld.
References
Daz-Maggioli, G. (2004). Teacher-centered professional development. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Daz-Maggioli, G. (2005). Professional Development as a Global Issue. GISIG Newsletter,
Vol. XVIII, 2005.
Knowles, M., E. Holton, and R. Swanson. (1998). The adult learner. Houston: Gulf Publishing.
Soppelsa, E. (1997). Empowerment of Faculty. In Christison, MA. & Stoller, F. L. (Eds) (1997).
A Handbook for Language Program Administrators. Alta Book Center Publishers.
Sparks, D. (2005) Principals amplify teachers outstanding practices. Principals as leaders of learning
#8 in a series Results, May 2005.
Sparks, D. 2002. Designing powerful professional development for teachers and principals. Oxford, OH:
National Staff Development Council.
Sun, Y, Gillespie, M. & Mum R. 2005. Tools for Change: Survey of ESOL Teachers in Adult
Basic Education and Literacy Systems Panel presentation at TESOL 2005 Convention.
San Antonio, TX. March 2005.
Sun, Y. and R. Maum, 2006. Standards, Equity and Advocacy: Challenges and Issues that Adult
ESOL Educators Face in 21st Century. Symposium presentation at TESOL 2006 Convention.
Tampa, FL. March 2006.
Knowles, M., E. Holton, and R. Swanson. (1998). The adult learner. Houston: Gulf Publishing.
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IV
PART
COLLABORATION
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Introduction
Second language study inherently involves the study of a second culture, and these two
combined compose a major portion of global education with its concepts of inclusion, international understanding, and a fundamental understanding that the various people of the world are
more similar than they are different. Every second language teacher, at least at a rudimentary
level, knows this, and the best second language teacher make use of culture through language
everyday in every way.
Traditionally, second languages have been taught through a series of instructional methods: grammar/translation, discovery, the silent way, etc. However, these methods always came up
short. Today, the communicative method (or as I preferthe eclectic method) offers the exibility
for teachers to focus on what their students need to function in the target language and culture.
Additionally, it acknowledges the fact that language and culture cannot be separated because it is
through language that culture is comprehended, integrated, and used (Hancock and Scebold, 2000).
For example, language is what is used to explain the cultural differences between watashiwa & bokuwa
(in Japanese) and I, between kennen & wissen (in German), conocer & saber (in Spanish), savoir &
connatre (in French) and to know, and even between yall and you. The Japanese form of
I has multiple meanings depending upon the underlying meaning the speaker/writer wants to
impart. In German, French, and Spanish, there are two words used for to know, depending upon
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Collaboration
how well you know a thing, concept, or person. English only has one translation and no cultural
relation to any of these examples. Even within the American culture, there is a perceived difference
between yallyou all(the plural form of address in the southern part of the US) and you
(the generally accepted singular or plural for of address in formal English). These concepts can be
explained, but until a second language learner experiences them within their cultural and global
contexts, the concepts dont become real.
History of IELP
The Intensive English Language Program (IELP) at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock
(UALR) was founded in 1974 and has been in continuous operation ever since. When the Institute
was founded, it was organized under the typical ESL (English as a Second Language) curricular
design of the time, that is, separate classes for grammar, reading, writing, and listening/speaking.
The length of the courses was eight weeks, with there being six courses per year. The students were
organized within six levels and could be multi-level placed. In other words, a student could be in
Level 3 for grammar, in Level 4 for reading, in Level 5 for reading, and in Level 4 for listening/
speaking. This would mean that a student could nish certain skills before completing others. After
the student graduated from the IELP, he/she could matriculate into UALR as an undergraduate
student without presenting a TOEFL score.
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Collaboration
arts, literature, and music. Culture with a little c refers to the products of the everyday lives of
individuals, including housing, clothing, and foods, as well as the patterns of daily behavior. Each
half of the culture is as important as the other. The formal and informal cultures combine to create
values, which determine behaviors, which create objects, which determine behaviors, which reect
values, in a never-ending cycle.
These formal and informal cultures are inter-related through its components of perspectives,
practices, and products, which create culture as a whole. The values of the formal and informal
cultures determine the perspectives of the society. Those perspectives then govern the individuals
behavior, or practices, in given situations. Their behavior leads to the development of objects, or
products, that enable, or ease, the behavior.
Perspectives are often difcult to articulate. The traditional ideas, attitudes, and beliefs are the
underlying values that justify a product or practice. For example, in the US, youth is a valued perspective, and Americans spend millions of dollars each year on creams and ointments (products)
which they apply to their bodies (practice) to make themselves look younger in order to keep that
valued societal position of being young. They are what individuals think, based on their own
particular vantage points, and are molded by societys over-arching framework and belief system.
Perspectives comprise the world-view of the group and the individual.
Cultural practices shape behavior into patterns that are socially acceptable and help control
social interactions within specic contexts and are determined by societal position. This concept
includes the sweet 16 party which marks the coming-of-age of an American female. These were
more popular in the past, but the practice is still in evidence within the US culture. The Southern
practice of using yallyou allas the plural form of address is a concept that identies a subculture of the US meta-culture. The usage of yall can have positive (inclusion within society)
or negative (exclusion from society) results. Only one introduced to the culture of yall through
language and experience a rightly employ this practice. The true content of the second language
course is not the grammar and the vocabulary of the language, but the cultures expressed through
the language.
IELP Redesign
Using the above concepts, it was decided in 2000, that the entire curricular framework of the IELP
should be redesigned to reect more up-to-date standards and practices. There were ve hypotheses
that were used as the underlying girding for the curricular redesign:
1. language practice in a range of contexts likely to be encountered in the target culture,
2. functional practice completing a range of tasks likely to be necessary in dealing with others
in the target language,
3. encouraged accuracy in prociency-oriented instruction,
4. responsiveness to the affective and the cognitive needs of students, and their different
personalities, preferences and learning styles, and
5. promotion of cultural understanding in various ways so that students are sensitive to
other cultures and prepared to live more harmoniously in the target-language community.
(Omaggio Hadley, 1993)
Only by understanding the language can one truly begin to understand and function within a culture
or society, for language and culture are truly inseparable.
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Making sure that these hypotheses were consulted and implemented, the Institute went through
a metamorphosis. No longer would it be a skill-separative, eight-week, stand alone program with
students who were segregated from the rest of the university population, experience, and culture.
The new Institute mirrored what the eld was newly promotingreal language that was supported by a skill-integrated approach in which the students received instruction using all the skills
(listening, speaking, reading, writing, and culture) to support language functions and concepts. Some
examples of this are listening to the local weather, talking to a landlord over the phone, reading the
cooking instructions on a microwaveable meal, and writing a letter of inquiry. All of these can be
addressed with a micro-lesson of a few minutes or within a unit taking a few days. The real language is what gives the students the ability to function within the second culture; this functionality
is the true aim of a language program, not the ability to pass a test. How often do native speakers of
a language offer multiple-choice responses to questions they have asked? Additionally, memorized
conversations rarely progress in real life the way the book presents them. It is always a situation of
the other person didnt memorize the same conversation. With this approach, the students receive
instruction so that the concepts are supported by multiple skills, thereby eliminating the students
concept that only reading is done in reading class and only writing is done in writing class. In order
to give credence to this way of delivery, new textbooks were selectedones which integrated the
skills around concepts that were appropriate for the curriculum and the three new language levels:
Foundations (for novice-level students), Intermediate (for intermediate-level students), and Preuniversity/TOEFL Preparation (for advanced-level students). The six eight-week programs were
reorganized into three semester-based programs as follows:
Fall and Spring programs = 16 weeks of classroom instruction with 18 hours of instruction
time and 2 hours of laboratory time per week.
Summer program = 11 weeks of classroom instruction with 28 hours of instruction time and
2 hours of laboratory time per week.
Under this design, the students receive 320 hours of instruction during the fall and spring semester and 330 hours of instruction during the summer semester. Additionally, this semester-based
design allows students in the Pre-university/TOEFL Preparation to take an additional university
class, should they allow. Since the new program design parallels the universitys semester system and
class schedule, there is no longer any problem with IELP students being concurrently enrolled in
an additional university class. This new design also allowed IELP to position itself so that should
students desire, they may take the IELP classes for credit, thereby allowing transferability of the
classes to other American institutions of higher education. An added bonus to the new setup is that
the university where IELP is housed (the University of Arkansas at Little Rock) has acknowledged
that graduation from the IELP is equivalent to a TOEFL score of 525 (paper-based), 197 (computerbased), or 71 (iBT) so that IELP graduates may matriculate into undergraduate studies upon successful completion of the ESL program. In addition, the new curriculum is supported by the most recent
theories and practices taught in the newly designed and implemented graduate degrees beginning to
appear at American colleges and universities.
At the end of each semester, all students take institutionally-designed exit exams which are
designed around the Institutes curriculum, not textbooks. Only due to time constraints does the
Institute separate the skills for exam purposes; therefore, students take a listening exam, a reading exam, and writing exam, and a speaking exam. The exams are designed around the functions
taught throughout the semester by the teachers at each level. All exam questions and prompts are
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Collaboration
reective of real language so that the students can demonstrate what they can do with the English
language. The SPA (speaking prociency assessment) is constructed using a conversational format so
that the different students have individually-conducted, recorded conversations with a teacher about
concepts appropriate to level of language the student studied. By having institutionally-designed exit
exams, all students at the same level take the same evaluation.
The exit exam grade (an average of the four separate skill exams) and the teachers grades are
averaged to produce a single level grade which allows the student to progress to the next level or
allows the student to repeat the level to gain any skills not learned. It might seem that a student
can be truly strong in a skill or two which will buoy the weaker skills, and this occasionally is true;
however, in the end, with the averages considered from the classroom teachers, the result is the same
as it would be for a student who is equally procient in all skills. An additional, unpredicted result is
that the exit exams help to eliminate teacher grade ination since both the average of the exit exams
and the average of the teacher grades are equal (50%) in the nal calculation. The result for the
student is that the reported grade at the end of the semester reects what the student truly has the
ability to do in English.
When creating the new design for the Institute, student backgrounds were taken into consideration since the student population is multi-national. An indirect benet of maintaining multicultural classrooms is that each student not only begins to understand the target culture through the
target language, in this case English, but the student also becomes acquainted with the cultures of
the other students, thereby widening the scope and truly providing a global experience. This is what
the author calls a hidden benet because the students take away a great deal more in culture knowledge than any textbook or individual teacher could offer. Additionally, the new curriculum allows
different language groups to focus on different needs in the second language since the rst (native)
language inuences the attainment of a second language (Krashen, 1981).
Activity Models
There are many activities that can be modied by the teacher to serve different purposes. What
most second language teachers dont realize is that there is no need to produce a new activity for
every day of class. Once a teacher has a cache of activities, he/she can adapt them for whatever
the purpose may be. Following are some typical activities that are used at the Intensive English
Language Program.
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vocabulary or rewording new vocabulary with older learned expressions. As the students follow
along, they travel the map. The target question is, Where am I? This is what the students want
to answer when the journey is complete. The teacher continues the exercise by starting the next
set of directions and the previous ending point. Students may also be the ones who verbally give
the directions so that they become the leaders and the activity shifts from a teacher-centered one to
one that is student-centered with the teacher acting as mediator. A teacher may increase the level of
the skill by progressing to state/provincial maps and to country maps. Also, colloquialisms can be
incorporated at higher levels, e.g. the concept of using time to measure map distances (instead of
mathematical distance) when giving directions. Throughout this activity, the students are practicing
the prepositions associated with directions and are getting a feel of how to use the prepositions
since so many of them do not have a 100%-true grammar rule.
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How would you have built this building differently? (I would have built the building taller and
more square so that its presence would have been more massive.)
There are also many cultural concepts imbedded within the hard structures of cities, towns,
and villages. For example, there is the concept of how the oors are counted within multi-story
buildings such as hotels. Many countries outside of the US begin counting the oors of a building
with the oor above the ground oor; therefore, using that concept, US building oor numbers are
always one number off. In the US, Americans count the ground oor as Floor 1. Also, in the US,
buildings avoid the number 13 for oor numbers and for room numbers because of its negative
cultural association. It is considered a very unlucky number. Numbering within buildings will skip
from 12 to 14 to avoid the unluckiness of the number 13.
Another cultural concept is why in some cultures the religious buildings are at the center, highest point of the city, town, or village, and in other cultures they are the government buildings that
occupy this station. At the IELP, we make use of the Clinton Presidential Center and the State
Capitol Building because they are structures of importance within Little Rock, and they both carry
quite a bit of cultural signicance, too.
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The Author
Dr. Alan D. Lytle, the teaching Director of the Intensive English Language Program (IELP) at
the University of Arkansas at Little Rock (UALR), USA, has a background in second and foreign
language education (ESL/EFL, German, and French) as well as 19 years of ESL/FL teaching,
administration, presentation, and publication experience at all levels, in academic-preparation programs, conversation programs, English-for-special-purposes programs (ESP), and topic-specic
programs.
As with most directors in the language eld, he started as a teacher in multiple elds (ESL,
German, education, and writing) and learned to be a director by the seat-of-his pants. Dr. Lytle
has also been involved with US immigration as an immigration ofcer, and he was previously the
Director of Programs Abroad and the Middle Eastern Studies Program at UALR. He is also a graduate faculty member in the Master of Arts in Second Language program at UALR and chairs or
sits on various language-related thesis committees. Additionally, he also teaches doctoral writing to
students in UALRs College of Engineering and Information Technology and serves on a variety of
university committees. As can be seen with his multitude of responsibilities and activities, Dr. Lytle
is a Jack-of-all-trades.
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References
Balderrama, M. & Daz-Rico, L. (2006). Teaching performance expectations. New York, NY: Allyn and
Bacon.
Hancock, C. R. & Scebold, C. E. (2000). Dening moments in foreign and second-language
education during the last half of the twentieth century. Reecting on the past to shape the future.
Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company, 117.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Pergamon Press Inc. (rst
internet version published December 2002 [Online]. Available: http://www.sdkrashen.com/
SL_Acquisition_and_Learning/index.html.)
NAFSA: Association of International Educators. (2000). NAFSAs principles for English programs
and determination of English prociency [Online]. Available: http://www.atesl.nafsa.org/
principles.asp.
Omaggio Hadley, A. (1993 & 2001). Teaching language in context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Sony. (1971). Here comes peter cottontail. New York: Golden Books.
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Introduction
The population of students whose primary language is not English and who are enrolled in public
schools continues to climb steadily, with predictions that by 2030 nearly forty percent of our
school aged population will come from homes in which English is not the primary home language
(Thomas & Collier, 2002). English language learners (ELLs) are entitled to and desperately need
certied teachers who are highly effective (Title III, Language Instruction for Limited English
Procient and Immigrant Students of the No Child Left Behind Act, 2002) and who possess the
skill sets that promote language acquisition. Yet there remains a severe shortage of certied ESL
teachers (Kindler, 2002).
In the next ten years the United States faces the reality of losing almost half of its teachers
through retirement and attrition (Woodrow Wilson Fellowship Foundation, 2010). Therefore,
people who transition from other careers to elds in education will be key to the stability and
strength of educational systems across the country. Preparing career changers to meet this
challenge will not only require preparation in the best pedagogical practices in teaching but will
demand that teachers learn to become reective practitioners in order to develop the necessary skills to meet the diverse needs of their students. The responsibility that teacher education
programs must assume for instilling these critical skills into the core components of their programs so that collaborative reective practices are infused into the programs structure cannot
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understand not only the importance of reecting on their own teaching practices; it also helps them
to guide their instruction and critically examine their students learning to see where adjustments
might be made in order to place students in a position where they can succeed.
Collaborative Reection
Reective teaching practices provide opportunities for teachers to explore and consider other teaching methods, increase their learning, and gain deeper insight into their teaching (Hinett, 2002).
Schon (1987) used the term reective practice to describe the ways in which individuals think
about their experiences and formulate responses as their experiences unfold. Students who are
encouraged to engage in reective thinking may be apprehensive about sharing their personal experiences and beliefs related to their teaching and may perceive any weaknesses identied through the
reection process as personal shortcomings (Wildman & Niles, 1987). One approach to managing
such feelings would be to employ a collaborative group rather than an individual process for reection. Vygotskys (1978) theory of development stresses the importance of the relationship between
social contexts and individual development. Vygotsky argues that learning is constructed and internalized within sociocultural settings through the interactions and thought processes of participants.
Designing a program, that supports individual teacher growth through collaborative reection, calls
for deliberate and strategic planning. Too often, in many programs, reective thinking is presented
only as an activity rather than as an on-going process that is essential for effective teaching.
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hinder the growth and development of reective practices. One very important goal of schools of
education should therefore be to make teacher candidates aware of the critical importance of having open and on-going conversations about the teaching and learning process that occurs in their
classroom.
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is diverse: 39% Asian/Pacic; 27% Black; 27% Hispanic; 6% White; and 1% American Indian/
Alaskan Native. In 2008 the school had almost 80% of students participating in free or reduced price
lunch programs compared to 44% for public schools across New York City. Recently, this particular
school community experienced an inux of new immigrants from such places as India, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh. Thus, brochures, books, and informational forms and guides are proudly displayed in
the school entrance in Punjabi, Urdu, Bengali, and Spanish for the parents, many of whom speak
no English.
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My tutoring experiences as well as the weekly reection sessions have given me deeper
insight into myself and into my role as teacher.
I never knew about great this experience would be. Working with the English learners and
watching them grow and develop in the language is incredible. It is something that we spoke
about during the reection sessions and in my TESOL courses, but to see it really happen
before my eyes is another thing.
Learning how to reect on what I have done has helped me to learn where I am going.
. . . The reection sessions have been extremely helpful for me because after telling others
in my reection group what I have done, they sometimes show me how it could have been
done in a different and more effective way.
For me, the hardest part has been to address the individual needs of each English learner.
Even though they may be working on the same skill, they may still have separate needs.
I learned a lot from other students in our class about how they sort of individualize their
students work. I thought you only had to do that for students in special education. Some of
the strategies I tried worked well with some students but not with others. I have gured out
thatthat is just the way it isbut by listening to others who have the same issues, I am able
to get some really good ideas to try with my students.
Tutoring English learners have opened my eyes to some of the stark realities, obstacles and
challenges of teaching. Now I am convinced that teaching ELLs is for me, and I am prepared for what is waiting for me.
Conclusion
Over ninety percent of career changers receive training at university-based programs (Woodrow
Wilson Fellowship Foundation, 2010). Schools of education are called upon then to be at the forefront in providing high quality, intensive preparation programs that prepare career changers for the
realities of the classroom, including teaching English learners. Collaborative group reection is one
of many methods that might be used to prepare career changers for their new role. This process
provides ongoing opportunities for career changers to learn various perspectives on teaching and
learning from their peers that allows them to broaden and deeper their own understanding of what
they do, why they do it, and what they may need to do differently. The ESL teacher candidates will
come to understand by the time they exit the program, that reecting on ones practice is a natural
part of being and becoming a teacher. Providing experiences for second career changers to work in
schools as part of their preparation program is not simply a good idea but is essential to their learning and practice. As they learn within context of a real life setting, and then reect critically at what
they do and then determine what needs to be done to continuously improve student outcomes, they
enter the teaching profession better prepared for the challenges they may face in the classroom and
possess the skills and knowledge to effectively teach ESL students.
The Authors
Dr. Yvonne Pratt-Johnson holds the Ed.D., M.A. and M.Ed from Teachers College, Columbia
University in Spanish Education and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages and the
M.S. from Georgetown University in Spanish Linguistics. She has many years of undergraduate and
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graduate teaching experience within the City University of New York. Currently, she is Professor of
TESOL at St. Johns University in New York City.
Dr. Pratt-Johnson has researched and continues examining such topics as teacher preparation,
rst and second language acquisition and literacy development for rst and second language learners.
Additional research includes the teaching of dialect-different students and shifts in English language
intonation patterns. Her research has been presented at international and national conferences and
published in academic journals and books. Dr. Pratt-Johnson, who is an international speaker and
who has traveled extensively, has led groups of educators on study abroad trips to such places as
Argentina, Brazil, and the Dominican Republic.
Dr. Caroline Marrett has worked with students with disabilities and their families for more than
20 years. Her varied teaching and administrative experience include teaching high school students
with disabilities, serving as a liaison for parents of students with special needs, coordinator for transition services, and administrative assistant. Her research interests focus on teacher preparation,
special education administration, and parent involvement.
She received her undergraduate degree from the State University College at Buffalo in Elementary
Education and a Masters degree from Teachers College, Columbia University in Specic Learning
Disabilities. She also holds a Professional Diploma from St. Johns University in School Administration
and Supervision and holds a Ph.D. in Education with a specialty in special education.
Prior to Dr. Marrett assuming the position as Director of the Toni Jennings Exceptional
Education Institute, she served as the grant coordinator for the National Urban Special Education
Leadership Initiative at the University of Central Florida whose mission is to prepare urban school
administrators in special educational leadership. Currently, she is an Instructor/Coordinator in the
College of Education.
References
Bowen, G. M., & Roth, W. (2002). Student teachers perceptions of their paired practicum placement experiences. Journal of Teaching and Learning, 2, 2137.
Bransford, J. (2000). How People Learn. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Boyer, E. (1996). The scholarship of engagement. Journal of Public Outreach 1(1), 1120.
Calderon, M. (2007). Teaching reading to English language learners, grades 612: A framework for
improving achievement in the content areas. CA: Corwin Press.
Cochran-Smith, M. & Lytle, S. L. (1999). Relationships of knowledge and practice: Teacher learning
in communities. In A. Iran-Nejad & C. D. Pearson (Eds.), Review of Research in Education
(Vol. 24, pp. 249305). Washington, D.C.: American Educational Research Association.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossre. Clevedon: UK:
Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language prociency: implications for bilingual
education and the optimal age issue. TESOL Quarterly, 14(2).
Davis, W. E. (1996). Collaborating with teachers, parents, and others, to help youth at risk. Toronto,
Ontario, Canada: Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association. (ERIC Document
ReproductionService No. ED406637).
Elbaz, F. (1988). Critical Reection on Teaching: insights from Freire. Journal of Education for
Teaching, 14(2), 171181.
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Feiman-Nemser, S. (2003). What new teachers need to learn. Educational Leadership, 60(2), 2529.
Hargreaves, A. & Fullan, M. (2000). Mentoring in the New Millennium. Theory into Practice, 39(1),
pp. 5056.
Hinett, K, (2002). Developing reective practice in legal education. Warwick: UK Center for Legal
Education. Retrieved from http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/reection/index.html.
Kindler, A. (2002). Survey of the states limited English procient students and available educational programs and services 20002001 summary report. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for
English Language Acquisition.
Knowles, M. S. & Associates. (1984). Andragogy in action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Korthagen, F. & Russell, T. (1999) Building teacher education on what we know about teacher development. Paper presented at the AERA Annual Meeting, April 1999, Montreal Canada. pp. 114.
Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge:
University of Cambridge Press.
Little, J. W. (1999). Organizing school for teacher learning. In L. Darling-Hammond & G. Sykes
(Eds.), Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice (pp. 233262). San
Francisco: Jossey Bass.
McNamara, D. (1990). Research on teachers thinking: its contribution to educating student teachers
to think critically. Journal of Education for Teaching. 16(2), 147160.
Osterman, K. (1990) Reective practice: A new agenda for education. Education and Urban Society.
22(2), 133152.
Pratt-Johnson, Y. (2008). Promoting acquisition of academic vocabulary in English-medium secondary education in the USA. Estudios de linguistica inglesa aplicada 8, pp. 205218.
Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the reective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Thomas, W., & Collier, V. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students
long-term academic achievement. Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: Center for Research on
Education, Diversity & Excellence.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.
Weinbaum, A., Allen, D., Blythe, T., Simon, K. & Seidel, S. (2004). Teaching as inquiry: Asking the
hard questions to improve practice and student achievement. New York: Teachers College Press.
Wildman, T. & Niles, J. (1987). Reective Teachers: Tensions between Abstractions and Realities.
Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 38, No. 4, 2531.
A Woodrow Wilson Publications & News. (2010). What the Research Tells Us About Career Changers.
Retrieved March 11, 2009 at: http://www.woodrow.org/news/news_items/research_context.php
Woodrow Wilson Fellowship Foundation (2008). National Survey Identies Incentives To
Attract Talented Career Changers into Americas Classrooms. Retrieved on March 8, 2010 at:
http://www.woodrow.org/images/pdf/newsitem/WW_2ndCareerTeachers_0908.pdf
Wong, F. K., Kember, D., Chung L. Y. and Yan, L. (1995) Assessing the Level of Student Reection
from Reective Journals. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 22(1), 4857.
Zeichner, K. & Liston, D. (1996). Reective Teaching: An Introduction Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Inc., Publishers.
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17
Designing a Bilingual Schools
Gifted Program in Developing
Countries: Forces and Issues in
Decision Making
Stephen C. Keith and Cristina Patricia Fuentes Valentino
Introduction
The opportunity to develop an educational program for general intellectual ability gifted students in
a developing country where little or no programs exist is an incredible professional opportunity but
one lled with decision making variables. Whether the source of the impetus for program development primarily comes from individuals within the country, externally via consultants, governmental
agencies, private schools or combinations, there are forces and issues that must be considered in
development, as well as the probable success or the speed in which the program can be implemented. More specically, the site(s) chosen for development and implementation is critical. The
site(s) should be characterized by a culture of educational reection, an appreciation of research
and the willingness to take an educational risk because it is the correct avenue to do rather than one
that simply enhances the economic and educational prestige of the school. In some cases the school
site will have to look beyond the school population and open the doors to other students that meet
the eligibility requirements for Gifted. Because of the uniqueness of the program, new school-wide
curriculum and instructional approaches will have to be implemented as a base for a well developed
program rather than focusing on a stand alone gifted program.
The two components, source considerations and site considerations, are not exclusive; they are
predictably intertwined in many ways. The following is a discussion of those variables that have to be
addressed at various decision making points in gifted program development. If the site is a bilingual
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program, the challenges can be even more complex. Developing countries have unique challenges
in the development of gifted programs. It has been our experience that a quality program development takes considerable time, expertise and economic resources. Flexibility in program design and
implementation is not specically formulaic; all of these variables have to be considered at various
times and to varying degrees.
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some developing countries dont necessarily have a strong sense of nationalism as a result of those
traditional forces such as political, economic, education and cultural indicators that lend themselves
to a sense of national pride and world citizenship. Another, one is to try to change the mentality of
that culture of what gifted means v. talented. As well as the amount of training involved: selecting
personnel that meets the criteria needed to work with this special population is challenging.
As programs are developed, it is imperative to maintain a sense of reection about what research
based practices are easily assimilated into the educational and national cultures as well as those that
need to be adjusted for measureable as well as non-measurable successful outcomes. School curriculum and instructional evaluation research skills are not always in evidence as resources in the country
are often devoted to providing basic literacy and facilities. Standardized instruments, for example,
may not be available in the native language nor may they be culturally valid if imported from a different country. In part, an individual familiar with program outcomes research should be part of the
implementation team. In this way, the measureable outcomes can be structured from the beginning
rather than later when it may be to late to obtain valid measures of success.
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social and educational structures. This minimizes implementation of a change, risk taking individual
orientation for the other signicant cultural structure of education.
Classrooms
The degree to which classrooms in any of the levels of schooling, (private religious or bilingual
or curriculum specialty or public with differentiated achievement levels) have a philosophy of self
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contained or exible grouping may predict the success of the development of a gifted program.
If students are randomly assigned to classrooms but then can be regrouped for instructional reasons certainly would suggest that the school philosophy, leadership and teachers are more open to
implementation of a program for gifted children.
Within classrooms, obviously the philosophy of the teachers in terms of recognizing individual
differences, as a rst step and changing or individualizing instruction as a second step is important.
This can range from changing homework assignments, in class assignments, evaluation criteria as
needed. The teacher has to feel secure and condent against allegations that they are playing favorites with students, a common allegation in developing counties in which social status and money
plays a role in the larger culture. The degree to which that positive practice is supported by the
school administration permeates the school can enhance developing gifted programs.
Individual philosophy of teaching and general belief systems is another reason for minimizing
gifted program development. Some educators may not be willing to change their teaching practices.
This is an evolving process and the ability to work within a change model, both culturally and in the
classroom can enhance or deny program development. It can take between 35 years for a program
to be implemented, that time frame does not assure that the program will be successful.
The degree to which the national culture, both social and educational, is reected in the classroom and between students is an important consideration. If individual differences are seen as social
liabilities and are not addressed as part of the school and classroom culture, the gifted program will
have longer implementation time. If the culture is to t in, via reinforcement of group norms as
opposed to enhancing differences via classroom strategies, teachers, students and school leaders may
unconsciously resist program development.
Parental Views
How is education viewed by parents? Is a private education, either bilingual or not, seen as a vehicle
for economic mobility or is it also seen as a vehicle for social recognition as well as mobility? This
is a complex model and can not often be dissected for intent. But for parents, to have a child that is
recognized as gifted can provide both types of recognition.
The degree to which parents are seeking an improvement in how they were taught and how they
learned may drive the choice for a private, bilingual program. Particularly if they see their children as
world citizens that need a high quality education and bilingual skills to compete. If parents see their
child as being unique in the rate and level of learning and learning style, it may reect a need for a
more child centered approach to learning rather than a teacher centered approach. Depending on
the country, it may be that parental choice of a bilingual school is for safety as well as a lower pupil
teacher ratio. If the beliefs related to higher quality of program in general can be extended, it may be
a support for the development or choice of programs for the gifted.
To what degree are there parental organizations locally or nationally, in general that support
quality educational programs? This predictably would reect support for general education but
could be developed as a vehicle to support programs for the gifted.
However, lack of understanding the idea of giftedness for some parents can cause a lot of problems at the beginning. Some parents will be looking for a way to nd a short, easy way to nish
school early in order to play the system. For example, one Central American country has a law
against accelerating students between grade levels. Some parents will care more than others to investigate the true intent of a gifted program and differentiated instruction and thus assist the child to
have a personalized and meaningful education.
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Educational Leadership
The degree to which the educational leader(s) at the implementation site have a vision that includes
specic program services for gifted students for their school will inuence the successful implementation. This requires an honest potential assessment of their students abilities and the capabilities
of the teaching staff. For private schools, there is often a three year delay in potential return on the
investment of consultants, teacher training and assessment instruments. The core question that has
to be asked is underlying reason for consideration of a program development. Is it to enhance the
prestige of the school or is it genuinely an attempt to meet educational needs of an underserved
population? It is not inappropriate for the rst variable to be a consideration as increased numbers of
students may provide a critical mass for program delivery.
Program development momentum is especially critical. That is, the teaching staff has to sense
that there is a master plan for the school related to gifted education; the educational leaders and
consultants have to be able to successfully convey the master plan to the staff. If there is staff turnover during the period of training, the new staff has to be exposed to the program content as well
as to how the program ts into the total school curriculum. The less well trained the teachers are
in terms of coursework in education in general, the less effective the framework and content for
gifted education is going to be understood. For some bilingual schools in developing counties, the
primary consideration for teacher selection is the degree to which the teacher is bilingual rather than
their formal teacher training. Teachers are then expected to become fully trained to meet national
standards after being hired by the institution.
The educational leaders have to have a sense of the importance to use research based best practices in not only general education but also programs for the gifted. In developing countries, current
staff development opportunities can be infrequent. The schools can fall into the trap of Western
countries where staff development is characterized by a single workshop without opportunity for
teacher reection, practice of skills with feedback by peers and leadership and then additional
workshops that expose the teachers to additional content.
Consultants
People being hired to plan, design, and develop the program need to be experts in each area: gifted
education, assessment and curriculum development. If the consultants are out of country, local school
administrators need to be part of the process-in order to maintain consistency. Electronic communication systems such as Skype are invaluable.
Consultants need to know and understand the culture where the program will be developed.
Lack of interest or knowledge from one of the partners will put the program at risk to fail.
Consultants have to agree to visit the school at least once a year to see progress in the development. If budget becomes an issue then other way need to be installed as well via e-mail, telephone,
websites, Skype, etc.
The development of a program for gifted students can be very professionally and personally
rewarding for school administrators and teachers in developing countries. It has the potential to
empower them that they are making a new and highly signicant addition for the students in their
country. Flexibility and patience is the key to learning a new education mind set as the principles of
gifted program development, data decision making and differentiation of curriculum and instruction,
can set the stage for other signicant school wide changes.
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Conclusion
Developing the rst research based academic program for academically gifted, bilingual children in
Honduras is characterized by challenges such as the population of bilingual school children as well
as those who are gifted in intellectual abilities is small. Their needs are not a high priority since most
bilingual schools are designed for those parents who have the nancial means. Another challenge is
using culturally and dual language appropriate instruments, in addition to qualitative components,
as the foundation for identication for the gifted. An academic program that is appropriately characterized by differentiated instruction suitable for general intellectually gifted has to be integrated
into the dual language instruction. Research questions abound as to the appropriate identication,
and instructional strategies, as well as student, parent and teacher, outcomes for this special population. Dowal Bilingual School in Tegucigalpa, Honduras has created a national vision and model for
identifying bilingual, gifted children as well as developing an appropriate curriculum and utilization
of appropriate instructional strategies.
The Curriculum development and instruction for gifted children program development has
three main components: (1) understanding second language acquisition, (2) understanding differentiated instruction and curriculum exibility, 3) understanding gifted children and how they learn as
well as social attributes. The curriculum must be student center through a variety of differentiated
approaches. Demonstration of mastering the objectives are done in a variety of ways, when the student is able to experience and experiment with a different learning model combined with signicant
teacher feedback. Teachers must understand that their role is more analogous to a coach and that
students are lead to make connections in the content. This signicant shift in philosophy is difcult
for bilingual teachers whose own learning experiences and training is far more traditional and typical
for developing countries.
Understanding and managing the socio-cultural, economic and political factors in developing
countries related to the provision of a bilingual program for intellectually gifted children can be
daunting. A systematic and sustained effort is required over time. Essential to the process is the long
term commitment by the local educational leaders whose vision will come to fruition.
The Authors
Stephen C. Keith, Assistant Professor of Education, has been extensively involved in International
Education since joining the education faculty at Longwood University in 1992. He has previously
worked in the public schools in Virginia as a speech/language pathologist, special education supervisor, building administrator at elementary and middle schools as well as a director of curriculum
and instruction, k-12. He holds degrees from Kent State University and The University of Virginia.
He has delivered lectures on American education in Germany, Honduras, and Peoples Republic
of China. As Director of Student Teaching for Longwood University, he established and supervised university student educational exchanges in Ireland, England, Honduras, Germany, and The
Netherlands.
His rst experience with Central and Latin America was teaching in a Masters Program for
bilingual teachers in Elementary Education in Honduras in 1999. Since then, he has consulted for a
number of bilingual schools in Honduras in the areas of curriculum development, assessment, behavior management, supervision and evaluation of instruction and student motivation. He is involved
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in developing the rst program for general intellectual ability/gifted children in Central America
at the Dowal Bilingual School, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. He is the founder of The Latin American
Journal of Education (www.LAJoE.org), available online since summer 2010. It is the rst trilingual,
peer reviewed, open access, online education journal in Central and South America. LAJoE will also
serve as a research management and dissemination system, as well as a country index for educational,
governmental and professional organizations.
Dr. Cristina Patricia Fuentes Valentino is Assistant Professor of Education and ESOL
director at Jacksonville University. She has previously worked in Tegucigalpa Honduras as a VicePrincipal and has also worked in public schools in Illinois as a bilingual teacher and in Florida as
principal, standards coach, vice-principal, and curriculum integration teacher. She holds degrees
from Augustana College, Longwood College, and University of North Florida. She is involved in
developing the rst program for general intellectual ability/gifted children in Central America at the
Dowal Bilingual School, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. She has also consulted for a number of bilingual
organizations in Northeast Florida in the areas of curriculum development, assessment, bilingual
education, Immersion programs, and ESOL. She is involved with the FLDOE as Folio Reviewer
for higher education initial programs in the area of ESOL.
She has written a chapter on Honduras education for the new book: Curriculum Development:
Perspectives from around the World. She is an editor of The Latin American Journal of Education
(www.LAJoE.org), available online since summer 2010. It is the rst trilingual, peer reviewed, open
access, online education journal in Central and South America. LAJoE will also serve as a research
management and dissemination system, as well as a country index for educational, governmental and
professional organizations.
References
Florida Administrative Rule: Special Instructional Programs for Students Who Are Gifted
6A-6.03019. Retrieved May 10, 2010 from https://www.rules.org/gateway/ruleNo.asp?
ID=6A-6.03019
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Collaboration
Appendix I
Recommended Readings
Balchin, T., Hymer, B. and Matthews, D. (eds) (2009) The Routledge International Companion to
Gifted Education. Abingdon; Routledge.
Baldwin, A., & Vialle, W. (1999). The Many faces of Giftedness. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing
Company.
Briggs, C., Reis, S., & Sullivan, A . (2008). A National View of Promising Programs for Culturally.
Linguistically and Ethnically Diverse Gifted and Talented Learners. Gifted Child Quarterly, 52; 131.
Davis, G. & Rimm, S. (2004) Education of the Gifted and Talented. Boston: Pearson.
Florida Gifted Information and Resources. Retrieved May 10, 2010 from http://www.oridagiftednet
.org/Florida/Florida.html
Freeman, J. (2002) Out-of-school Educational Provision for the Gifted and Talented Around the
World: A report to the DfES.
Horowitz, F, Subotnick, R. and Matthews, D. (eds) (2009) The Development of Giftedness and
Talent Across the Life Span. Washington; American Psychological Association.
Hymer, B. Whitehead, J. and Huxtable, M. (2009) Gifts, Talents and Education: A Living Theory
Approach. Chichester; Wiley-Blackwell.
Levine, M. (2003). A mind at a time. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Rogers, K. (2002). Reforming Gifted Education. Scottsdale, AZ: Great Potential Press.
Wallace, B. and Eriksson, G. (eds) (2006) Diversity in Gifted Education: International Perspectives
on Global Issues. Abingdon; Routledge.
White, J. (2006) Intelligence, Destiny and Education: The ideological roots of intelligence testing.
London; Routledge.
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Appendix II
6A-6.03019 Special Instructional Programs for Students who
are Gifted
1. Gifted. One who has superior intellectual development and is capable of high performance.
2. Criteria for eligibility. A student is eligible for special instructional programs for the gifted if the
student meets the criteria under paragraph (2)(a) or (b) of this rule.
a. The student demonstrates:
1. Need for a special program.
2. A majority of characteristics of gifted students according to a standard scale or checklist, and
3. Superior intellectual development as measured by an intelligence quotient of two (2) standard deviations or more above the mean on an individually administered standardized test
of intelligence.
b. The student is a member of an under-represented group and meets the criteria specied in an
approved school district plan for increasing the participation of under-represented groups in
programs for gifted students.
1. For the purpose of this rule, under-represented groups are dened as groups:
a. Who are limited English procient, or
b. Who are from a low socio-economic status family.
2. The Department of Education is authorized to approve school district plans for increasing the participation of students from under-represented groups in special instructional
programs for the gifted, provided these plans include the following:
a. A district goal to increase the percent of students from under-represented groups in
programs for the gifted and the current status of the district in regard to that goal;
b. Screening and referral procedures which will be used to increase the number of these
students referred for evaluation;
c. Criteria for determining eligibility based on the students demonstrated ability or
potential in specic areas of leadership, motivation, academic performance, and
creativity;
d. Student evaluation procedures, including the identication of the measurement
instruments to be used;
e. Instructional program modications or adaptations to ensure successful and continued participation of students from under-represented groups in the existing instructional program for gifted students;
f. An evaluation design which addresses evaluation of progress toward the districts goal
for increasing participation by students from under-represented groups.
3. Procedures for student evaluation. The minimum evaluations for determining eligibility are the
following:
a. Need for a special instructional program,
b. Characteristics of the gifted,
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SELF-EXAMINATION
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Ten years ago, Hanson-Smith (2000) maintained that teachers who do not use computers in their
classrooms will inevitably be replaced by teachers who do. This statement is true even a decade later
considering how todays youth are spending their time playing video and computer games, connecting with family and friends via online social networks, and sending text messages by cell phone. If
educators want to motivate and engage this new generation of techno-savvy students, they need to
gure out ways to integrate computers into their pedagogical practices. Similarly, adult learners who
are not computer-literate will be better prepared for the 21st century if their instructor gives them
ample opportunities to interact with technology.
Introduction
The adult education classroom is a challenging place for instructors who want to use computers but
who receive scarcely, if ever, any kind of professional development that includes technology. This
is particularly true in adult ESL programs where there is a huge gap in computer literacy between
learners from the paper and pencil generation and those who have never known a world without computers. The intent of this article is to present ideas and suggestions that can assist adult
ESL teachers who want to compensate for the difference in computer literacy among their learners.
Much of the information will come from what was discovered during the development of Project
CONNECT, a web-based program created under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education,
Fund for Improvement of Post Secondary Education1, and the authors teaching experiences. The
content in Project CONNECT focuses on work, education and civic participation and gives teachers a way to integrate the Internet into English language and literacy education. It also gives adult
English language learners a way to practice English while strengthening their computer skills. After
1
Project CONNECT was developed by a partnership among PBS Adult Learning Service, Alexandria, VA; Jefferson County
Public Schools Adult and Continuing Education, Louisville, KY; the National Center for Adult Literacy at the University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA; and KET: The Kentucky Network, Lexington, KY. For more information about Project
CONNECT, go to www.pbs.org/esl.
241
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piloting the project with students and teachers in more than 30 adult ESL programs around the
United States, the programmers and content writers were able to determine what worked and what
didnt, and made the necessary modications and revisions in order to improve the content and
instructional value of the projects online modules. This article will address those ndings as well as
the authors experiences with instructional technology in the hope that it will motivate the reader
and provide some guidance for meeting the needs of adult students at any level of computer literacy.
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Hanson-Smith (2000) warned that as technology continues to inltrate into our instructional
practices, the role of educators will change and will require a paradigm shift in how they view the
student-teacher relationship. She argued that as students become more comfortable using computers for learning English, they . . . become more autonomous, active learners, and teachers must
relinquish some of their power and authoritynot to the computer, but to the students themselves.
(n. p.) The ndings in Project CONNECT attest to how technology can facilitate this shift. In addition to helping teachers evaluate their students skills, online tools such as the keyboarding tutorial
allow learners to self-assess their abilities moving instruction away from the traditional print material
and classroom lecturing toward a more student-centered environment.
Third, it is imperative that ESL teachers understand how adults learn and how they acquire a
second language. One of the major tenets in both adult learning and second language acquisition
theories states that students learn best when what they learn is meaningful to them (Knowles, 1984;
Krashen, 1982; Mezirow, 1981). Knowles (1984) argued that adults are most interested in learning
content that has immediate relevance to their jobs or personal lives. Similarly, according to Krashens
(1982) affective lter hypothesis, a second language can be acquired only if the learner is offered a
low anxiety environment in which positive emotions bolster his or her self-esteem. This in turn will
lower their affective lter and facilitate language understanding. Providing activities that are meaningful to adult learners plays an important role in raising the students comfort level with computer
technology and ultimately affect their motivation to learn English.
Educators who want to integrate technology into the ESL curriculum must teach in such a
way that students will have the opportunity to apply what they learn outside the classroom. Project
CONNECT teachers discovered that one of the most successful ways to make learning immediately
relevant to their students jobs or personal lives was to use e-mail and online discussions. Using these
communication tools to stimulate students interest proved to be a very effective strategy to involve
them in language production. Students felt comfortable communicating by e-mail because they did
not have to worry about constructing grammatically correct sentences. They were more focused on
content and this helped lower their affective lter. Similarly, when they engaged in online conversation through the discussion board, students stayed involved and even initiated new topics of discussion. These were all relevant to their lives outside the classroom, and some of them were directly
related to their jobs. Ultimately, web-based instruction that takes into consideration the principles of
adult learning and second language acquisition can play a key role in helping adult English language
learners improve their language skills and raise their comfort level with using technology.
Fourth, adult educators should know how to locate online resources for teaching and learning
ESL that t the instructional needs of their students. Teachers need to look for interactive material
that lets the learner practice all four language skills. Knowles (1984) pointed out that instruction
should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners. Project CONNECT
teachers discovered that online stories that were relevant to their students lives played a major role
in how they interacted with technology. Students were found to spend an extended period of time
using the audio and video features in Project CONNECT that contained authentic stories about
immigrants in the U.S. Some of the audio and video excerpts in Project CONNECT include voices
of native speakers of English as well as speakers with non-native accents and prompted learners to
make personal connections with what they were hearing.
Even though audio and video tools such as those in Project CONNECT can be positive models
for students and elevate their interest level in learning online, teachers need to offer opportunities
to explicitly practice pronunciation. This language skill plays an important role in comprehensibility
(Anderson-Hsieh & Koehler, 1988) but ESL teachers often do not spend a lot of time teaching it.
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Elliott (1995) claims that teachers tend to view pronunciation as the least useful of the basic language
skills and therefore they generally sacrice teaching pronunciation in order to spend valuable class
time on other areas of the language (p. 531). Many educators are starting to discover podcasting as
a companion to classroom instruction because it gives learners the opportunity to practice pronunciation and speaking outside the classroom. With the increasingly widespread ownership of MP3
players, the popularity of podcasts among young adults has increased making the job of educators
who want to include this tool in and outside their classrooms much easier.
The Author
Dr. Rosie Maum is an ESL teacher at the Jefferson County Public Schools in Louisville, KY with
experience in teaching Spanish, Italian and ESL at the college and P-12 level. She was the 200607
President of Kentucky TESOL and 200405 Chair of TESOLs Adult Education Interest Section.
She has served on a variety of TESOL committees and worked extensively as district coordinator
and content writer for Project CONNECT, an online program for adult English language learners.
References
Anderson-Hsieh, J. R., & Koehler, K. (1988). The effect of foreign accent and speaking rate on
native speaker comprehension. Language Learning, 38, 561593.
Cochrane. T. (2007). Mobile Web2 pedagogies. Retrieved on April 14, 2010 from http://molta
.massey.ac.nz/massey/fms/Molta/Cochrane.pdf
Elliott, A. R. (1995). Foreign language phonology: Field independence, attitude, and the success of
formal instruction in Spanish pronunciation. Modern Language Journal, 79, 530542.
Farmer, J. (2004). Communication dynamics: Discussion boards, weblogs and the development of
communities of inquiry in online learning environments. Paper presented at the 21st ASCILITE
Conference: Beyond the comfort zone, Perth.
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19
The Plight of the Adjunct:
A Critique on Policies
Scott Drinkall
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Full-time
Part-time/Adjunct
1987
66.9
33.1
1992
58.4
41.6
1998
57.4
42.6
2007
51.3
49.7
This growth is largely attributed to the expansion of community colleges, which have undergone
signicant growth, assuming an increasingly central role in the nations education and training
system (Kane and Rouse, 1999). Concurrently, institutions are alleviating nancial pressures by
hiring fewer full-time or tenure track facultya trend apparent across the strata of higher education.
Individuals in these positions primarily concentrate on teaching (typically undergraduate courses),
and rarely engage in research or departmental decision-making. Moreover, adjuncts are usually parttime, non-salaried, and paid for each class they teach. Typically, adjuncts are relegated to entry-level
courses, especially in the departments of English, mathematics, and modern languages (Avakian, 1995).
While there was initially a need to satisfy demand, now the perception is one of exploitation. The
misuse and abuse of part-time, temporary, and non-tenure track faculty has been thoroughly addressed
in the literature (Boyer, 1987; Franklin, Laurence, & Denham, 1988; Leatherman, 1997; Ramusack,
1998; Barker & Christensen, 1998). The National Education Associations (1988) Report and
Recommendations on Part-time, Temporary & Nontenure Track Faculty Appointments advances
that The misuse and abuse of part-time, temporary, and nontenure track faculty appointments constitutes one of the most serious problems confronting American higher education (6). Following
a review of data and reports, the NEA concluded that part-time and temporary appointments are
being used improperly, (9) proposing the following recommendation:
Colleges and universities should convert all improper part-time, temporary, and nontenure
track appointments to regular, full-time faculty positions whenever feasible and as soon as
practical, and adopt policies through faculty governance and/or collective bargaining that
will prevent the improper and excessive use of these types of appointments in the future. (9)
Guidelines
Criteria from NEA
To achieve this recommendation, ve criteria were delineated:
1. Part-time and temporary faculty members must be afforded academic due process rights
conforming to those of regular, full-time faculty;
2. Institutions should provide qualied regular part-time faculty with suitable forms of employment security after an appropriate probationary period;
3. Part-time faculty, especially regular part-timers, and temporary faculty should be included in
faculty governance and decision-making processes at the institution;
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4. Institutions should recognize that part-time and temporary faculty need and deserve suitable
working conditions in order to fulll their professional responsibilities;
5. Part-time faculty members should be paid at the same rate as their full-time colleagues.
(1013)
TESOLs Position
Additionally, TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) has addressed similar
concerns in its 2003 Position Paper on Equitable Treatment for Part-time, Adjunct, and Contingent
Faculty. It notes that resolutions have been passed at its annual convention six times since 1980 to
address this trend and the concerns of its undermining of the educational system: this has been an
acute problem in the eld of English as a second language (ESL) for decades (1). Despite these
resolutions, as evidenced by TESOLs 2006 proposals, little improvement has been made since the
NEAs report in 1988 proffered ve recommendations, at least in the ESL eld. TESOLs recent suggestions include benets such as health insurance, holiday and vacation pay; compensation for ofce
hours and participation in institutional committee work; and a pro-rated salary based on percentage
of full-time work (2). The TESOL report also cites the need for continued professional development, tuition reimbursement, pay increases for development activity, adequate training and access to
support services, opportunity for promotion, and participation in governance, including service on
curriculum committees (3).
The goals, though, have not been adequately realized. In order to deal with increasing reliance
on adjunct faculty, the NEA, in conjunction with the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) and
the American Association of University Professors (AAUP), announced new measures in 2007 at the
NEAs higher education meeting in San Diego. Items within AFTs and AAUPs policies, however,
require further consideration.
AFTs Initiative
The AFT proposes a benchmark of 75 percent of classes in each department to be taught by tenured
or tenure-track faculty in order to reverse the crisis in instructional stafng at our nations colleges and universities, as noted by its Web site (www.aftface.org). AFT established the Faculty and
College Excellence (FACE) initiative to reverse the crisis in stafng while still minimizing job losses.
FACE aims to achieve its goal through two basic principles: 1) Bring about fairness and equity in
the treatment of part-time/adjunct and other nontenure-track faculty members and 2) Reverse
the erosion of full-time tenured faculty positions (AFT FACE 78). The rst principle seeks to
pair proportional professional responsibilities with proportionate compensation, achieved in part
through granting, after a period of time, due process protections from arbitrary dismissal and giving preferential consideration to part-time faculty once full-time positions open.
The second principle, designed to address the imbalance in faculty, recommends a reasonable
balance between full-time tenure faculty positions and part-time/adjunct and other nontenure-track
faculty positions . . . so that, at the end of a ramping up period, at least 75 percent of the classes in
any academic department are being taught by full-time tenured or tenure-track faculty (9). Ensuring
that 75 percent of undergraduate classes are taught by full-time faculty, while well-intentioned, is
problematic, as education is labor-intensive, and increased costs in the amount of labor will result.
While these concerns are addressed by the FACE campaign, which acknowledges that the federal
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role in addressing academic stafng issues is extremely limited it nevertheless expects that legislation
will provide funding to achieve its purposes.
AAUPs Policy
Comparable to the AFT benchmark, the AAUPs policy limits the amount of time someone can work
in a non-tenure track position before either being offered tenure or given additional protection/
seniority. The AAUP policy, which calls for limits on the amount of time that someone can work as
a non-tenure-track faculty member before either being offered tenure, given additional seniority or
job protection rights or being dismissed (News: A New Campaign on Adjuncts, 2007), echoes the
well-known Microsoft contract workers case, in which contract workers were designated by orange
badges, long-time workers by blue. The company for years used temporary workers to write its code,
presumably due to the cost benets of not paying benets. This form of outsourcing was challenged
by the IRS for not meeting the guidelines for independent contractors. Microsoft settled, agreeing
that its employees were misclassied. These contract workers, who were then deemed employees,
sued Microsoft for benets and stock options in a class-action suit. After two appeals to the 9th circuit
court and a nal appeal to the Supreme Court (which refused to hear the case), Microsoft lost, costing the company billions (Bishop, 2005). As a result, Microsoft no longer allows contract workers
to work longer than a short and set period of time. The lesson is that formal regulations may push
institutions to severely limit opportunities for adjunct work.
While the NEAs goal of convert[ing] all improper part-time, temporary, and nontenure track
appointments to regular, full-time faculty positions whenever feasible and as soon as practical and
the AFTs and AAUPs policies to curb the incidence of part-time employment are well intentioned,
a greater attention to the faculty themselves, a large portion of whom do not share the same motivations, would better inform policy reform.
Adjunct Proles
Leading researchers on adjunct faculty issues Judith Gappa and David Leslie identify four proles of
part-time faculty members in the widely cited The Invisible Faculty (1993). Implementing research on
higher education part-time faculty, Gappa and Leslie formulate a typology of four types of adjuncts,
based on their motivations and lifestyles: specialists/experts/professionals, freelancers, career enders,
and aspiring academics. According to Gappa and Leslies research, over half of all adjunct faculty
members constitute the rst category. Their motivation is to fulll themselves through sharing
their expertise and by pursuing social or professional opportunitieswith no intention of teaching
full-time.
Freelancers are often caregivers to children or other family members, or, by choice, combine
two or more part-time jobs to satisfy a variety of needs. They too are not seeking full-time employment. Career enders include the retired and those who are transitioning from full-time to live a more
balanced lifestyle. The fourth category, aspiring academics, comprises 20 to 25% of part-timers, and
includes the notorious freeway yers who tackle part-time employment at several institutions,
patching together a full-time wage. Much of the literature of the plight of the adjunct centers on
this typology. They are the ones most likely to join the NEA, AAUP, or AFT and are most likely to
benet from budding policies. As articulated by Richard Lyons (1999), we must note that [aspiring
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academics] is not the dominant part-time teaching prole at most institutions and therefore should not
drive the strategies most of us employ to achieve effectiveness from our adjunct faculties (para. 2).
Reections
Adjuncts may be hired or red on a whim, and for many part-timers, the working mindset is akin to
that of the migrant farm worker, whose job continues only with natures favor. The administration
views this as exibility; to the employee, it is downright scary. One solution for college administrations to alleviate this concern is to simply not hire adjuncts. However, given that higher-education
now employs more part-time faculty than full-time, and given that it costs about three times as
much to employ full-time faculty members, even for the same classes (Schneider, 2004), change is
unlikelyand even less likely in ESL, a discipline inclined to a varying and unknown batch of students each semester, often accentuated by an open enrollment policy. With uctuating attendance
both in student skill level and total numbersand always-limited funding, adjuncts are a reality that
will likely continue.
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Given the need for adjuncts, one method is to specify a contracted time, say two years, and under
the certain knowledge that they are temporary, thereby removing the fear of losing a job. (This
method is currently in place at Brigham Young Universitys Hawaii campus). If adjuncts become
contract workers, a sense of inclusion must be acquired, with equal access to resources, Web-based
discussion boards, and campus e-mail lists. And, it is essential they receive institutional support from
coordinators and directors, and a clear direction on how they can obtain full-time status (if wanted)
or some security or fallback options if they are no longer needed. If these needs cannot be met by
the administration then a shift of power may be called for, out of necessity and within the rights of
adjuncts across the curriculum. An organized association of academic part-timers, a union, may be
in order.
As seen here these are essentially a reiteration of TESOLs suggestions delineated above.
Ideally, adjuncts would be hired as they have historically: to bring a particular expertise or
professional experience to a program area, to ll a temporary loss of a full-time faculty member, or
to provide a sudden need to grow a particular program. For the time being, though, the ve criteria proposed by the NEAimplemented through a more comprehensive legislation arrangement,
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without caps on part-timers and with an awareness of the varying motivations and lifestylesoffer
the most viable option to curb improper use of adjuncts, particularly those with full-time aspirations.
The Author
Scott K. Drinkall received his B.S.E. from the University of Michigan and an M.A. in English
from Hardin-Simmons University in Abilene, Texas, studying under famed Texas poet Dr. Robert A.
Fink. Following graduate school, Drinkall taught EFL courses in South Korea as well as ESL at the
Embry-Riddle Language Institute. He now teaches literature and composition classes at Everglades
University in Boca Raton, Florida, still writing poetry and surng on weekends.
References
AFT FACE. Welcome to AFTs FACE campaign. Retrieved April 18, 2010 from http://www.aftface
.org/storage/face/documents/face_campaign_document.pdf
Avakian, N. (1995). Conicting demands for adjunct faculty. Community College Journal 65, no. 6:
3436.
Barker, K. & Christensen, K. (1998). Toiling for piece-rates and accumulating decits: Contingent
work in higher education. In Contingent Work: American Employment Relations in Transition. NY:
Cornell University Press, 195220.
Bishop, T. (2005). Microsofts Orange Badge Culture Gets Forum. Seattle News, Sports,
Events, Entertainment. Retrieved 2010, April 18, 2010 from http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/
business/253826_orangebadges29.html
Boyer, E. L. (1987). College: The Undergraduate Experience in America (The Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching). NY: Harper and Row Publishers.
Digest of Education Statistics. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Home Page, a
part of the U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved April 18, 2010 from http://nces.ed.gov/
programs/digest
Franklin, P., Laurence, D., & Denham, R. (1988). When solutions become problems: Taking a stand
on part-time employment. Academe 74, 3, 1519.
Gappa, J. M., and Leslie, D. W. (1993). The Invisible Faculty: Improving the Status of Part-Timers in
Higher Education ( Jossey Bass Higher and Adult Education Series). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hoeller, K. (2006, June, 16). The proper advocates for adjuncts. (adjunct professors). The Chronicle
of Higher Education, 52.
Kane, T. & Rouse, C. (1999). The community college: Educating students at the margin between
college and work. The Journal of Economic Perspectives 13, 1, 6384.
Leatherman, C. (1997). Heavy reliance on low-paid lecturers said to produce faceless departments.
Chronicle of Higher Education 43, 29, A12A13.
Lyons, R. (1999). Achieving effectiveness from your adjunct faculty. Academic Leader 15, 2, 13.
National Education Association. (2007). Part-time, temporary & nontenure track faculty appointments. report and recommendations. Retrieved April 18, 2010 from http://www.eric.ed.gov/
ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1d/8b/f7.pdf
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News: A new campaign on adjuncts. (2007). Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved April 18, 2010 from http://
www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/03/05/adjuncts?no_mobile_redirect=true
Ramusack, B. (1998). Good practices and common goals: The conference on part-time and adjunct
faculty. Perspectives. Retrieved from http://www.theha.org/perspectives/issues/1998
Schneider, J. (2004). Employing adjunct faculty from an HR perspective. Phi Kappa Phi Forum, 84.
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Position paper on equitable treatment for part-time, adjunct, and contingent faculty. Retrieved on April 18, 2010 from
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_
nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED477567&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=
no&accno=ED477567
Toutkoushian, R. & Bellas, M. (2003). The effects of part-time employment and gender on faculty
earnings and satisfaction. (1993 National Survey of Postsecondary Faculty). Journal of Higher
Education, 74.
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20
Funding IEP Professional
Development
Alan D. Lytle
Introduction
Most Intensive English Programs (IEPs) in the United States do not have deep pockets, and those
pockets do not always include the professional development of the faculty and staff working at the
IEP. As the ESL eld and immigration policies continue to expand and evolve, individuals charged
with having up-to-date knowledge of this information must have outlets where detailed discussions
can take place. Conferences regarding language standards, immigration issues, and program design
are but one avenue. This article offers ideas of how to expose an IEPs faculty and staff to professional
development using high-cost, medium-cost, low-cost, and shoestring-cost concepts.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
Self-Examination
Why do the professionals NEED the development?
What equipment/supplies are already in place?
How is/are the equipment/supplies currently used?
Where do the PD participants want to be professionally and personally in 10 years?
Once these questions are answered, then attention should be drawn to the level of funding needed
to accomplish the task. Should the PD be free-for-all, limited-funding, somewhere in between, or
technology-based? In a free-for-all PD, there are no limitations on funding, location, presenters,
or topics (within the pre-dened criteria). In limited-funding PD, cost is the most limiting factor and
should be the primary guide. PD that falls between free-for-all and limited-funding, somewhere
in the middle, takes the advantages of a high-cost PD and the innovations of the shoestring PD
and melds them. The technology-based PD can t into any of these categories.
For PD to be effective, it has to provide incentives and support, professional directedness, technology access, community partnerships, and on-going information support and training opportunities (http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/index.html, 2007). Without these basic issues being addressed,
the PD participants (i.e. the IEP faculty and staff) will not see value in the information and will not
be active participants, much less be active users of the information presented.
High-Cost PD
High-cost PD is just what the name impliessomething that requires a great deal of money, either
on the participants side or on the sponsors side. This PD includes attendance at national and
international conferences, purchase of high-end technology (e.g. LCD projectors, digital cameras,
digital recorders, site licenses for technology-based archival programs and projection programs
(Blackboard, WebCT, or SynchronEyes) (http://www.webct.com/, 2007 and http://www2
.smarttech.com/st/en-US/Products/SynchronEyes+Classroom+Management+Software, 2006), and
cross-training of ESL and foreign language (FL) professionals. This last option requires a person
to obtain the correct credentials which often means taking extra higher education classes, getting
endorsements, or taking high-cost tests, thereby requiring high-cost tuition and time. Additionally,
high-cost PD would include inviting well-know professionals in the eld as speakers. Usually, this
includes a speakers fee, travel costs, and hotel/food costs. Depending upon the speaker, this can
amount to quite a bit of money; however, the benet of the faculty or staff having access to a notedprofessional can be priceless.
Medium-Cost PD
Many IEPs can bear the cost of some of the medium-cost PD; however, this division is still out-ofthe-range of many ESL professionals, especially the ESL professionals who are employed only parttime or are not benets-eligible. Regional conferences many times do not involve air fares as they are
within traveling-by-car distance; albeit a long trip, this reduces the cost considerably. Additionally,
IEPs can join professional organizations as an institution and receive the publications that come
along with that membership. These publications can then begin to form a professional library for
the institution and its faculty and staff, thereby allowing them access to the peer-reviewed articles.
Many memberships also include access to the electronic versions of the professional publications;
therefore, the faculty can use this access to keep up-to-the-minute in the eld.
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Low-Cost PD
On the lower end of the funding spectrum are state and local conferences such as the TESOL afliates (http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/seccss.asp?CID=420&DID=2048, 2007). Many of the afliates
offer shorter conferences (23 days) and are usually within a radius where travel can occur within a
single day. In addition to the state and local conferences, there is access to blogs, podcasts, vodcasts,
and so forth. Of course, technology would need to be available (i.e. mp3/mp4 player, high-speed
internet access, etc.), but these technologies allow for the exchange of information, just not in real
time. A great deal of information about podcasts and podcasting can be learned from David Warlick
at The Education Podcast Network website (http://www.epnweb.org/, 2007).
As was mentioned before, the creation of a professional library which the faculty and staff members can access holds great advantages. Along with the professional journals and online resources that
come with professional organization membership (mentioned under Medium-cost PD, publishers
such as Oxford University Press US (http://www.oup.com/us/, 2005) and Cambridge University
Press (http://www.cambridge.org/uk/default.asp, 2007) offer entire professional development series.
These can be purchased by the IEP and checked out by the faculty and staff just as books from a
public library are. The purchasing of the materials could be done over time so that a library is developed, and dedicated exclusively to PD.
Shoestring-Cost PD
At the shoestring-cost level of PD, there is no traditional conference attendance. Rather, faculty
and staff participate in internet-based conferences with the cost shared between institutions, colleges, departments, or units. Many of these conferences are still offered via satellite or, now, through,
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Self-Examination
streaming video and require no traveling, lodging, or food reimbursement. A good example of this is
the McGraw-Hill (http://www.mhteleconference.com/, 2006) video conferences offered each year.
These conferences, and many others (e.g. TESOL) record, either audio or visually, presentations
which can then be downloaded or purchased; however, these resources may only be available for a
limited time (http://www.tesol.org/s_tesol/seccss.asp?CID=1498&DID=8218, 2007 and http://www
.tesol.org/s_tesol/seccss.asp?CID=244&DID=1716, 2007). There are, also, many web resources (e.g.
Annenberg Media http://www.learner.org, 2007) which are public-domain and can be accessed
for free.
Another idea is to make use of the local talent in the IEPs area. Local educational institutions and communities have experts in the eld of language teaching, language acquisition, program
administration, cultural differences, or students rights, just to name a few. These local experts are
usually very willing to make presentations at no cost. Additionally, IEP faculty and staff have future
plans of professional advancement. Since there are few training sessions or classes offered on successfully administrating IEPs, these faculty and staff members can be given the chance to practice their
administrative skills under the supervision of the Director, Associate/Assistant Director, Curriculum
Specialist, or Immigration Ofcer. This also provides the benet to the IEP in that there are trained
people on staff who can substitute administratively should the need arise.
Finally, the Director, Associate/Assistant Director, or Curriculum Specialists ensuring that the
faculty and staff have access to local academic libraries and access to local computer labs so that
they can join professional discussion lists and access on-line resources (http://iteslj.org/links/TESL/
Discussion/, 2007 and http://iteslj.org/links/, 2007) allows for informal professional networks to be
established and grow. This has the added advantage of almost instant access to professionals when
the need arises.
Conclusion
No matter whether PD costs a great deal or costs practically nothing, whether faculty and staff can
participate on a yearly basis or on a rotating basis, it should still offer something that the participant
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can take away and use, either immediately or as something upon which to build. As Diaz-Magioli
explains
Professional development is not a one-shop, one-size-ts-all event, but rather an evolving
process of professional self-disclosure, reection, and growth that yields the best results
when sustained over time in communities of practice and when focused on job-embedded
responsibilities. (2003).
On a nal note, Change does not necessarily assure progress, but progress implacably requires
change. Education is essential to change, for education creates both new wants and the ability to
satisfy them (Commager, 1902-1998).
The Author
Dr. Alan D. Lytle, the teaching Director of the Intensive English Language Program (IELP) at the
University of Arkansas at Little Rock (UALR), USA, has a background in second and foreign language education (ESL/EFL, German, and French) as well as 19 years of ESL/FL teaching, administration, presentation, and publicatin experience at all levels, in academic-preparation programs,
conversation programs, English-for-special-purposes programs (ESP), and topic-specic programs.
As with most directors in the language eld, he started as a teacher in multiple elds (ESL,
German, education, and writing) and learned to be a director by the seat-of-his pants. Dr. Lytle
has also been involved with US immigration as an immigration ofcer, and he was previously the
Director of Programs Abroad and the Middle Eastern Studies Program at UALR. He is also a graduate faculty member in the Master of Arts in Second Language program at UALR and chairs or
sits on various language-related thesis committees. Additionally, he also teaches doctoral writing to
students in UALRs College of Engineering and Information Technology and serves on a variety of
university committees. As can be seen with his multitude of responsibilities and activities, Dr. Lytle
is a Jack-of-all-trades.
References
American Association of Intensive English Language Programs. (2007). AAIEP. Retrieved March 31,
2007, from http://www.aaiep.org/
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. (2007). American council on the teaching
of foreign languages. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from http://www.act.org/i4a/pages/index
.cfm?pageid=1
Annenberg Media. (2007). Annenberg media learner.org. Retrieved April 1, 2007, from http://www
.learner.org/
Blackboard, Inc. (2007). Blackboard & WebCT . Retrieved March 31, 2007, from http://www
.webct.com/
Cambridge University Press. (2007). Cambridge university press. Retrieved April 1, 2007, from
http://www.cambridge.org/uk/default.asp
Center for Adult English Language Acquisition. (2005). CAELA. Retrieved April 1, 2007, from
http://www.cal.org/caela/
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Self-Examination
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